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MOTHER TONGUE BASED – MULTI LINGUAL EDUCATION IN GRADE 3 SCIENCE

By

Aeron Ray Gratil


Researcher
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CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM

Background of the Study

The links between education and language are

fundamental and obvious in many different ways. Language

facilitates education, and language can be taught through

education. Moreover, according to Hudson (2010), language is the

main medium of education; literacy as the mode of education is one

of the foundations of education; verbal intelligence is one of the

most-used predictors of educational success; foreign or second

languages are traditionally an important part of the school

curriculum; language has a profound effect on education.

With these connections of language and education, the

importance of teaching in indigenous and vernacular languages

surfaced in the 1950s (King & Benson, 1999). This is in the context

of international efforts to promote mass basic education. Note

that higher literacy rates and greater access to formal education

are necessary to national development. Vernacular language is

defined as a language which is the mother tongue of a group which

is socially or politically dominated by another group speaking a

different language (UNESCO, 1968, cited by King and Benson, 1999).

Indigenous language, on the other hand, is “the language of the

people considered to be original inhabitants of an area”.


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To support the importance of indigenous and vernacular

languages, UNESCO in 1953 released a policy paper recommending

that every pupil should begin formal education in his or her mother

tongue. UNESCO has clearly supported initial reading, writing,

and learning in the language of the learner on psychological and

pedagogical grounds. This position has since been strengthened by

abundant researches that students learn to read and write most

efficiently and effectively when instruction takes place through

the medium of their mother tongue (Dutcher, 1995). In brief, there

is overwhelming evidence that students learn to read more quickly

when taught in their mother tongue; students who learn to read in

their mother tongue also learn to read in a second or foreign

language more quickly than those who initially are taught to read

in a second language or foreign language, and students taught to

read in their mother tongue acquire academic content and skills

more quickly (Mehrotra, 1998).

The use of mother tongue in education has ranged from

psychological and pedagogical to human rights-based and to

sociocultural context. This idea on the use of mother tongue leads

to the multiple definitions of literacy such as literacy as not

simply knows how to read and write a particular script but applying

this knowledge for specific purposes in specific cultural contexts

(Hull & Fernandez, 1999). Moreover, Hymes (1964), as mentioned by

Spolsky (2010), urged the study of language in context and


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inclusion of language in the study of cultures. He asserted that

literacy should involve “ethnography of communication”. The

ethnography of communication is further defined that language can

be learned in a cultural context.

In the Local Setting, Besides increasing the number of years

in school, the K to 12 program of the Department of Education

(DepEd) has introduced another change in the country’s schooling

system– using the mother tongue as medium of instruction. It will

be applied to the preschool students up to the Grade 3 students

for them to easily understand their lessons. More than improving

the comprehension skills of students, the mother language

education also aims to address another long-standing problem in

the country’s educational system – the increasing dropout rate

among the youth.

The Department of Education issued DepED Order No. 74, s.

2009, “Institutionalizing Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual

Education (MLE)” in July 2009[1]. It had two enclosures: Enclosure

No. 1 “Fundamental Requirements for a Strong Mother Tongue-Based

Multilingual Education (MLE)” and Enclosure No. 2 “MLE Bridging

Plan A (L1 MT, L2 Filipino, L3 English) and MLE Bridging Plan B

(L1 Filipino, L2 English, L3 Local Language, L4

Foreign).” Bridging Plan A is for pupils whose mother tongue is

not Filipino; Bridging Plan B is for those whose MT is Filipino.

Both plans provide for the use of English as the language of


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learning and instruction (LOLI) for Science and Mathematics

starting in Grade 3.

Correspondingly, the MTB-MLE Research conducted by the UNESCO

stresses the fact that children with a solid foundation in their

mother tongue develop stronger literacy abilities in the school

language. Their knowledge and skills transfer across languages.

This bridge enables the learners to use both or all their languages

for success in school and for lifelong learning. In terms of

cognitive development, the school activities will engage learners

to move well beyond the basic what-questions to cover all higher

order thinking skills in L1 which they can transfer to the other

languages once enough Filipino or English has been acquired to use

these skills in thinking and articulating thoughts.

In the Republic Act 10157 or "The Kindergarten Education Law,"

it made Kindergarten the compulsory and mandatory entry stage to

basic education. In Section 2 of this Act provides that all five

(5)-year old children shall be given equal opportunities for

Kindergarten Education to effectively promote their physical,

social,emotional and intellectual development, including values

formation so they will be ready for school. This was so since the

Department of Education (DepEd) believes that Kindergarten is the

transition period from informal to formal literacy (Grades 1 -12)

considering that age five (5) is within the critical years where

positive experiences must be nurtured to ascertain school


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readiness. Various researches support that this is the period of

greatest growth and development, when the brain develops most

rapidly and almost at its fullest. It is also the stage when self-

esteem, vision of the world and moral foundations are established.

Teachers/parents/caregivers/adults should therefore be guided to

facilitate explorations of our young learners in an engaging and

creative curriculum that is developmentally appropriate which

immerse them in meaningful experiences. Provision of varied play-

based activities leads them to becoming emergent literates and,

helps them to naturally acquire the competencies to develop

holistically. They are able to understand the world by exploring

their environment as they are encouraged to create and discover,

that eventually leads them to becoming willing risk takers and

ready to tackle formal school work.

This is also in pursuant with the Section 16 of Republic Act

No. 10533, entitled “An Act Enhancing the Philippine Basic

Education System by Strengthening Its Curriculum and Increasing

the Number of Years for Basic Education, Appropriating Funds

Therefor and for Other Purposes,” otherwise known as the “Enhanced

Basic Education Act of 2013,” approved on May 15, 2013, and which

took effect on June 8, 2013, the Department of Education (DepEd),

the Commission on Higher Education (CHED), and the Technical

Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA) that the

curriculum of Mother Tongue Based Subject teaching shall adhere to


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the principles and framework of Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual

Education (MTB-MLE) which starts from where the learners are and

from what they already know proceeding from the known to the

unknown; instructional materials and capable teachers to implement

the MTB-MLE curriculum shall be available. For this purpose, MTB-

MLE refers to formal or non-formal education in which the learner’s

mother tongue and additional languages are used in the classroom;

Science as a separate subject currently starts in Grade 3

with English as the LOLI. There is no reason given for delaying

the introduction of Science as a separate subject for another year.

The use of English as its LOLI is also not justified by any of the

reasons given for institutionalizing the use of the mother tongue

in the DepED Order; in fact, they would support the use of the

mother tongue in the teaching of Science. This small study aims to

provide information regarding pupils’ proficiency in English and

the quality of the classroom discourse in both languages to

determine the language of LOLI which would be more effective in

teaching Science for Grade 3.

The main topic of this study is how effective is the use of

mother tongue instructions when it’s applied in the elementary

level especially in the subject of Science. We all know that when

you enter higher levels, there will be a lot of changes. Lessons

are getting harder each year. One of the hardest subject to cope

up with is Science. Since the student’s own language enables


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him/her to express him/herself easily, then, there is no fear of

making mistakes. It encourages active participation by the student

in the learning process because they understand what is being

discussed and what is being asked to them. They can immediately

use their mother tongue to construct and explain their word,

articulate their thoughts and add new concepts to what they already

know.

This study is not only for the students but also for the

teachers for they are the ones who impart knowledge on the

students. They can easily express what they are trying to say

unlike using another language that they are sometimes having a

hard time to recall or pronounce a word to use. Teachers play an

important role in the implementation of not only mother tongue

instruction policy but also of other educational reforms at the

classroom level. The language that teachers speak at home may

sometimes derail the successful implementation of mother tongue

policy especially if the teachers are asked to implement the policy

in areas where their language is different from that of the

learners.

In view of the discussions made, this research is geared

towards “Mother Tongue Based – Multi Lingual Education in Grade 3

Science”; the revitalization of indigenous languages as aide in

developing literacy among students/pupils. It is along this line

that this study is undertaken. It determined the level of


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implementation of the mother-tongue language- based education as

perceived by the teachers of Bulan South Central District and Bulan

North District; Furthermore, problems in the implementation

process are determined and the degree of seriousness is likewise

be one of the research concerns.

Statement of the Problem

Generally, the study aims to determine the difficulties


encountered by teachers in teaching science using mother tounge.

Specifically, it seeks to answer the following questions and


determine the difficulties encountered by Grade 3 Science Teachers
in the implementation of MTB-MLE for S.Y. 2017-2018

1. What is the profile of Grade 3 teachers in terms of:

a) Mother tongue
b) Trainings along MTB Instruction
c) Length of service in the school
d) Age
e) Sex

2. What are the difficulties encountered by Grade 3 teachers in


teaching Science using MTB-MLE along instructional materials in
terms of:

a) Lesson preparation
b) Visual aids
c) Assessment
d) Availability and adequacy

3. What are the difficulties encountered by Grade 3 teachers in


teaching Science in terms of oral and written MTB communication?
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4. Is there a significant relationship between the profile of the


respondents and their difficulties encountered in teaching Science
along the identified variables?

5. What can be proposed based on the results of the study?

Significance of the Problem

BSD and BND PUPILS. Pupils can gain insights from this study

concerning the same issue and topic that this time has tackled.

BSD and BND Teachers. Through the result of the study,

teachers can clearly recognize what will be the most effective

basis to uplift or alleviate teaching performance in science

subjects with a better use of language.

Department of Education. This can provide new insights that

could help the higher Government Institution to continually

improve the curriculum as to strengthening mother tongue based

instructions in science subjects of Pupils in transition years.

LGU of Bulan. The result of the study will lessen their work

in improving a desolated institution.

School Administrators. As higher authorities in the

Institution, this research can provide insights and direct

manipulation as to how they are going to create approaches with

connection to the outcome of the study.

Future researchers. The findings, solutions and conclusions

in this study may affirm, refute or inspire the foresights to

replicate and widen the horizon of the people.


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Scope and Delimitation

The researchers gave the study a definite and clearer view on

what it is all about by providing the scope and limitations.

The study focuses only on the Mother Tongue Based – Multi

Lingual Education in Grade 3 Science which only includes Bicol

Bulan or Bisakol as the native dialect. The Teachers of Bulan South

District and Bulan North District Grade Three will be the place of

conduct for the study to happen. The teachers will be tested by

means of questionnaire to know what difficulties they encountered

in teaching science III.

The study is also limited to the following specific

objectives:

1. To identify the impacts of mother-tongue based instructions

in Science on the performance of elementary pupils during

transition years.

2. To recognize the difficulties encountered by teachers in

subjects teaching.

3. To be familiarize with common practices implemented by

teachers handling science subjects to address difficulties

in teaching science among grade three pupils.


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4. To give recommendations based from the output and result

of the study conducted.

Definition of Terms

For clarity and better understanding of the discussion in the

study, the following were defined conceptually and operationally.

Mother-tongue. A basic or native dialect in a specific

community used for discourse in everyday living. Bisakol or Bicol

Bulan is a native dialect used in the Municipality of Bulan

especially in teaching students for primary years as for the K to

12 Curriculum.

Multilingual Education- refers to the formal use of two

languages in a formal education system (Unesco,2003, p. 17).

Countries with multiple regional languages of wider communication

or more than one official language may support multilingual

educations that includes children’s mother tongues and the more

widely spoken languages of the nation. As with bilingual education,

a multilingual education programme is considered ‘stronger’ as the

mother tongue is used more extensively as a medium of instruction.

Lingua Franca- a language that is adopted as a common language

between speakers whose native languages are different.

Length of Service- Longevity, duration of service or

employment.
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Age- the length of time that a person has lived or a thing

has existed

Sex- the state of being male or female

Instructional Materials- are the tools used in educational

lessons, which includes active learning and assessment.

Lesson preparation- is a teacher’s detailed description of

the course of instruction or learning trajectory

Visual Aids- an item of illustrative matter, such as a film,

slide, or model, designed to supplement writtenor spoken

information so that it can be understood more easily.

Assessment- the evaluation or estimation of the nature

quality, or ability of someone or something

Availability- the quality of being able to be used or obtained

Adequacy- the state or quality of being adequate

Grade III Teachers. Referred to the teachers in Schools of

Bulan South District and Bulan North District teaching science.

They were the tested teachers for the conduct of this study.

K to 12 Program. K to 12 stands for Kindergarten to Grade 12.

The program covers Kindergarten and 12 years of basic education

(one (1) year kindergarten, six (6) years of primary education,


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four (4) years of Junior High School, and two (2) years of Senior

High School [SHS]). K to 12 starts with Universal Kindergarten

which mandates all public elementary schools to offer kindergarten

class and accept 5-year old learners beginning 2011. It is followed

by six years of Elementary, four years of Junior High School, and

two years of Senior High School where students will pursue their

preferred career track depending on their skills and inclination.


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CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL, CONCEPTUAL AND

OPERATIONAL FRAMEWORK OF THESTUDY

This chapter presents the related literatures, studies,

readings and references which were considered by the proponents,

in order to come up with the appropriate design solution to the

present study.

The researchers have gone through a lot of extensive

researches and readings about the possible historical data of the

study for advanced purposes. These reviews create a big impact as

to solving the prior problem underlying the main focus of the study

which is, “Mother Tongue Based – Multi Lingual Education in Grade

3 Science”

Related Literature

2.1 Language Acquisition Theories and Classroom Interaction

As discussed in the previous chapter, learning in a foreign

language appears to be a disadvantage to many learners in Africa.

