Feminist Theory

Katherine Castiello Jones

and
Michelle J. Budig
University of Massachusetts

Published, 2008, in Encyclopedia of Social Problems, Vincent N. Parrillo, editor. Sage

Publications.

Feminist theories are varied and diverse. All analyze women's experiences of gender

subordination, the roots of women's oppression, how gender inequality is perpetuated, and offer

differing remedies for gender inequality.

Liberal feminism argues women's unequal access to legal, social, political and economic

institutions causes women's oppression. Their remedy advocates women’s equal legal rights and

participation in the public spheres of education, politics, and employment.

Radical feminism claims women's oppression originates in sexuality. They argue

women's bodies are controlled through violence, objectification, and social institutions such as

medicine and religion. Radical feminists see sexism as the oldest and most pervasive form of

oppression; they argue that the eradication of patriarchy and compulsory heterosexuality are key

to ending gender oppression. This would be accomplished by increasing women's control over

their bodies, including transforming sexuality, childbirth, and motherhood.

Marxist and Socialist feminists root gender inequality in capitalism. They argue

capitalists and individual men exploit women's unpaid reproductive labor within the family.

Women are also exploited as a low-wage and expendable reserve army of labor. Marxist

feminists claim patriarchy is produced by capitalism and will end with capitalism’s demise.

Socialist feminists ague patriarchy and capitalism are separate systems of oppression. They call
for a transformation of relations within the family through a redistribution of responsibilities, and

changes in access to education, healthcare, economic opportunities and political power.

Psychoanalytic feminism applies Freudian theories to gender inequality. It seeks to

correct the male bias in psychoanalytic theory, producing theories that explore women's

experiences with their emotions, bodies and sexuality. Theories argue early childhood

experiences shape women's psyches and create differences between men and women. They

argue the phallus, a symbol of male power, dominates Western culture. Solutions call for an

androgynous society, possibly created through dual parenting.

Women of color criticize feminist theories for ignoring coexisting forms of oppression.

This perspective includes Black, Chicana, multicultural, and third world feminisms. They

integrate analyses of gender oppression with systems of inequality based on race, class and

sexuality. They show how privilege and disadvantage are built into a matrix of domination and

intersect to produce unique forms of oppression. They advocate for remedies that focus on the

survival of entire peoples, rather than solely on women. Postcolonial feminism elaborates on

intersectionality by emphasizing Western colonization. Here, sexism results from modernization

and economic restructuring; it includes women’s exploitation as workers and sexual beings.

They focus on the roles of women as mothers within communities who can use this position to

advocate for education of girls, adequate healthcare and environmental protection.

Postmodern feminists avoid overarching causes or solutions of gender inequality and

focus on plurality and difference. They challenge inevitable and fixed characteristics of gender,

including heteronormativity (assumption that heterosexuality is “natural”), and the

undifferentiated category of “woman.” They argue performativity—the repetition of gendered

identity and display—perpetuates gender inequality. They advocate queering, a blending of

gendered characteristics, and questioning “normal” forms of gender and sexuality as remedies

for gender inequality.

Further Readings and References:

Lorber, Judith. 2005. Gender Inequality:Feminist Theories and Politics, Third Edition. Los
Angeles, CA: Roxbury Publishing Company.
Tong, Rosemarie. 1998. Feminist Thought. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.