In this chapter the researchers look at the process of language

acquisition (first and second languages) in order to explain the

role played by first and second languages in facilitating classroom

interaction. The discussion in this chapter also explores various

factors which influence language learning, which in turn influence


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knowledge construction in the teaching-learning process. In short,

it looks at how the first (L1) and second (L2) languages are

acquired, and how the acquired knowledge is used to facilitate

meaningful interaction or communication in the classroom.

In this chapter the researchers focus on theories on classroom

interaction and language acquisition. Following McLaughlin’s

(1987:7) description of the functions of theories, namely,

understanding, transformation and prediction, the discussion in

this chapter aims at understanding how teacher-learner interaction

occurs when there is a mismatch between the learners’ L1 and the

medium of instruction; and also when the medium of instruction is

the learners’ L1 and teacher’s L1.. In relation to theories, Gopnik

(1999:305) emphasizes the interpretive effects of theories i.e.

theories lead to interpretations or sometimes interpretations of

evidence. This study, is guided by the interepretivist paradigm

which seeks to make meaningful interpretations of the collected

data. So theories discussed in this chapter aim at paving ways

towards data analysis and interpretation which will be discussed.

In explaining how learners get input from the environment,

and how language input is processed into output, the researchers

have made reference to Krashen’s (1981) Monitor Model. The Monitor

Model gives a clue on how children acquire or learn a language,

and how they produce or control their speech utterances.


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The interactionist theory incorporates Vygotsky’s (1978)

sociocultural theory. Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory is used to

explain how language is used by teachers and learners to mediate

learning. At the centre of mediation is language (input). In other

words, the sociocultural aspect features in this study in terms of

clarifying how language input is processed through social

interaction (between teachers and learners, and between learners

themselves) to produce meaningful outputs. In a nutshell, the

sociocultural theory highlights the roles of the different

participants (teacher and learners) in classroom interaction.

In all, this chapter discusses the theoretical framework

which underpins data analysis in this research. The key theory

which forms the backbone of this study is interactionist theory

which is within the interpretivist research paradigm as explained

in the first 75 chapter. The interactionist theory takes into

account how language is used to construct knowledge in teaching-

learning, and therefore, it is discussed in relation to other

theories such as socio-cultural and constructivist theories.

Language is a cognition that truly makes us human. Whereas

other species do communicate with an innate ability to produce a

limited number of meaningful vocalizations (e.g. bonobos), or even

with partially learned systems (e.g. bird songs) (Villacorta,

1997), there is no other species known to date that can express

infinite ideas (sentences) with a limited set of symbols (speech


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sounds and words (Ugta, 2011). This ability is remarkable in

itself. What makes it even more remarkable is that researchers are

finding evidence for mastery of this complex skill in increasingly

younger children (Ingrid, 2017).

Infants as young as 12 months are reported to have sensitivity

to the grammar needed to understand causative sentences (who did

what to whom; e.g. the bunny pushed the frog (Rowland & Noble,

2010).

After more than 60 years of research into child language

development, the mechanism that enables children to segment

syllables and words out of the strings of sounds they hear, and to

acquire grammar to understand and produce language is still quite

an enigma (Sultan, 2001). One of the earliest scientific

explanations of language acquisition was provided

by Skinner (1957). As one of the pioneers of behaviorism, he

accounted for language development by means of environmental

influence.

Skinner argued that children learn language based on

behaviorist reinforcement principles by associating words with

meanings. Correct utterances are positively reinforced when the

child realizes the communicative value of words and phrases. For

example, when the child says ‘milk’ and the mother will smile and

give her some as a result, the child will find this outcome
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rewarding, enhancing the child's language development (Ambridge &

Lieven, 2011).

However, Skinner's account was soon heavily criticized

by Noam Chomsky, the world's most famous linguist to date. In

the spirit of cognitive revolution in the 1950's, Chomsky

argued that children will never acquire the tools needed for

processing an infinite number of sentences if the language

acquisition mechanism was dependent on language input alone

(Libertan, 2013).

Consequently, he proposed the theory of Universal

Grammar: an idea of innate, biological grammatical

categories, such as a noun category and a verb category that

facilitate the entire language development in children and

overall language processing in adults (Psychology Today,

2011).

Universal Grammar is considered to contain all the

grammatical information needed to combine these categories,

e.g. noun and verb, into phrases. The child’s task is just to

learn the words of her language (Ambridge & Lieven).

For example, according to the Universal Grammar account,

children instinctively know how to combine a noun (e.g. a


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boy) and a verb (to eat) into a meaningful, correct phrase (A

boy eats).

This Chomskian (1965) approach to language acquisition has

inspired hundreds of scholars to investigate the nature of these

assumed grammatical categories and the research is still ongoing.

Investigators of Universal Grammar (2013) are still trying to

convince that language is a task too demanding to acquire without

specific innate equipment, whereas the constructivist researchers

are fiercely arguing for the importance of linguistic input.

The biggest questions, however, are yet unanswered. What is

the exact process that transforms the child’s utterances into

grammatically correct, adult-like speech? How much does the child

need to be exposed to language to achieve the adult-like state?

2.2 Interactionist Theory

The interactionist theory claims that learning occurs as a

result of interaction between the linguistic environment and the

learner’s internal or innate environment (Ellis, 1997:44). That

is, learning is seen as an interrelationship between internal

(innate) and external (environmental) factors. Thus Freeman &

Freeman (1994:103) describe interactionist theory as the theory of

“nature and nurture.” In terms of “nature”, the theory assumes

that children have to reach a certain level of cognitive


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development in order to acquire a language, while “nurture” refers

to the importance of the experience that the learner gets from the

environment (Bohannon & Warren-Leubeker, 1989:187).Thus it is

important to understand the processes involved in effective

communication in the classroom.

2.3 Language Acquisition through lesson preparation

Following Krashen’s Monitor Model of language acquisition,

the researchers make a distinction between acquisition and

learning. Referring to second language acquisition (SLA),

Krashen’s Monitor Model assumes that language is acquired and

learned. Acquired knowledge is gained naturally in informal

situations while learning occurs through formal instruction.

Language acquisition then occurs subconsciously through natural

communication or exposure to the Target Language (TL), while

learning occurs consciously as the learner studies the linguistic

rules of the TL (Cook, 1993:126; Ellis, 1985:261, Klein, 1986:28;

Towell& Hawkins, 1994:26). Acquired knowledge is referred to as

implicit knowledge (knowledge of the language), and learnt

knowledge is known as explicit knowledge (knowledge about the

language). Acquisition leads to spontaneous, unplanned

communication, while learning involves knowing the rules of the 77

language, being aware of them, and being able to talk about them

(Shrim&Glisan, 2000:3; Gas &Selinker, 1994:144).


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In relation to the interactionist theory underpinning this

study, the above distinction between acquisition and learning as

processes of SLA shows that both acquisition and learning involve

interaction between two or more individuals.

Although it is claimed that acquisition is natural and

informal, in the process of acquisition the learner must interact

with the natural environment e.g. family, parents, friends, etc.

Likewise, for learning to take place through formal instruction,

the learner should interact with the person or tutor who will teach

him the structure and grammatical rules of the TL.

In summary, language acquisition and learning involve

interaction, irrespective of what language one learns (i.e.

whether it is the L1 or the L2).

Interactionist theory therefore brings out the interaction

hypothesis. The interaction hypothesis developed on the basis of

the social constructivist and interactionist theories of language

learning was introduced by Long in 1996. The word interaction, in

this context, refers to the interaction between the language

learner and their teacher, other native speakers and nonnative

speakers.

Reynolds (2009) states that Long’s interaction hypothesis

compared to Krashen’s notion of input is an interactionist theory

by contending that input in general is made comprehensible through

modified interaction, essentially, the negotiation of meaning that


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occurs between the language learner and their teacher or other

native speaker or the interlocutors to arrive at the appropriate

level of language input.

Krashen (1987) said that there are three ways to obtain

comprehensible input: context, simplified input and interaction.

He hypothesized that language data which could be understood but

with a slight effort, and which were slightly more advanced than

the learner’s level of understanding (i+1), fostered learning.

Although the importance of this concept of comprehensible input

was considered paramount by many researchers, and became a dominant

theme in Second Language Acquisition (SLA) theories,

interactionist critics pointed to some of its insufficiencies.

They doubted that mere exposure to input, even if comprehensible,

could promote language learning. Long (1980, cited in Ellis 1999)

agreed with Krashen that comprehensible input is necessary for

acquisition, but he asserted the importance of “modified input”.

In Long’s view, the comprehensible input, paramount in Krashen’s

Input Hypothesis, is the result of “modified interaction”. Long

(1985) maintains that it is becoming clearer that in order for

learners to successfully construct their own learner-language,

conversation and interaction in social contexts must play a central

role in the acquisition process.

Reynolds (2009) adds that, clearly, this mechanism is

reminiscent of Vygotsky’s (1978) zone of proximal development.


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Moreover, the emphasis on learner language and interaction

reflects social constructivist learning theory in general.

According to Lightbown and Spada (1999, p. 43) the interaction

hypothesis posits a three‐step process: (a) Interactional

modification makes input comprehensible; (b) Comprehensible input

promotes acquisition; (c) Therefore, interactional modification

promotes acquisition. Lightbown and Spada (1999) continue to

elaborate three types of modified interaction that facilitate the

creation of comprehensible input: 1) comprehension checks—where

the native speaker (NS) makes sure that the non‐native speaker

(NNS) understood, 2) clarification requests—where the NNS ask the

NS to clarify, and 3) self-repetition or paraphrase— the native

speaker or the non-native speaker repeat their sentences either

partially or in their totality.

Doughty and Long (2003) have cited, Long’s (1996) interaction

hypothesis as negotiation for meaning triggers interactional

adjustments by the NS, facilitates acquisition because it connects

input, internal learner capacities and output in production ways.

Interaction hypothesis emphasizes on the role of negotiated

interaction in language development.

According to Gass and Torres (2005) during negotiation works,

the learner’s attention is directed to: 1) The discrepancy between

what s/he knows about L2 and what the L2 really is and 2) The areas
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of L2 which he doesn’t have information. In this case, negotiation

is the initial step to learning and it is one part of interaction.

Lightbown and Spada (2006) maintain that interaction hypothesis

says that interaction is essential condition for SLA, through which

speakers modify their speech and interaction patterns to help

learners participate in a conversation.

Ellis (1999) refers to interaction hypothesis as the

conversational exchanges that arise when interlocutors seek to

prevent a communicative breakdown or to remedy an actual

communication stop that has arisen. He believes that acquisition

is promoted when the input to which learners are exposed is made

comprehensible through the interactional modifications that arise

when meaning is negotiated.

Meanwhile, according to Gass (1997) the interactionist

approach has paid particular attention to the nature of the

interactions L2 learners typically engage in. It has focused on

investigating, for example, the role of negotiation for meaning in

the context of NS-NNS (Native Speaker - Non-Native Speaker)

conversations. Long’s (1985) idea that comprehensible input is

necessary for second language acquisition forms a basic tenet of

the interactionist position. However, interactionists view the

communicative give and take of natural conversations between

native and non-native speakers as the crucial element of the

language acquisition process.


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Their focus is on the ways in which native speakers modify

their speech to try to make themselves understood by English-

learning conversational partners. Interactionists are also

interested in how non-native speakers use their (budding)

knowledge of the new language to get their ideas across and to

achieve their communicative goals. This trial-and-error process of

give-and-take in communication as people try to understand and be

understood is referred to as the negotiation of meaning. As

Aljaafreh and Lantolf (1994) maintain, in the interactionist

approach, the role of feedback given to learners when they make

mistakes has also been the object of attention.

Language Acquisition

Various theories of how we acquire language have been put

forward over the years by different theorists and there has been

much debate on which theory is effective and which one is not.

Some of these theories include behaviorist, innatist, and

interactionist (Lightbown & Spada, 1993). How children learn a

language has been a debate for some researchers particularly among

Americans psychologists.

In 1957, B. F Skinner wrote Verbal Behavior Analysis and

suggested that children learn language through interaction with

the environment (Skinner, 1957). These interactions occur through

principles of conditioning such as stimulus, association response

and reinforcement (Skinner 1957, pp 30, 32). In 1959, Noam Chomsky


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challenged B.F. Skinner’s theory. Without having the innate

ability to acquire a language, childern will not learn all they

need to know language wise (Chomsky, 1959). His studies led him to

the Innateness Hypothesis, a theory that describes how children's

knowledge of language is inborn, as cited by Jackendoff 1994, 35.

However, the question of how children acquire language is still a

subject of debate and linguists still argue how much of language

is learned and how much is innate.

Second language acquisition (SLA) is the learning of any

language in addition to the mother tongue. Second language

acquisition also refers to one's introduction to a second language

after having received native competence in a first language

(Fromkin, Rodman & Hyams, 2003).

Ellis (1997) argued that the second language is not only the

language learned or succeeding one's mother tongue but the third

or fourth language is part of the second language acquisition.

Acquiring another or additional languages requires an individual

to pass through the same stages as in learning their first

language. However, some individuals find it difficult in learning

another language especially the adults.

It is essential that second language learners receive an

enormous amount of exposure to the language for them to learn it

(Krashen, 1981). There are some reasons why people learn the second
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or third language which include expanding their knowledge in

communication system, feeling part of the society (Ramos, 2016).

Learning the second language requires time, effort and

organization in order for the individual to learn the language.

One needs to be fluent in the native language also (Klinger, 2017).

Generally, learning the mother tongue is not really difficult

but rather, the skills in learning other language varies for the

individual, their attitudes towards the language and motivation.

L2 can be acquired either formal or informal. Schools and language

courses are the formal ways to acquire L2 and through walking on

the streets and the community is where to acquire the informal way

of L2 (Baker, 2011).

People are knowing or learning more different language and

culture every day because the world is now globalized. Acquiring

the second or third language is important because it increases the

opportunities in employment (Baker, 2011). In view of this, it is

therefore very essential to be aware of bilingualism and its

contribution to peoples educational development in general. The

next chapter further introduces the term bilingualism in more depth

(Sanchez, 2013).

2.4 Language Input and Output (visual aids)


29

In relation to interactionist theory, the Input Hypothesis

requires an interaction between a more capable individual and a

less capable person in the teaching-learning setting. The 81 fact

that the input should be at a higher level (i + 1) indicates that

the person mediating learning should be more knowledgeable than

the learner, so that the learner can be scaffolded to reach a

higher level of development (i.e. the Zone of Proximal Development

- ZPD) as discussed in Section 3.4 below. The input should be

comprehensible for learning to take place effectively. Thus the

Input Hypothesis of Krashen’s Monitor Model can also be associated

with Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory which focuses on language

development from childhood through adulthood (Donato, 2000:45).

The language is developed socially as teachers and learners

interact with each other through mediation and scaffolding.

Linguistic distance between the learners’ L1 and L2 is another

factor that influences SLA. For instance, in the case of isiXhosa

(L1) and English (L2), the linguistic distance is wide between the

two languages. IsiXhosa belongs to the Bantu language family which

is not cognate with European languages. Moreover, isiXhosa is

characterized by an agglutinating morphological structure. Unlike

English, isiXhosa has no auxiliary verb system in asking questions,

nor does it distinguish between masculine and feminine forms, to

mention but a few differences (Gxilishe, 1996). So it is not easy

for an isiXhosa (L1) speaker to associate some of the aspects of


30

the L1 with English, especially morphological and grammatical

structures.

The above discussion shows that it is possible for an

individual to learn another additional language as an L2 after he

has acquired the L1. Of importance in SLA is the interaction

between cognitive processes and environmental factors to produce

meaningful utterances (output). Krashen’s Monitor Model of SLA has

been used to illustrate some of 85 the processes of SLA and how

they relate to interactionist theory. It is apparent that the

interactionist theory is supported by other theories that explain

how learning is mediated in the classroom (e.g. Vygotsky’s

sociocultural theory). The role of the L1 as a symbol of cultural

identity and as a resource in SLA is also another point of

importance in SLA.

The role of the three closely relevant factors, namely input,

interaction and output has gradually been acknowledged in second

language (L2) learning. It is now widely recognized that input is

essential for language acquisition. In addition to input, it is

also accepted that interaction plays a crucial role in the process

of learning L2. Output--an automatic output, to be exact--is one

pedagogical goal in learning L2.

So, input, interaction and output are three essential

compositing elements in L2 acquisition. But for years there has

been a debate about their role. In language learning, input is the


31

language data which the learner is exposed to. It is commonly

acknowledged that for second language acquisition to take place

there must be two prerequisites: L2 input available to the learners

and a set of internal mechanism to account for how L2 data are

processed (Ellis, 1985).

Towards the issue of input there are generally three views:

behaviorist, mentalist and interactionist view, each holding a

different emphasis in explaining SLA. A behaviorist view treats

language learning as environmentally determined, controlled from

outside by the stimuli learners are exposed to and the

reinforcement they receive. In contrast, mentalist theories

emphasize the importance of the learner’s ‘black box’. They

maintain that learners’ brains are especially equipped to learn

language and all that is needed is minimal exposure to input in

order to trigger acquisition (Ellis, 1997).

Interactionist theories acknowledge the importance of both

input and internal language processing, emphasizing the joint

contribution of linguistic environment and the learners’ inner

mechanism in interaction activities, which I will discuss later.

Krashen was an important figure whose input hypothesis once

exercised powerful influence on SLA. According to his input

hypothesis, SLA takes place when the learner understands input

that contains grammatical forms that are at ‘i+1’ (i.e. are a

little more advanced than the current state of the learner’s


32

interlanguage). He suggests that the right level of input is

attained automatically when interlocutors succeed in making

themselves understood in communication (Krashen, 1985:2).

In his view, the Input Hypothesis is central to all of

acquisition, i.e. L2 acquisition depends on comprehensible input.

In the classroom, then, the teacher’s main role is to ensure that

learners receive comprehensible input by providing them with

listening and reading materials. However, a great many researches

later challenge his hypothesis by supplying abundant evidence

indicating that though necessary, comprehensible input alone is

insufficient for L2 acquisition (Swain 1981,1991; Harley & Hart,

1997; Harley & Swain, 1984, etc.).

They argue that processing of comprehension is different from

processing of production. And the ability to understand meaning

conveyed by sentences differs from the ability to use linguistic

system to express meaning (Swain, 1985, 1988; Sharwood Smith, 1986;

Crookes, 1991). When input is negotiated and learners produce

output in interaction, they selectively “take in” portions of

comprehensible input and choose correct linguistic form to express

themselves.

This process makes it possible for the learners to internalize

what they have learnt and experienced. Corder’s distinction

between input and intake should be mentioned here. He defines input


33

as what is available to the learner, whereas intake refers to what

is actually internalized by the learner (Corder, 1967).This

distinction is justified by huge amount of evidence in foreign

language learning practice. It is convincingly argued that L2

acquisition will not occur even if with input at the right quantity

and quality but without being internalized by the learners and

becoming part of their interlanguage system. On the whole, input

is absolutely necessary and there is no theory or approach to SLA

that does not recognize the importance of input. In Schwartz’s

view (1993), the input feeds or nurtures an innate system to aid

its growth. But input alone cannot facilitate second language

learning. It will not function to the full in SLA until it gets

involved in interaction.

Output is the language a learner produces. Swain, the most

influential figure for Output Hypothesis, has argued that

comprehensible output also plays a part in L2 acquisition. She

pointed out early in 1985 that only when learners are “obliged” to

produce comprehensible output otherwise comprehensible input alone

is insufficient to L2 learning process.

According to her there is no better way to test the extent of

one’s knowledge (linguistic or otherwise) than to have to use that

knowledge in some productive way—whether it is explaining a concept

to someone (i.e. teaching) or writing a computer program, or in

the case of language learning, getting even a simple idea across,


34

and in doing so, he might modify a previous utterance or he might

try out form that he had not used before. However, prior to her

important paper in 1985, output was traditionally viewed as a way

of producing what had previously been learned and the idea that

output could be part of the learning mechanism itself was not

seriously contemplated (Gass & Selinker 2001).

Then in 1995, she stated that output might stimulate learners

to move from the semantic, open-ended, nondeterministic, strategic

processing prevalent in comprehension to the complete grammatical

processing needed for accurate production. Output, thus, would

seem to have a potentially significant role in the development of

syntax and morphology.

Gass (2001) summarizes the four functions of output in L2

learning based on Swain’s ideas: testing hypothesis about the

structures and meanings of L2; receiving crucial feedback for the

verification of these hypotheses; forcing a shift from more

meaning-based processing of the second language to a more syntactic

mode; and developing fluency and automaticity in interlanguage

production. The last significant function of output is to create

greater automaticity, which is one pedagogical goal in SLA. Little

effort is required to execute an automatic process(involved when

the learner carries out the task without awareness or attention)

as it has become routinized and automatized just as the steps

involved in walking towards a bike, getting out the key, unlocking


35

it, pushing it, getting on it and riding it, requiring little

thought and less time. Mclaughlin (1987:134) claimed that

automatization involves “a learned response that has been built up

through the consistent mapping of the same input to the same

pattern of activation over many trials.” Here this notion is

extended to output, meaning that consistent and successful mapping

or practice of grammar to output results in automatic processing

(Loschky & Bley-Vroman, 1993).

In many researchers’ opinion, automaticity benefits learning.

Firstly, as automatic processing consumes fewer attentional

resources than does controlled processing (involved when conscious

effort and attention is required to perform a task), the more

automatic performance becomes the more attentional resources left

over for other purposes. For example, if one can handle the

phonology and syntax of a second language automatically, then more

attention can be paid to processing semantic, pragmatic, and

sociolinguistic levels of communication. Secondly, when a

mechanism becomes automatic it will process information very

quickly and accurately. Thirdly, there are strong reasons for

associating automaticity with important aspects of fluency

(Skehan, 1998; Hulstijn, 1997,etc).

2.5 Classroom interaction (assessment)


36

Ellis (1992:2) describes classroom interaction as the

“fundamental fact of pedagogy” which provides opportunities for

negotiating comprehensible input. Comprehensible input refers to

input that can be understood by other people involved in the

communication process.

In relation to IRF exchange in classroom interaction, Tsui

(1996:149), in her study of factors that caused reticence and

anxiety among L2 learners in Hong Kong noted that English L2

students showed less confidence in initiating questions or

providing answers due to their low English proficiency. The

students were not willing to take risks, and they only answered

when they were asked by the teacher. He also noticed that there

was an uneven allocation of turns to students in terms of answering

questions. In other words, the teachers tended to ask brighter

students more often. They used this strategy to get the correct

answers and to avoid not getting responses from other students

(Tsui, 1996:154). In cases where there were no responses from

students, the teachers provided the answers themselves instead of

showing patience by giving more time for students to think. In the

next section, the researchers present the actual classroom

interactions that may be employed to enhance teaching and learning.

The interactions are discussed from the sociocultural perspective

based on Vygotsky’s (1987) sociocultural theory.

2.6 Sociocultural Theory and Classroom Interaction


37

At the centre of interactionist theory is Vygotsky’s (1978)

sociocultural theory. Socicultural theory perceives language as a

tool for developing thoughts, and it believes that all learning is

social (Freeman & Freeman, 1994:57). It takes into consideration

the role of social interaction in learning and development. That

is, sociocultural theory sees learning and development as

cognitive and social processes that occur as a result of

interaction between ‘experts’ (more capable) and ‘novices’ (less

capable) (Shrum&Glisan, 2000:7). In the context of this study, the

experts are teachers while the novices are the learners who have

to be assisted to get to a higher level of development by means 89

of interaction through language. For effective learning to take

place, collaborative interaction is necessary

In terms of classroom interaction, in the field of second and

foreign language learning, interaction has long been considered to

play an important role. Studies taking a more traditional,

formalist perspective on language and learning have focused on the

role that interaction plays in helping learners to assimilate and

internalize knowledge of linguistic forms in the target language.

More recently, a group of scholars concerned with interaction and

additional language learning, or the learning of languages other

than the mother tongue, has begun to move away from this more

traditional perspective and into areas outside of what has


38

generally been considered the main focus of the applied linguistics

field.

Taking more of a sociocultural perspective on language and

learning, this research is concerned with documenting the links

between student participation in particular kinds of classroom

interaction and their communicative development in the target

language. Much traditional research on interaction has been

concerned with investigating ways to help learners assimilate and

internalize knowledge of linguistic structures in the target

language. Stemming from Krashen’s (1980, 1982, 1985) early

assertions on the importance of comprehensible input to language

learning, this research has taken three related directions: input-

oriented research, negotiation-oriented research, and output-

oriented research. The first strand, input-oriented research, has

been concerned , primarily with the question of how input is made

comprehensible. Of specific interest in early studies was the role

that features found in teacher talk such as corrective feedback,

error correction, and use of questions played in reducing the

syntactic complexity of input (Chaudron, 1988). More recently,

research on input has incorporated a concern with finding ways to

enhance learners’ noticing of linguistic forms to be learned in

the input.

These studies are based on the premise that simple exposure

to comprehensible input is not sufficient. In order for input to


39

be comprehensible, it must become intake, and for that to happen,

learners must, at the very least, take notice of the forms to be

acquired (Schmidt, 1994).

Addressing the question of how to create input that helps

learners to take notice of the forms to be acquired, investigations

here have examined the role that special genres such as ‘input-

enhanced’ and ‘form-focused’ instructional talk play in the

raising of students’ consciousness about the syntactic aspects of

the target language (Ordonez, 2011).

These special genres involve pedagogical interventions such

as increasing the saliency of the forms to be learned in the

teacher’s talk to enhance the possibility that students will notice

them. They also include attempts to highlight the particular forms

on which students are to focus through, for example, corrective

feedback, direct instruction and consciousnessraising tasks (e.g.,

Ellis, 1994; Long, 1981; Long, Inagaki, & Ortega, 1998; Long &

Robinson, 1998; Lyster, 1994; Lyster & Ranta, 1997; MacKay & Philp,

1998; Rutherford & Smith, 1988a, 1988b; van Patten, 1990, 1994;

van Patten & Cadierno, 1993).

The second direction in traditional research on interaction

has focused on the role of negotiated interaction. This research

is based on the same assumptions as input-based research:

comprehensible input is necessary for language acquisition and the


40

process of noticing facilitates learner acquisition of linguistic

forms (Lindsay, 2001).

A further assumption presumes that interaction between

learners, and between learners and native speaking peers, can play

as significant a role in making input comprehensible as interaction

between teachers and learners (Sandel, 2016). Research on

negotiated interaction has generally been concerned with

documenting conditions fostering the emergence of such

interaction. Findings reveal that the most useful interactions

take place in task-based activities that compel learners to

negotiate with their interlocutors to complete the task (Fritz,

1999). In their negotiations, the modifications that interlocutors

make to their talk result in input that is more attuned to the

learners’ levels of competence. Such modifications, in turn, help

learners to take notice of gaps in their knowledge of linguistic

structures. Such noticing, it is concluded, will help facilitate

the learners’ eventual acquisition of these new syntactic forms

(e.g., Crookes & Gass, 1993; Gass & Varonis, 1985; Pica, Kanagy &

Falodun, 1993; Yule, Powers, & Macdonald, 1992; and see Pica, 1994,

for a review of this research).

The focus of the third strand of traditional research on

interaction and language learning is on the role of learner output.

Here, concern is not with the modifications made to input or with

task conditions fostering modification (Rookie, 1993). Rather, it


41

is with examining particular task types for the role they play in

encouraging learners themselves to produce particular forms of

language that they have not yet acquired fully. This strand of

research shares the assumption that both comprehensible input and

noticing of the forms to be learned are necessary to language

acquisition (Daily Journal, 2000).

However, it differs from the other two in that it assigns a

crucial role to language production. In an overview of studies

concerned with student-generated output, Swain (1993) proposed

that pushing students to produce linguistic forms they have not

yet mastered can facilitate student learning of these forms in at

least three ways. First, it may help students to notice or become

aware of a gap between what they know and what they do not. The

noticing, in turn, can trigger the acquisition process. Second,

learner output can provide opportunities for learners to formulate

and test hypotheses as they try new forms to meet their

communicative needs.

Finally, learner production of language provides

opportunities for them to actively reflect on and ultimately come

to understand theirs and their interlocutors’ use of language

forms. Current research (e.g., Kowal & Swain, 1994; Polio & Gass,

1997; Swain, 1985, 1995; Swain & Lapkin, 1996) on output is

concerned not only with uncovering the optimal task conditions

that persuade learners to produce language. It is also concerned


42

with documenting the effects of pushing learners to produce and

take notice of language forms that are deemed to be especially

difficult to learn, developmentally late-acquired or rarely found

in typical classroom tasks.

While the various studies reviewed here have taken somewhat

different routes in examining the role of interaction, they share

some fundamental assumptions about the nature of language and

learning. Embodied in this research is a view of language as

discrete, stable, bounded sets of linguistic systems. Acquisition

of these systems is assumed to be an individually-based, mental

process whereby L2 forms and structures are assimilated into pre-

existing mental structures and internalized.

The Sociocultural Theory aligns with serving the needs of the

Christopher House organization and its students. Administrators

and educators have found consistent evidence validating the

importance of applying Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory to teaching

ESL students (Aljaafreh & Lantolf, 1994; Anton, 1999; Brooks,

2009). Ajayi (2008) purports "the sociocultural framework provides

a dynamic interaction, interrelation, and interconnection of

theory and practice in such ways that theories are grounded in

specific contexts of practice and, in turn, these practices inform

theories" (p. 654).


43

There are two major tenets of Vygotsky's Sociocultural

Theory. The first tenet is that cognitive development is mediated

by culture and social interaction. The second tenet of the

Sociocultural Theory is the zone of proximal development model

(ZPD) (Aljaafreh & Lantolf, 1994; Vygotsky, 1978). The ZPD occurs

when the social interaction occurs between a student and a more

knowledgeable individual in a particular subject matter (Vygotsky,

1978). Specifically, I provided aid to the student by guiding

learning tasks that the student would not have been able to achieve

as easily without my assistance. This process is identified as

scaffolding (Aljaafreh & Lantolf, 1994; Nyikos & Hashimoto, 1997),

giving students the framework to extend their knowledge. Vygotsky

(1978) argued that development occurs in two locations, externally

from social interactions and internally.

Therefore, the cognitive development of a new language occurs

as a product of the interactions between student and teacher

(Aljaafreh & Lantolf, 1994; Vygotsky, 1978). The application of

the ZPD has continually been shown to be beneficial by educators

(e.g., Aljaafreh & Lantolf, 1994; Anton, 1999; Beckett, 2005;

Brooks; 2009; Chen & Jiang, 2004; Nyikos & Hashimoto, 1997).

The usage of the ZPD is vital in teaching because it

incorporates all aspects of the learning environment: the learner,

the teacher, their relationship and shared experiences, and the

resources used to facilitate learning (Aljaafreh & Lantolf, 1994).


44

Students often have the intellectual ability to learn new

information but may lack a realization of their learning potential

(Anton, 1999). This misconception can be corrected if a teacher

facilitates the ZPD. A teacher facilitating the ZPD can establish

a healthy learning environment and guide students to learn the new

concepts by building relationships with them and utilizing

effective learning materials (Aljaafreh & Lantolf, 1994; Nyikos &

Hashimoto, 1997). Numerous studies present the effectiveness of

ZPD in learning environments. Aljaafreh and Lantolf (1994)

provided evidence of the importance of the ZPD where error

corrections with second language learners were dependent on the

mediation process between teacher and student. Similarly, Nyikos

and Hashimoto (1997) examined the ZPD within the division of labor

in group settings and found that the role of social interaction

played a stronger role in learning environment than expected.

Nyikos and Hashimoto (1997) observed, "that without a strongly

supportive social component, the potential for learning (or ZPD),

for both the individual and the group was radically undermined"

(p. 516).

These findings suggest that student learning is mediated by

social interactions from teachers and peers. The ZPD is typically

applied in a one-on-one setting, but it is also flexible enough to

be applied in a variety of learning environments, such as group or

classroom settings (Aljaafreh & Lantolf, 1994; Anton 1999;


45

Beckett, 2005; Chen & Jiang, 2004). This flexibility is

particularly helpful in community organizations that may not have

the finances to provide ESL learners with individualized tutoring

(Beckett, 2005). Chen and Jiang (2004) suggested that learning

environments with small groups with similar learning abilities who

work with one another can foster constructive learning

environments. Similarly, Anton (1999) found that the application

of the Sociocultural Theory in classroom environments creates the

development of beneficial language practice. When the teacher

executed "learner-centered" rather than "teacher-centered"

methods, learners were more likely to become highly involved.

The learner-centered approach involves consistent interaction

among learners such as using group activities. The ZPD can be

successful in language learning and easily implemented because it

can be applied in adaptable formats and varied learning

environments (Aljaafreh & Lantolf, 1994; Anton 1999; Beckett,

2005; Chen & Jiang, 2004; Nyikos & Hashimoto, 1997).

2.7 Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Vygotsky’s (1978) Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) assumes

that the learner brings two levels of development to the learning

task: (i) what the learner can do or the actual developmental

level, (ii) what the learner should be able to do in the future or


46

potential devopmental level. As the learner interacts with others,

she progresses from the actual developmental level to the potential

developmental level. The distance between these two developmental

levels is referred to as the Zone of Proximal Development (Lantolf,

2000; Shrum&Glisan, 2000; Ohta, 2000; Freeman & Freeman, 1994).

It should be noted, however, that language is very crucial as

a tool of interaction in the achievement of the ZPD. If there is

a mismatch between the languages of the people or parties involved

in interaction, it may be difficult for learners to get into a

higher or potential level of development. For instance, if there

is no mutual understanding between the teacher and the learner,

learning can hardly take place. Thus Freeman & Freeman (1994) and

Shrum&Glisan (2000) put forward the importance of language in

sociocultural theory.

The concept of zone of proximal development (ZPD) was developed by

Lev Semenovich Vygotsky during the late 1920s and elaborated

progressively until his death in 1934. In Mind in Society: The

Development of Higher Psychological Processes, Vygotsky defined

the ZPD as “the distance between the actual development level as

determined by independent problem solving and the level of

potential development as determined through problem solving under

adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peer” (p.

86).
47

That is, the ZPD was understood by Vygotsky to describe the

current or actual level of development of the learner and the next

level attainable through the use of mediating semiotic and

environmental tools and capable adult or peer facilitation. The

idea is that individuals learn best when working together with

others during joint collaboration, and it is through such

collaborative endeavors with more skilled persons that learners

learn and internalize new concepts, psychological tools, and

skills.

Roosevelt (2008) holds that the main goal of education from

Vygotskian perspective is to keep learners in their own ZPDs as

often as possible by giving them interesting and culturally

meaningful learning and problem-solving tasks that are slightly

more difficult than what they do alone, such that they will need

to work together either with another, more competent peer or with

a teacher or adult to finish the task. The idea is that after

completing the task jointly, the learner will likely be able to

complete the same task individually next time, and through that

process, the learner’s ZPD for that particular task will have been

raised.

This process is then repeated at the higher level of task

difficulty that the learner’s new ZPD requires. This concept is

illustrated in Figure 1. (Campbell ,2008, p. 3). The tasks assigned

to the learners sometimes fall outside the ZPD that the learner
48

can already do, or tasks that the learner would not be able to do

even with help, for example trying to teach the average 10 year

old to solve quadratic equations. Thus the focus of teaching is on

tasks inside the ZPD which the learner cannot do by him or herself

but has the potential to accomplish with the guidance of others.

As the learner accomplishes the task, his or her ZPD, or the gap

between what he or she can do on their own and what he or she can

only accomplish with assistance shrinks. This shrinking of the ZPD

is illustrated in Figure 2. (Campbell ,2008, p. 4).

Vygotsky (1962) introduced the concept of ZPD to criticize

the psychometric-based testing in Russian schools. The traditional

testing reflected only the current level of learners’ achievement,

rather than learner’s potential for development in future.

The zone of actual development(ZAD)does not sufficiently

describe development. Rather, it reflects what is already

developed or achieved. The level of assisted performance in ZPD

highlights the potential for emerging behavior and “tomorrow of

development” (Vygotsky, 1978). Cole & Cole (2001) point out that

the term proximal indicates that the assistance provided goes just

slightly beyond the learner’s current competence complementing and

building on their existing abilities. Yaroshevky (1989) indicates

that that the link between education and development is manifested

in Vygotsky's idea of ZPD.


49

Verenikina (2003) points out that to arrive at this position

Vygotsky had to overcome two types of reductionism - biological,

which is the normal maturing of the physical brain and

sociological, the appropriation by the learner of society's

cultural assets (language, etc) thrust upon it by adults (p.4). It

is within this latter area that Vygotsky placed his ZPD by arguing

that rather than having education dragging behind in sociological

development it must anticipate it - it must "run ahead as the adult

helps the learner to climb the next step"(Yaroshevsky, 1989,

p.277).

Vygotsky recognized that the distance between doing something

independently and with the help of another indicated stages of

development, which do not necessarily coincide in all people. In

this way he regarded an instructor’s "teaching of a student not

just as a source of information to be assimilated but as a lever

with which the student's thought, with its structural

characteristics, is shifted from level to level".(Yaroshevsky,

1989, p.283,cited in Verenikina, 2003, p.4)

Chaiklin (2003) believes that as a first step for

understanding how Vygotsky formulated the zone of proximal

development, it is important to remember that Vygotsky’s interest

is to develop a theoretical basis for appropriate pedagogical

interventions, including principles for possible instructional

grouping of learners and identification of specific interventions


50

for individual learners. Interventions must be based on diagnostic

procedures based on a learner’s current state of development.

Vygotsky (1998) indicates that “a true diagnosis must provide an

explanation, prediction, and scientific basis for practical

prescription” (p, 205). Chaiklin (2003) asserts that a solution to

the diagnostic problem is identical with having an explanatory

theory of psychological development. Vygotsky proposes that the

zone of proximal development as a diagnostic principle “allows us

to penetrate into the internal causal-dynamic and genetic

connections that determine the process itself of mental

development” (p. 203).

To understand Vygotsky’s initial proposal of ZPD, a

theoretical explanation of how ZPD operates to assess an individual

learner is needed .To make things clear, we have to consider

Vygotsky's notion of imitation, around which his analysis is

constructed. Chaiklin (2003) points out that a person’s ability to

imitate, as conceived by Vygotsky, is the basis for a zone of

proximal development. Imitation, as used here, is not a mindless

copying of actions (Vygotsky 1997, p. 95).

Rather, Vygotsky wants to break from a copying view, to give

a new meaning to imitation – reflecting a new theoretical position

– in which imitation presupposes some understanding of the

structural relations in a problem that is being solved

(Vygotsky1987, p. 210). Vygotsky holds that a learner is not able


51

to imitate anything ,“imitation is possible only to the extent and

in those forms in which it is accompanied by understanding”

(Vygotsky, 1997, p. 96). “It is well established that the child

can imitate only what lies within the zone of his intellectual

potential” (Vygotsky, 1987, p. 209) Vygotsky(1997)attempted to

avoid imitation misunderstandings, because he considered it as

“one of the basic paths of cultural development of the child” (p.

95). In Vygotsky’s texts the term imitation should be read with an

awareness that a special technical meaning is intended. We can now

consider how the concept of imitation provides a theoretical

justification for how to assess a learner’s zone of proximal

development. “The area of immature, but maturing processes makes

up the child’s zone of proximal development” (Vygotsky, 1998b, p.

202). For a given learner, these maturing functions are more or

less developed but unable to support independent performance.

Independent performance cannot provide evidence of what maturing

functions are present (Elkonin, 1998).

Lidz and Gindis (2003, p. 100) indicate that in Vygotskian

psychology, abilities are emergent and dynamic not innate and

stable that can be measured; rather, they are the result of an

individual’s history of social interactions in the world. We each

come to master our cognitive functions in unique ways through

participating in various activities, and through being mediated by

different cultural artifacts. Dynamic assessment (DA) attempts to


52

diagnose abilities that are fully matured as well as those that

are still in the process of maturing. Vygotsky (1998) argued that

traditional forms of assessment report on only fully matured

functions, the products of development, and consequently reveal

little about the process of their formation. Vygotsky advocated

the use of ZPD in contrast to psychometric-based assessments that

describe an individual’s abilities but do not explain them. For

Vygotsky, psychological assessments usually are merely

descriptive; they fail to illuminate developmental processes.

However, by making an individual’s ZPD the core of the assessment

procedure, “we gain the potential for directly studying that which

most precisely determines the level of mental maturation that must

be completed in the proximal or subsequent period of his age

development” (Vygotsky, 1984, p. 165, cited in Minick, 1987, p.

118).

Lantolf and Poehner (2004) describe the perspective of DA by

suggesting that dynamic procedures see the future as a bet in favor

of everyone. In DA, as called for in Vygotsky’s ZPD, assessment

and instruction are dialectically integrated as the means to move

toward an always emergent (i.e., dynamic) future. Bronnfenbrenner

(1977, p. 528) cites an excerpt from a conversation with A. N.

Leont’ev, an influential colleague of Vygotsky, in which he noted

that “American researchers are constantly seeking to discover how

the learner came to be what he is; we in the USSR are striving to


53

discover not how the learner came to be what he is, but how he can

become what he not yet is.”

2.8 Science Teaching and Learning

The previous discussions dealt with the theories of language

acquisition and the role of language in mediating learning in the

classroom. It focused on the relationship between language and

classroom interaction by stressing the importance of

comprehensible language input in the learning process. The logic

is that if the learner receives sufficient exposure to the TL and

comprehensible TL input, s/he can produce meaningful language

output. Conversely, insufficient exposure to the TL with

inadequate TL input, may lead to the production of poor or

meaningless output by the learner.

The term language of science is here utilized to denote the mode

of expression that is typical of the sciences. Its major

characteristics can be summarized as being rigorous and being

clear. The requirement of being rigorous responds to inherent

correctness and to communication correctness. The correctness

reference is provided by the characteristics of the object or

phenomenon that is being described, and also by the way or extent

to which we may know such characteristics; in other words, it

relates both to the characteristics of physical reality and to

important features of the scientific method (Lani, 2011).


54

The requirement of being clear responds to communication

effectiveness, and has being rigorous as its essential

prerequisite, as communication cannot be clear if it contains

imprecisions or errors (Ayson, 2001). These requirements are

complied with through accurate selection of individual words and

of the way of combining them to build clauses and sentences. It is

particularly important to recall the essential role of common words

in building meaningful statements in science communication (Edera,

1990).

Each science has its own terminology – the ensemble of names

denoting the objects and phenomena that it investigates. These

constitute the technical terms of the given science, but they

should not be confused with the language of science, which is a

complete mode of expression, conveying information. Within

information-conveying statements, technical terms are embedded in

a structure made of common words − the nouns, verbs, adjectives,

prepositions, logical connectives, etc. that constitute the

communication backbone ensuring the transmission of a meaning. For

instance, in the sentence (Lendon, 2018).

The presence of the solute lowers the chemical potential of

the solvent», the words in italics pertain to common language;

they are also the words that link the technical terms (solute,

chemical potential, solvent) building and conveying the desired

piece of information (Gorospe, 1997).


55

Thus, the roles of common words and sentence structures make

adequate language-mastering an essential condition to understand

and to express science:On reading or listening, it is necessary to

understand the meaning conveyed by a text or a discourse fully,

i.e., both the literal meaning and all the implications stemming

from it; On speaking or writing, it is necessary to select

individual words correctly and to associate them into sentences

conveying meanings that are consistent with the characteristics of

the object or phenomenon considered, as we know them. Both aspects

are fundamental in the teaching and learning process, as students

need to be able to fully understand the meaning of what they read

or listen to, and they need to be able to express their acquired

knowledge in a correct and understandable way, both for assessment

purposes (tests, exams, oral assessment options) and for their

future professional activities (Minden, 1992).

It may be important to attempt a deeper insight also into the

issue of domains, in view of the tendency to ascribe language as

pertaining only to the humanities domain and “having to do” only

with it (Lastimoso, 1993). The theory of language (grammar, syntax)

has been developed within the humanities domain, leading to

codifications which – although making allowance for the “living”

nature of language, as something in continuous change and evolution

– provide rules that ensure communication efficiency and

interpretation uniqueness (Avera, 1980).


56

By depending essentially on common language, the language of

science utilizes the same sets of rules in order to communicate

scientific and technological information. A major difference with

other uses of language (e.g., in novel or drama writing) is that

the uniqueness of interpretation (the fact that only one

interpretation of a given text is possible) is a necessity (a must)

in science communication. It is self-evident that, for instance,

only one interpretation must be possible in instructions on how to

build a bridge or a plant, but also in the statement of a law or

in the individual components of a model and in the way they link

to each other. This requirement actually increases the language-

mastering demands in science and technology communication (Amon,

Hughes, Jin, 2001). Currently spread circumstances show a

continuous decrease in the level and efficacy of language education

at pre-university level − a decrease in the intensity and depth

with which grammar and syntax are introduced to young people, a

decrease in the extent to which the importance of precision and

clarity are stressed, and, above all, a decrease in the attention

to the logical connections between the components of a complex

discourse (De Belen, 1990).

This enormously decreases the impact of language education

within its traditional areas (humanities related courses),

diminishing the amount and the quality of language-related

competencies that students acquire. Under such circumstances, it


57

becomes necessary that science and technology disciplines take up

the leadership in advocating the importance of language education

(Santiago, 2000).

For science and technology disciplines, ensuring an adequate

level of language mastering by the young generation is a question

of survival (it would be a question of survival also for humanities

disciplines, but their awareness of it appears less sharply defined

in the current transition stage, in which it is clear that language

mastering is declining at a fast rate, but not all the impacts on

other areas are yet clearly predicted or predictable) (Eleccion,

2004).

The minimal objectives that science and technology

disciplines need to pose can be summarized as follows: Ensuring

that the degree of language mastering remains above the level

needed to maintain the possibility of transmission of information

(Pagaduan, 2018). If the clarity and completeness of the

transmission of information is jeopardized, even existing

technological knowledge risks collapsing at implementation level;

Maintaining open pathways for the acquisition of the highly

sophisticated language-mastering levels that are necessary for the

development of creative thinking in science and in engineering.

This task is unprecedented as, since humanities and sciences split

some centuries ago, it had always been possible to rely on adequate

language-mastering levels by students entering universities, in


58

whichever field of studies (Baltero, 1993). It is the first time

that science and technology disciplines need to undertake language

education as a survival necessity. Besides their expected

immediate pedagogical value, the challenges inherent in this task

may, in the long run, lead to novel trends of reflection on the

relationships between knowledge and language (Garlejo, 1980).

2.9 Conceptualizing Teaching and Learning

Firstly, it is necessary to understand what “teaching”

entails before getting into “creative ways of teaching”. Broadly,

teaching can be defined as a part of a bigger whole that comprises

the teacher, the learner, the disciplinary content, the

teaching/learning process, and the evaluation of both the teacher

and the learner (National Research Council, 1997:2). Learning, on

the other hand, involves the acquisition of knowledge, skills,

values or attitudes that can be applied in different domains.

Learning, according to Guthrie (1991:156) distinguishes humans

from other primates because it enables humans to develop language

and tool making. Thus humans, unlike lower animals, are able to

communicate and express their thoughts, feelings and emotions

through language.

In the context of this research, the teaching and learning

process can be explained in terms of languages used to teach

science. Given the fact that teaching and learning are mutual or
59

interdependent processes, language plays a crucial role in

enhancing interaction or communication between the teacher and the

learners. In relation to the importance of language input in

teaching and learning (e.g. i + 1) and the complexity of science

language as explained in the preceding chapter, the language of

instruction becomes a crucial factor in determining the

effectiveness of the teaching-learning process. That is, if the

language used in the classroom is not comprehensible to learners,

learning may be adversely affected. In simple terms, if the

teachers use English (L2) to communicate scientific instructions

to learners who are not proficient in the language, it is likely

that learners may not understand the instructions, and that can

impact negatively on their creativity and imagination necessary

for making sense of what is learnt. Likewise, if teachers have

limited proficiency in English (i.e. limited input); it is possible

that they may not convey the correct information or instructions

to the learners. That may also lead to misunderstandings that can

hinder learners’ understanding of scientific concepts. In the

following section the researchers discuss scientific literacy as

a key aspect in science learning.

Traditionally the role of the teacher has been as a purveyor of

information: the teacher was the fount of all knowledge (Padilla,

1997). This suggests a picture of students sitting in rows in front

of the teacher who is talking and passing information to students


60

with the aid of a blackboard, while the students either listen

passively or, if the teacher is lucky, take their own notes. This,

of course, is not true anymore (Simon, 1998).

The modern teacher is a facilitator: a person who assists

students to learn for themselves (Webster, 1999). Instead of having

students sitting in rows, they are likely to be in groups, all

doing something different; some doing practical tasks, some

writing, some not even in the room but in another part of the

building using specialist equipment or looking up something in the

library (Gandez, 1992). All of the students might well be at

different stages in their learning and in consequence, the learning

is individualized to suit individual requirements and abilities

(Hughes, 2016). This change from the traditional model is the

result of a number of factors. First, it is recognized that adults,

unlike small children, have a wealth of experience and are able to

plan their learning quite efficiently (Ferido, 2011). Second, not

all individuals learn in the same manner, so that if a teacher

talks to students some might benefit, but others might not (Elaydo,

2010). Third, everyone learns at their own pace and not, of

necessity, at the pace set by the teacher. Hence, the

individualizing of learning has defined advantages. Research into

the ways that people learn has not provided teachers with any

specific answers (Yael, 2000). If it had, all teachers would be

using the same techniques. However, researchers have identified


61

that learning is generally more effective if it is based on

experiences; either direct experiences or experiences that have

been read about (Eleccion, 2013). Of the two types of experiences,

the former is more likely to be effective than the latter. Thus

concepts that are able to be practiced or seen are more likely to

be learning (Nivera, 1999). To apply this in a practical situation

in post-16 education and training, learning is more likely to be

effective when it is related to, and conducted in, the knowledge

of a student’s (work) experience (Alusen, 2000).

Language Literacy

Literacy is one of the key focuses in education today. The

2001 reauthorization of No Child Left Behind (NCLB) increased the

pressure on schools to improve all students' literacy. The federal

government passed No Child Left Behind to ensure that “all students

[are] achieve[ing] academic proficiency" which will, in turn,

"close the achievement gap" between typically successful and less

successful populations, such as students with disabilities and

English language learners (U.S. Department of Education, 2004).

One of the ways the government ensures that the achievement gap is

closing is through standardized testing for all students. These

test results, in conjunction with other factors, result in a

determination about whether or not a school is meeting Annual

Yearly Progress (AYP); if a school does not meet the required


62

growth in any one of the factors, it does not meet AYP (Braden &

Tayrose, 2008).

Colloquially, these tests are known as “high-stakes” tests

“because they have serious consequences for school, states, and

(in some states and schools) individual students and teachers”

(Braden & Tayrose, 2008, p. 576). If a school fails to produce the

necessary results two years in a row, corrective action must be

implemented (U.S. Department of Education, 2003). This corrective

action begins small, by starting a general “school plan” to improve

scores, and increases in intensity based on how many consecutive

years the necessary results have not been met (U.S. Department of

Education, 2003).

In the final stage, massive teacher turnover and “state

takeover” of the school are just two of the potential actions that

may result from inadequate progress (U.S. Department of Education,

2003). According to the National Center for Education Statistics,

English language learners are enrolling in U.S. schools at the

fastest rate of any group (Cited in Echevarria, Richards-Tutor,

Chinn, & Ratleff, 2011); in 2004, when new No Child Left Behind

policies were released, there were 5.5 million English language

learners in U.S. schools (U.S. Department of Education, 2004). Not

only are we seeing more English language learners in our schools,

but we are also seeing a widening of the same achievement gap that
63

NCLB sought to close (Snow & Biancarosa, cited in Vanderwood &

Nam, 2008).

In 2003, one study found that three out of every four third

grade English language learners were below average in their ability

to read in English (Zehler et al., Cited in Vanderwood & Nam,

2008). Because of the increasing prevalence of English language

learners in schools and the demonstrated need to increase their

literacy, more focus must be brought to these students and how

educators can most effectively teach them. This focus should be

based in research-supported interventions that include skills that

are generalizable across the nation to students of different ages,

races, and linguistic backgrounds.

Without a generalizable pool of interventions and skills,

individual schools and districts will not be able to draw on this

information to help their students who are English language

learners perform at the level of proficiency. Beyond statewide

testing such as No Child Left Behind, it is important for English

language learners to become literate so they can have a chance at

a good future. However, “for too many English language learners,

graduation from elementary, let alone high school, remains but a

dream” (Koelsch, 2006, p. 2). In fact, one study found that about

thirty percent of English language learners in U.S. schools do not

graduate, compared to about ten percent of native English speaking

students (Short & Fitzsimmons, cited in Giouroukakis & Honigsfeld,


64

2010). Most people would agree that school is an important stepping

stone for future success.

However, English language learners do disproportionately poor

in school (McCardle, Mele-McCarthy, Cutting, Leos, & D'Emilio,

cited in Echevarria, Richards-Tutor, Chinn, & Ratleff, 2011), in

particular on tests of literacy (NAEP; Short & Fitzsimmons, cited

in Echevarria, Richards-Tutor, Chinn, & Ratleff, 2011). Although

school performance is not the only important area that literacy

impacts, literacy can be the most important factor in school

performance when a student struggles with English.

Lewis-Moreno noted that students not only need literacy

skills to show that they understand concepts in subject-specific

school courses, but they also need literacy for everyday social

interactions (2007). Literacy is not only a key to school success,

because most learning is generally done through the lens of

language, but it is also a key to success at home and in community

activities. Simple daily tasks such as making a grocery list or

reading the instructions on a washing machine require basic

literacy skills. One step school personnel and teachers can take

to help these students achieve their tasks of daily life is to

ensure a basic level of literacy. This way, once students grow up

and leave school, they will be able to help themselves in novel

situations, such as applying for a job online.


65

As anyone who has studied a foreign language can attest to,

even simple tasks can be extremely difficult in a foreign language.

Social language takes around two years and academic language takes

five to seven years to develop to a comparable level as native

English speaking peers (Cummins, 2008). Thomas and Coller found

that it takes nearly a decade for English language learners to be

able to perform at the same level as their peers in school (cited

in LewisMoreno 2007). That means that, if a student entered the

United States when he or she was in second grade, it could take

him or her through grade 3 to be as academically proficient as a

native English speaker.

This data shows that schools cannot expect an English language

learner to be proficient in English after only three years, the

time limit that No Child Left Behind regulations place on the

option of English language learners to take the language arts tests

in their native language (Office of Elementary and Secondary

Education, 2007). It is therefore important for schools to focus

on research-based interventions that have been shown to be

effective at teaching literacy skills to English language

learners. Without such interventions, it is very possible that

English language learners may not gain the necessary skills and

either drop out of school, barely pass their classes, or receive

passing grades from teachers due to their low expectations of the

English language learners.


66

In fact, Lewis-Moreno (2007) argued that teachers' lowered

standards for English language learners is one of the major reasons

why we have so many English language learners who have been in

U.S. schools for many years (It is important to note that the term

‘English language learners’ is only used to discuss those people

who are not yet proficient in the English language; 2007). Schools

must have higher expectations of what the students are capable of

and must give the students time to develop skills as well as give

continued support throughout their education, even when progress

has been made.

The combination of these factors should produce students who

are literate and proficient in the English language. Lewis-Moreno

stressed the element of time, noting that learning a language takes

practice, "constructive feedback," and opportunities to change

mistakes in the future (2007, p. 773). This process of action,

feedback, and change will take considerable time, but if

implemented correctly, will lead to improved results (i.e.

improved literacy and English ability). It is difficult to learn

a foreign language. Although some people seem to learn faster than

others, it still requires a considerable amount of time and effort.

Even in young children, developing proficiency in a foreign

language takes a considerable amount of direct instruction time

(McLaughlin, 1992, cited in Vanderwood & Nam, 2008).


67

Many studies have shown that the younger a child is when they

begin learning a foreign language the better their spoken language,

grammar skills, and pronunciation are in that language (Dixon et

al., 2012). Flege and MacKay determined that English language

learners who did not use their native language frequently were

more likely to have almost native pronunciation and sound

discrimination abilities (cited in Dixon et al., 2012).

Because this process takes time and because coursework

becomes increasingly complicated as students get older, gaining

literacy skills can be an especially significant problem for

elementary pupils. Presumably, these are the students for whom

gaining literacy competence is the most challenging; therefore,

this research will focus on gaining literacy at the elementary

level specifically at grade 3. The roles of various school

personnel and their collaboration will also be addressed, as well

as the role specialized training for the educators and how these

elements impact English language learners' literacy. Lately, there

has been a strong push through the National Association of School

Psychologists (NASP) towards multicultural competence. One of the

goals put forth in 2007 was to “enhance the association’s

responsiveness, through a focus on behavior, attitudes, and

policy, to populations whose diversity may be expressed in terms

of race, ethnicity, gender and gender expression, sexual


68

orientation, socioeconomic status, ability, religion, and/or

language” (National Association of School Psychologists, 2007).

This essentially means that is a school psychologist's

ethical duty to advocate for and be able to work with diverse

populations, including English language learners. This, in turn,

ensures NASP's vision to “ensure that all children and youth attain

optimal learning and mental health” (National Association of

School Psychologists, 2007).

2.10 Literacy

Before discussing scientific literacy, the researchers deem

it necessary to give a brief description of the term “literacy” as

it applies to human lives. Literacy is a basic human right, despite

the fact that many African populations, including children and

adults lack adequate literacy skills as a result of different

social pressures in their communities. According to the 114 UNESCO

Education For All (EFA) Report (2006), the regions with the lowest

literacy rates (around 60%) are sub-Saharan Africa, South and West

Asia and the Arab States. Illiteracy is associated with poverty

Developing literacy in any society has implications for the

language(s) used in the education system. For example, if the

education system makes use of language(s) that are not well known

by the majority of people, literacy development may occur at a

slower pace than when conducted in the language(s) of the majority.


69

Regarding languages used in education, this chapter has shown that

the language(s) which are used in different parts of Globe for

economic and social mobility are usually English and other colonial

languages including French, Portuguese, Dutch, and others.

Unfortunately, these foreign languages have become measures of

literacy in the African continent, as a result of colonialism and

globalization. Consequently, many African people become

marginalized in social and economic development in their countries

as they lack proficiency and literacy in these (foreign) languages.

In the present global world of science and technology, African

countries take it for granted that if one lacks literacy skills

either in English or French (or any of the colonial languages), it

may be difficult to access scientific and technological knowledge

necessary for socio-economic development. Interestingly, developed

countries such as China and Japan do well technologically through

their languages.

Literacy is one of the key focuses in education today. The 2001

reauthorization of No Child Left Behind (NCLB) increased the

pressure on schools to improve all students' literacy. The federal

government passed No Child Left Behind to ensure that “all students

[are] achieve[ing] academic proficiency" which will, in turn,

"close the achievement gap" between typically successful and less

successful populations, such as students with disabilities and

English language learners (U.S. Department of Education, 2004).


70

One of the ways the government ensures that the achievement gap is

closing is through standardized testing for all students. These

test results, in conjunction with other factors, result in a

determination about whether or not a school is meeting Annual

Yearly Progress (AYP); if a school does not meet the required

growth in any one of the factors, it does not meet AYP (Braden &

Tayrose, 2008).

Colloquially, these tests are known as “high-stakes” tests

“because they have serious consequences for school, states, and

(in some states and schools) individual students and teachers”

(Braden & Tayrose, 2008, p. 576). If a school fails to produce the

necessary results two years in a row, corrective action must be

implemented (U.S. Department of Education, 2003). This corrective

action begins small, by starting a general “school plan” to improve

scores, and increases in intensity based on how many consecutive

years the necessary results have not been met (U.S. Department of

Education, 2003).

In the final stage, massive teacher turnover and “state

takeover” of the school are just two of the potential actions that

may result from inadequate progress (U.S. Department of Education,

2003). According to the National Center for Education Statistics,

English language learners are enrolling in U.S. schools at the

fastest rate of any group (Cited in Echevarria, Richards-Tutor,

Chinn, & Ratleff, 2011); in 2004, when new No Child Left Behind
71

policies were released, there were 5.5 million English language

learners in U.S. schools (U.S. Department of Education, 2004). Not

only are we seeing more English language learners in our schools,

but we are also seeing a widening of the same achievement gap that

NCLB sought to close (Snow & Biancarosa, cited in Vanderwood &

Nam, 2008).

In 2003, one study found that three out of every four third

grade English language learners were below average in their ability

to read in English (Zehler et al., Cited in Vanderwood & Nam,

2008). Because of the increasing prevalence of English language

learners in schools and the demonstrated need to increase their

literacy, more focus must be brought to these students and how

educators can most effectively teach them. This focus should be

based in research-supported interventions that include skills that

are generalizable across the nation to students of different ages,

races, and linguistic backgrounds.

Without a generalizable pool of interventions and skills,

individual schools and districts will not be able to draw on this

information to help their students who are English language

learners perform at the level of proficiency. Beyond statewide

testing such as No Child Left Behind, it is important for English

language learners to become literate so they can have a chance at

a good future. However, “for too many English language learners,

graduation from elementary, let alone high school, remains but a


72

dream” (Koelsch, 2006, p. 2). In fact, one study found that about

thirty percent of English language learners in U.S. schools do not

graduate, compared to about ten percent of native English speaking

students (Short & Fitzsimmons, cited in Giouroukakis & Honigsfeld,

2010). Most people would agree that school is an important stepping

stone for future success.

However, English language learners do disproportionately poor

in school (McCardle, Mele-McCarthy, Cutting, Leos, & D'Emilio,

cited in Echevarria, Richards-Tutor, Chinn, & Ratleff, 2011), in

particular on tests of literacy (NAEP; Short & Fitzsimmons, cited

in Echevarria, Richards-Tutor, Chinn, & Ratleff, 2011). Although

school performance is not the only important area that literacy

impacts, literacy can be the most important factor in school

performance when a student struggles with English.

Lewis-Moreno noted that students not only need literacy

skills to show that they understand concepts in subject-specific

school courses, but they also need literacy for everyday social

interactions (2007). Literacy is not only a key to school success,

because most learning is generally done through the lens of

language, but it is also a key to success at home and in community

activities. Simple daily tasks such as making a grocery list or

reading the instructions on a washing machine require basic

literacy skills. One step school personnel and teachers can take

to help these students achieve their tasks of daily life is to


73

ensure a basic level of literacy. This way, once students grow up

and leave school, they will be able to help themselves in novel

situations, such as applying for a job online.

As anyone who has studied a foreign language can attest to,

even simple tasks can be extremely difficult in a foreign language.

Social language takes around two years and academic language takes

five to seven years to develop to a comparable level as native

English speaking peers (Cummins, 2008). Thomas and Coller found

that it takes nearly a decade for English language learners to be

able to perform at the same level as their peers in school (cited

in LewisMoreno 2007). That means that, if a student entered the

United States when he or she was in second grade, it could take

him or her through grade 3 to be as academically proficient as a

native English speaker.

This data shows that schools cannot expect an English language

learner to be proficient in English after only three years, the

time limit that No Child Left Behind regulations place on the

option of English language learners to take the language arts tests

in their native language (Office of Elementary and Secondary

Education, 2007). It is therefore important for schools to focus

on research-based interventions that have been shown to be

effective at teaching literacy skills to English language

learners. Without such interventions, it is very possible that

English language learners may not gain the necessary skills and
74

either drop out of school, barely pass their classes, or receive

passing grades from teachers due to their low expectations of the

English language learners.

In fact, Lewis-Moreno (2007) argued that teachers' lowered

standards for English language learners is one of the major reasons

why we have so many English language learners who have been in

U.S. schools for many years (It is important to note that the term

‘English language learners’ is only used to discuss those people

who are not yet proficient in the English language; 2007). Schools

must have higher expectations of what the students are capable of

and must give the students time to develop skills as well as give

continued support throughout their education, even when progress

has been made.

The combination of these factors should produce students who

are literate and proficient in the English language. Lewis-Moreno

stressed the element of time, noting that learning a language takes

practice, "constructive feedback," and opportunities to change

mistakes in the future (2007, p. 773). This process of action,

feedback, and change will take considerable time, but if

implemented correctly, will lead to improved results (i.e.

improved literacy and English ability). It is difficult to learn

a foreign language. Although some people seem to learn faster than

others, it still requires a considerable amount of time and effort.

Even in young children, developing proficiency in a foreign


75

language takes a considerable amount of direct instruction time

(McLaughlin, 1992, cited in Vanderwood & Nam, 2008).

Many studies have shown that the younger a child is when they

begin learning a foreign language the better their spoken language,

grammar skills, and pronunciation are in that language (Dixon et

al., 2012). Flege and MacKay determined that English language

learners who did not use their native language frequently were

more likely to have almost native pronunciation and sound

discrimination abilities (cited in Dixon et al., 2012).

Because this process takes time and because coursework

becomes increasingly complicated as students get older, gaining

literacy skills can be an especially significant problem for

elementary pupils. Presumably, these are the students for whom

gaining literacy competence is the most challenging; therefore,

this research will focus on gaining literacy at the elementary

level. The roles of various school personnel and their

collaboration will also be addressed, as well as the role

specialized training for the educators and how these elements

impact English language learners' literacy. Lately, there has been

a strong push through the National Association of School

Psychologists (NASP) towards multicultural competence. One of the

goals put forth in 2007 was to “enhance the association’s

responsiveness, through a focus on behavior, attitudes, and

policy, to populations whose diversity may be expressed in terms


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of race, ethnicity, gender and gender expression, sexual

orientation, socioeconomic status, ability, religion, and/or

language” (National Association of School Psychologists, 2007).

This essentially means that is a school psychologist's

ethical duty to advocate for and be able to work with diverse

populations, including English language learners. This, in turn,

ensures NASP's vision to “ensure that all children and youth attain

optimal learning and mental health” (National Association of

School Psychologists, 2007).

2.11 Scientific literacy

In relation to the description of literacy given above, Harlen

and Qualter (2004:61) define scientific literacy as the overall

aim of learning science which indicates competence in science.

They refer to scientific literacy as a level of competence in

understanding and using knowledge of science that is needed to be

a functional and effective member of the society. In the South

African education context which is guided by the RNCS (2002), the

three Learning Outcomes of the Natural Sciences Learning Area aim

at developing scientific literacy through scientific

investigations (that develop the learner’s process 117 skills),

science knowledge construction (when learners show their

understanding by developing and applying science knowledge) and

appreciation of the natural environment (when learners develop an


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appreciation of the relationships between science, society and the

environment) (Langenhoven, 2005:283; RNCS, 2002). In simple terms,

scientific literacy refers to the development and use of process

skills and competence to apply science knowledge in different

situations. Such competence should mirror the learners’

understanding of the natural world (i.e. the relationship between

science, society and the environment).

According to Harlen&Qualter (2004:64) scientific literacy has

four components: concepts or ideas, processes (process skills),

attitudes and understanding the nature of scientific knowledge.

Firstly, the concepts enable the learners to understand and make

sense of new experiences by linking them to their prior knowledge,

while the processes that include mental and physical skills are

used to obtain and interpret information for better understanding.

As defined in the RNCS (2002:13) document, process skills refer to

the learner’s cognitive activity of creating meaning from new

information and experiences. The learners’ process skills can be

stimulated through tasks that require learners to make

observations, measure, record information, classify, interpret,

predict, conduct investigations, and many others (RNCS, 2002: 13

– 14). Lastly, attitudes or dispositions determine the learner’s

willingness and confidence in learning, and all these components

assist the learner to gain a better understanding of science and

its limitations (Harlen&Qualter, 2004:64).


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From the foregoing discussion, it can be deduced that literacy

has to do with education and development. Scientific literacy, in

particular, depends on language competence to make meaning of

scientific concepts. Actually, Einstein (2002:6) claims that

science and language are interdependent.

This implies that for learners to make meaning and apply what

they have learnt, they should have understood the language used to

communicate science knowledge. Also, to conduct scientific

investigations and communicate their findings effectively, they

should have a good proficiency level in the language of

communication. The stronger a learner’s literacy skills, the

stronger the learner’s grasp of science will be (Einstein, 2002:4).

Scientific literacy has received attention over the years,

but there is virtually no consensus on its definition (Salamon,

2007). Good, Hafner and Pebbles (2000) indicated that one possible

explanation for this is that the meaning of scientific literacy is

continuously being redefined as science is constantly evolving and

making progress in understanding the natural world. Lending

credence to lack of consensus in the definition of scientific

literacy, Laugksch (2000, p.71) submitted that since the first use

of ‘scientific literacy’ in the late 1950s, science educators and

policy makers have gradually reconceptualized the term to such an

extent that one author remarked relatively recently that

“scientific literacy is an ill-defined and diffuse concept”.


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He further reiterated that the controversies could be as a

result of numerous distinct factors that can shape interpretations

of the concept. These include the ‘number of different interest

groups that are concerned with scientific literacy, different

conceptual definitions of the term, the relative and absolute

nature of scientific literacy as a concept, different purposes for

advocating scientific literacy, and different ways of measuring it

(pp. 73 – 74). It is, however, noteworthy that in spite of the

differences in definitions, one thing that everyone agrees upon is

that scientific literacy is important.

In the words of DeBoer (2000), the term scientific literacy

has defied precise definition since it was introduced in the late

1950s, although it is widely claimed to be a desired outcome of

science education. According to Miller (2007), one of the few

issues that leaders of the European Union and the United States

agree on without reservation is that scientific literacy is a good

thing and that having more of it would benefit the respective

societies. Moreover, Miller stated that in Europe and the United

States, educational leaders and institutions focus substantial

resources and organizational energy on the promotion of scientific

literacy in student populations, sharing an assumption that the

successful teaching of science and mathematics in the classroom

will prepare students to function as scientifically literate

citizens for the rest of their lives.


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Perhaps, this led McPhearson, Gill, Pollack and Stable (2008)

to conclude that scientific literacy is a necessary element of

education in our modern science and technology driven society and

that it is crucial to teach science to all citizens, not only for

those who actively engage in careers in science

2.12 Natural Sciences Learning Area

The Natural Sciences Learning Area aims at promoting

scientific literacy. It involves the development of process skills

that may be used in everyday life in different settings. It also

deals with the development and application of scientific knowledge

that enables one to appreciate the relationship between science,

society and the environment (RNCS, 2002:4).

The Natural Sciences Learning Area seeks to develop the

learners’ ability to use scientific knowledge by conducting

scientific investigations and activities that will lead to science

knowledge construction, and by understanding the interrelationship

between science and technology, society and the environment (RNCS,

2002:6). That is, all teaching and learning in the Natural Sciences

Learning Area should be guided by these outcomes: 1) scientific

investigations, 2) construction of science knowledge, and 3)

understanding the relationship between science, society and the

environment.
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The scope of this research is primary school science, particularly

the Intermediate Phase (Grades 4 – 6) as for Transition Years. The

following section unpacks the concept of “science” in order to

reveal its origin and how it is depicted in the Natural Sciences

Learning Area. As Lawrence Fraley describes in his “About

Behaviorology” article (Fraley, 2000a [In this issue.—Ed.]), today

one encounters behaviorology and other disciplines, such as

psychology, dealing with topics that at first blush seem to be

similar. This leads some to assume that these topics are treated

in similar ways. But behaviorologists define the topics

differently, and treat them in ways that are radically different

from the treatments of other disciplines (Brendon, 2011).

The concern here is to differentiate behaviorology from other

disciplines like psychology, and the definition of natural science

is crucial to this distinction. Among disciplines, one particular

difference will be emphasized here, because it would seem to have

more impact for society than any others (see Fraley & Ledoux,

2002). This difference, a difference critical to the definition of

natural science, pertains to whether or not a discipline invokes

non–natural events in its explanations. How are natural sciences

defined? Fundamentally, natural sciences are defined as

disciplines that deal only with natural events (i.e., independent

and dependent variables in nature) using scientific methods. These


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disciplines always exclude non–natural events from their

considerations. Other definitions are extant (Shamah, 2001).

However, none of them—compared with this definition—so

accurately reflects the observed line of fracture dividing natural

science disciplines from other disciplines. Since so much

confusion stems from the distinction between natural and social

sciences, that distinction will receive the attention in this

discussion (Florentio, 2011). One common misconception involves

the use of scientific methods. Status as a natural or social

science is not determined solely by a discipline’s use of

scientific methods. All natural science and social science

disciplines use scientific methods (Miranda, 1999).

However only some of these disciplines invoke the exclusion

of non–natural events from their considerations; those that do so

have historically (and contemporarily) earned the title “natural

science.” Even “creation science” may make use of scientific

methods, but it does so while making non–natural events—the will

of a mystical, faith–based being whom creation scientists consider

supreme—the centerpiece of its considerations; thus it is not, and

cannot be, a natural science (Valdez, 1998).

Historically, the natural sciences arose out of mystical

origins. In western civilization the practice of early natural

science involved studies undertaken mainly to unravel the


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mysteries of the creative powers of the investigators’ God. Those

early investigators focused on various facets of “nature” and, in

doing so, developed what came to be known as scientific methods

(Jamar, 2004). The phrase natural science initially referred to

the various subject matters to which such attentions were being

directed. Of particular significance here is that most of these

subject matters were aspects of the extrinsic environment in which

the social activity of humanity was conducted; they were not

aspects of how that environment controlled behavioral reactions to

it, a topic which inheres in the subject matter of behaviorology

(Manriza, 2005).

As the natural scientists continued to pursue their work,

however, the phrase natural science came to connote their emerging

philosophy of naturalism—the consideration, with scientific

methods, of only natural events (i.e., only independent and

dependent variables in nature). Thus the phrase natural science

became divorced from the original body of subject matters upon

which its early investigations were focused. It came to represent

an integral philosophy, naturalism (see Fraley, 1999). Today, the

connotation of the phrase natural science transcends subject

matter limitations; that phrase no longer implies what is studied.

Any subject matter can be approached in different ways, including

mystically or naturalistically (Jean, 2007).


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A subject matter may be approached in the way that allows

non–natural events in its considerations, which would be a “non–

naturalistic,” or mystical, approach. Or it may be approached in

the way that disallows non–natural events in its consideration,

which would be a “naturalistic” approach. In both cases different

terms are used to name the resulting disciplines. But only those

disciplines maintaining the naturalistic approach (and using

scientific methods, though this need not always be mentioned) would

be considered natural sciences (Cons Inc. 2001).

For example, the most common mystically based search for water

is called dowsing while the naturalistically based search for water

is called hydrology. The subject matters may appear similar yet,

of the two, only hydrology is a natural science. Adhering to a

naturalistic perspective confers the status of a natural science

on a discipline while adhering to a non–naturalistic perspective

does not. The phrase natural science applies to any subject matter

based on the philosophy of naturalism; it applies to any subject

matter that studies only natural events (independent and dependent

variables in nature) using scientific methods. Behaviorology, for

example, is a strictly natural science because it applies

scientific methods to study only the natural events of behavior

and its independent variables (Indapo, 1995).

Thus, status as a natural or social science is also not

determined by the subject matter that is under investigation. One


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traditional notion is that “social science” refers to disciplines

dealing with people issues. This is a serviceable definition that

is not in conflict with the description of natural sciences as

disciplines that exclude non–natural events (Hugh, 2011).

Accordingly, some disciplines may qualify under both of these

definitions. They might then be considered both a natural science

and a social science (Orpilla, 2004). For example, the sub area of

biology (an historically acknowledged natural science) called

epidemiology deals extensively with people issues, and often is

considered to be a social science; yet it never sacrifices its

exclusion of non–natural events and so remains a natural science

(Nepz, 2001).

Meanwhile, another sub area of biology, medicine, also deals

extensively with people issues. Yet medicine is seldom considered

to be a social science; while not nearly as exact as the biology

and chemistry from which it comes, it does not maintain explanatory

reliance on non–natural events and so is considered to be among

the natural sciences. Status as a natural or social science is

also not determined by membership in any organizational or

institutional arrangement of disciplines. One example is the

differing arrangements of disciplines listed in elementary

catalogs. These placements of disciplines typically reflect the

common understanding of what makes a discipline a natural or a

social science (Brend, 2013).


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Institutions differ in their views both on which disciplines

have ended explanatory reliance on non–natural events (“the

natural sciences” such as physics, epidemiology, geology, etc.),

and on where to put disciplines that deal with people issues (“the

social sciences” such as anthropology, epidemiology, sociology,

etc.). Confusion occurs because some natural sciences are also

social sciences, because they deal in people issues, and so could

be listed with the social sciences as well. Behaviorology is an

example. More confusion occurs because some social sciences are

also natural sciences, because they maintain the exclusion of non–

natural events while using scientific methods, and so could be

listed with the natural sciences as well. (As an additional source

of confusion, some disciplines receive the “social science” label

mainly because they allow non–natural events in their

considerations— with the questions of whether or not they deal

with people issues, or use scientific methods, being secondary.)

All those considerations apply to the original concern of

differentiating behaviorology and psychology. At the most

fundamental level, behaviorology—as a discipline—disallows the

inclusion of non–natural events in its considerations and, by that

approach to its subject matter, joins the ranks of the natural

sciences. However, as a discipline, psychology allows non–natural

events in its considerations (although individual psychologists

may refuse to do so).


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Calling behaviorology a natural science, however, causes

discomfort for some people, because classifying behaviorology as

a natural science is not in keeping with common though misplaced

perceptions of what constitutes natural sciences

2.13 Science as a subject

According to the RNCS (2002:4), what today is known as science

originated from African, Arabic, Asian, American and European

culture, hence it has become part of the cultural heritage of all

nations. The word “science”, in particular, originated from a Latin

word “scientia” which means knowledge (Martin, Jr., Sexton,

Wagner, Gerlovich, 1994:5). There are two views underlying the

learning of science: historical and modern views. The RNCS

(2002:11) refers to the historical view as traditional and

indigenous knowledge systems (IKS), while the modern view is

referred to as science and technology. The historical or

traditional view perceives science as a means to satisfy the needs

of the mind, (and not those of the body) in order to gain useful

and practical knowledge (RNCS, 2002). This view implies that humans

are always curious to learn new things and skills needed to acquire

useful knowledge.

At the end of the science learning process the learner is

expected to be able to produce information by applying it in new

situations. Science products include facts, concepts, principles


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and theories. In other words, by making use of both basic and

integrated skills the learners are able to verify information

through observations and measurements to produce facts. To produce

concepts, the learner needs to be able to make generalizations

based on facts and other experiences. The end products of school

science depend on effective teaching and learning which, in turn

are influenced by a number of factors such as teaching and learning

strategies; medium of instruction; and other factors linked to

cognitive development (Fairbrother, 2000).

Science is a method of understanding how things work. It is

important because we need science in order for things to work and

to develop new technology that is used in everyday life. Science

is the study of how the universe works (Synthia, 2011)

Science is a systematic process used to discover how the

universe works and what it is made of. Science relies on testing

ideas with evidence gained from the natural and physical world.

Scientific explanations are accepted as reliable only when they

have been subjected to rigorous testing (Flores, 1990)

Scientific knowledge is dynamic and evolves over time Scientific

knowledge builds on previous ideas and innovations and is

continually being updated and expanded as new evidence comes to

hand. This means that our understanding of the universe has changed

over time and will continue to change. Science is a collaborative


89

activity (Dimash, 2011). Scientists interact with each other and

with the wider world and as they try to validate new explanations.

Science explanations are inextricably linked to culture, politics,

and economics because scientists are part of communities and

cultures that view the world in different ways (Vendia, 1996).

Science is both logical and creative. Scientific

investigation makes use of multiple approaches, creative as well

as logical (Dolor, 2011). Creative scientists “think outside the

box”, shift perspective as they view problems, and examine

different views of the same problem (Alivio, 1990). Through

inspiration, careful observation, and critical thinking,

scientists discover, invent, adapt, combine, and apply ideas

(Fritzer, 1996). Knowledge gained from scientific research finds

its way into countless practical applications/technologies that

benefit humankind (Zschech, 1990).

Science affects the world in many different ways. With the

technologies that have been discovered we can now tell how warm or

cold it will be for the next week, we will know when a tornado,

hurricane, eruption or any other sorts of natural disasters will

occur before they actually happen. This also helps out all

communities (Jonew, 2013). Everyone benefits from science because

almost everything has something to do with or involves science. In

the future, technology will be even more updated. Phones,

televisions, personal stereos, computers etc., will keep getting


90

smaller and smaller and more useful. Science will definitely make

things a lot easier in the future (Andalla, 2000). Science is

everywhere; you always see it in everyday life. Like when you get

a ride to school from your parents, watch TV, talk on the phone,

and listen to music, that’s using science. When you pass buildings

science was used to build them (Endilla, 2011).

2. 14 The Role of Language in Science Teaching and Learning

Language, as a means of communication, plays a significant

role in all teaching and learning. The teaching-learning process

involves interaction between the teacher and the learner that

occurs through the use of language in many instances. One of the

critical outcomes of Outcomes-Based-Education has to do with

communication. This outcome 125 aims at producing learners with

the ability to: “communicate effectively using visual, symbolic

and/or language skills in various modes.”

In the classroom context, the language used as a medium of

instruction becomes a matter of concern. Owing to the fact that

science is taught through the medium of English, (besides the fact

that it has a specialized language), one may argue that it is

unlikely that learners can be able to communicate their

understanding of science discourse effectively in English,

especially if they have limited exposure to it. Also, it may be

difficult for learners to understand and make meaningful


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interpretations of visual images used in science discourse if they

are not competent in the language of instruction.

Science at school level is largely viewed as a practical subject

– one that is taught using experiments, for instance. But effective

teaching and learning requires language, whether it’s written in

textbooks or shared orally during classroom discussions (Valencia,

2011). Language is necessary even while doing practical work:

teachers must explain what they are doing and students need to ask

questions (Legazpi, 2000). Research involving a wide range of

educators in a number of countries has consistently found that

teachers do most of the talking in classrooms (Batin, 2000).

Language plays a crucial role in the formation and development of

concepts. This suggests that a teacher’s language is vital in

teaching science and creating the condition for meaningful

learning.

In South Africa and other countries where many pupils do not

learn in their home language, curriculum designers have judged the

appropriateness of the language in which science is taught by

considering whether it is the learners’ mother tongue or not

(Ember, 2010). Students learning in their mother tongue are

generally thought to have an advantage over their counterparts who

are being taught in a second or third language (American Journals,

2011).
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The general assumption among teachers is that all learning

follows through smoothly once learners have attained some

proficiency in the language of learning and teaching (Pinku, 1995).

But not everyone who is proficient in the language of teaching and

learning – for instance, English – excels in science (Din, 1990).

The words that comprise the science classroom language fall

into two broad components: the technical and non-technical. The

former comprises technical words which are specific to a science

subject or discipline: photosynthesis, respiration and genes in

biology; momentum, capacitance and voltage in physics; atoms,

elements and cations in chemistry. When used as science terms,

every day words attain new meanings. They become science words

(Foota, 2000).

The non-technical component is made up of non-technical words

and defines or gives identity to the particular language of

learning and teaching in a classroom or the language of a science

text (Hughes, 2013). Some of these non-technical words give

identity to certain science subjects where they are used to embody

a particular concept important to a process of learning in the

specific science subjects: “reaction” in chemistry, “diversity” in

biology and “disintegrate” in physics (Gamas, 2010).

Some non-technical words like “if” and “therefore” serve as

links between sentences or between a concept and a proposition.


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Some words like “define” and “explain” are used in place of “say”,

while non-technical words like “calculate” and “predict” are used

in place of “think” (Levi, 2010).

Science is considered a difficult school subject. This is

partly because pupils find science words tough or unfamiliar. They

are also confused when a word that means one thing in everyday

language means something different in science (Edeleon, 2011).

“Resistance”, for instance, means something totally different in

everyday language and in physics. They will also be puzzled when

a non-technical word seems to have acquired a meaning specific to

the context of a particular science subject. “Disintegrate” when

used in physics does not refer to something “breaking into lots of

very small pieces” (Gorospe, 2010). Even children who speak English

as their first language and are learning science in English

struggle because of these differences (Bizmind, 2017).

A review of relevant research shows that students struggle

with the language of the science classroom because of these

differences whether they are learning in their home language or

not. Boys and girls struggle equally. Pupils battle irrespective

of their individual cultural backgrounds. This transformation of

everyday words’ meanings when used in the science context is one

reason that even learners who speak the language of learning and
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teaching fluently sometimes struggle to tell the meanings of

everyday words when used in science.

2.15 Home Language as a Medium of Instruction in Science

With regard to development in science, Soepadmo (1981:278)

claims that the developed countries have made better progress than

developing countries because they use their national languages as

media of instruction and scientific communication. Hence they are

able to invent new ideas and introduce new scientific theories. On

the other hand, the 128 developing countries are faced with

problems of scientific terminology and cultural changes because

their local languages are not used as vehicles for the expression

of science (Suhaimi, 1981:272).

According to Nababan (1981:18) the child’s home language lays

the foundation of a person’s world-view and perception. With regard

to mother tongue education in science, O-saki (2005:11) mentions

his personal experience of learning science through the medium of

his home language in the lower grades, although he had to shift to

English from Grade 5. What is interesting about his experience is

the fact that as he interacted with his grandparents and the

environment, he could gather a rich bank of scientific vocabulary

and (cooking) skills that still made sense to him later in his

life (e.g. 13 varieties for the English word “banana tree”).

Although such indigenous knowledge is usually labeled as being


95

primitive in the classroom, O-saki’s experience and his prosperity

in life, within the science field in particular, may be an

indication that indigenous knowledge that the learners bring to

the classroom can form a basis for understanding modern science.

In the context of this study, the experimental group learners

were provided with science materials in their mother tongue

(isiXhosa), but other challenges such as the lack of science

laboratories could not be addressed as part of this study.

Therefore, the contribution of this study towards the complex issue

of isiXhosa as a medium of 131 instruction in science occurred on

a very small scale considering other challenges which relate to

the teaching of science in general. All these factors have a

negative impact on the development of African languages as

languages of learning and teaching, especially in science. Guided

by the research question(s) and objectives underpinning this

study, only some of the challenges are addressed.

Teachers experienced the gatekeeping methods of language not only

in learning science and in achieving professional honors in

teaching science, but also in not possessing the home language of

their students in science classrooms for teaching. In Mrs. Nelson’s

science classes, limited language skills were barriers for her and

her Hispanic students (Arida, 2010).

The use of language in her classroom revealed interesting

dynamics related to the culture of power of language along with


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race–ethnicity, class, and gender. Language opens up the everyday

lived experiences and daily teaching practices of three African

American science teachers (Villapondo, 2000).

Specifically, there is a language of prejudice for learning

science, a language of writing for professional development in

science, and languages of non-possession that challenge teaching

and learning for teachers and English language learners in science

classrooms (Gadia, 2011). True to form in post-structural

critiques of language, language provides a vehicle that reveals

the power relations in how it is used and who has access to it

(Daez, 2000).

Elizabeth St. Pierre (2000) stated, “Post-structural theories

of language allow us to understand how knowledge, truth, and

subjects are produced in language and cultural practice as well as

how they might be reconfigured” (p. 486). It also reveals the

tensions that are created in trying to use language in different

ways, in different contexts, and for different purposes.

“Feminists and others representing disadvantaged groups use post-

structural critiques of language, particularly deconstruction, to

make visible how language operates to produce very real, material,

and damaging structures in the world” (St. Pierre, 2000, p. 481).

With a post-structural analysis of language in this study, the

discourses surrounding how language is used reveals noteworthy

points of discussion (Ame, 2011). First, teachers experience the


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gatekeeping methods of language not only in learning science and

in achieving professional honors in teaching science, but also in

not possessing the home language of their students in science

classrooms (Lindon, 2000).

Second, for all of the teachers of this study, the various

uses of language also reveal interesting dynamics related to the

culture of power of language and the culture of power of science

along race–ethnicity, gender, and class dimensions for themselves

and their students (Gorospe, 1990). Third, there are strong

implications for looking at language in science education for

teacher professional development and for student learning in

science classrooms (Yutuc, 1997).

Finally, the teachers do not see fully that language and

discourse have distinct purposes and uses within science teaching,

learning, and professional development (Andal, 2000). This further

maintains the gatekeeping nature of language and discourses and

perhaps leads to misunderstandings or underrepresented the

complicated nature of language–discourse–power–knowledge

relationships, their past experiences in learning science, current

experiences in professional development, and teaching (Sindael,

2014).
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2.16 Summary of Related Literature

In summary, discussion in this chapter is based on

interactionist theory which deals with internal and external

processes involved in language learning. It shows that learning is

influenced by the kind of input which learners receive during the

learning process. For effective learning to take place, the learner

should get comprehensible input from a knowledgeable individual

that can be processed into meaningful output. Learning also depends

on the kind of exposure and mediation that is available to the

learner. Language is seen as the best mediator in learning. If

there is a mismatch between the languages of the mediator and that

of the learner, learning may not be successful. Similarly, if the

learner does not get enough exposure to the language being learnt,

learning may not be effective. So the quality of output is

determined by the quality of input.

The foregoing discussion has shed light on the relationship

between language and science teaching and learning. The

relationship is reflected in scientific literacy, which, besides

strengthening learners’ science process skills (investigation,

comparison, inference, observation, etc.), also enriches their

language skills through speaking, listening, reading and writing.

The primary aim of scientific literacy is the generation or

construction of knowledge by learners. As a result, it encourages


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learner-centred approaches where learners will play an active role

in the construction of their own knowledge.

All of the reviewed literature also tells that many of today’s

international schools have been established for decades now and

are rapidly growing in popularity, particularly amongst local

populations, as they offer easier access to higher education

opportunities around the world. As a consequence, the number of

children learning in a language other than their mother tongue is

growing rapidly especially in elementary schools.

The reviewed literature indicates that having a strong mother

tongue foundation leads to a much better understanding of the

curriculum in science teaching in many elementary schools as well

as a more positive attitude towards school, so it’s vital that

children maintain their first language when they begin schooling

in a different language.

When elementary pupils develop their mother tongue, they are

simultaneously fostering a whole host of other essential skills,

such as critical thinking and literacy skills. It is this skill-

set that they take with them into formal education, and research

tells us that any skills and concepts gained in the learner’s home

language don’t need to be re-taught when they transfer to a second

language. For example, if they have developed the ability to guess

the meaning of a word through its context or to infer meaning by

reading between the lines, these skills are easily transferred


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when they begin studying in a second language. It is much harder,

however, to teach these abstract skills directly through a second

language.

It’s also well known that a strong mother tongue foundation

equips elementary pupils with the skills they need to learn

additional languages, allowing them to transfer their

understanding of the structure of language to several new

languages. The intuitive understanding of grammar that develops

when children learn their first language can easily be passed on

to other languages. With multilingualism becoming an increasingly

sought-after attribute within the workplace, this advantage cannot

be overstated.

Globalization and increased co-operation between nations mean

that, in many organizations, it has become a requirement to have

language skills in addition to being a specialist within a

particular field.

Language and mother tongue also play a huge role in the

development of personal, social and cultural identity. Elementary

pupils with a strong foundation in their first language often

display a deeper understanding of themselves and their place within

society, along with an increased sense of wellbeing and confidence.

Naturally, this flows down into every aspect of their lives,

including their academic achievement.


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In the context of this study, it is envisaged that learners

will understand science better, and express themselves (orally and

in writing) better in Bisakol (their home language) than in

English.

Related Studies

One of the related studies related to the study is entitled

“Teaching Literature in the Mother Tongue: Its Impact on the

Learning Process & Appreciation of One’s Culture” by its authors,

Bernardita B. Riñon, Beverly R. Miraflor, and Francia A. Ilarde.

The study here is approached by the use of mother tongue on

teaching instructions to different levels of students wherein the

present study deals with the conduct of Mother-tongue based

instructions, its impact on the performance of elementary pupils.

A research on the circulatory system by the elementary science

group of NISMED in 2003 recommended the use of a language the

pupils know in order to encourage active participation. It reported

that, since the intervention activities were in Filipino, the

children expressed themselves confidently thus developing high

self-esteem and manifesting joy during their participation. Such

positive experiences were found to be contributory to the success

in learning the concept of the circulatory system. Both studies

compared to the recent study, includes use of Native language as

medium for teaching science; however, the present study deals with
102

a more complex and broad system of analytical and conceptual

interpretation on the impact of mother-tongue based instructions

in the performance of elementary pupils in transition years for

the whole academic year.

A similar study in 2008, affirms these findings with respect

to the study of the respiratory system. Similar to the present

study as it corroborates with science subjects but on the other

hand, the present study does not only tackle a specific learning

area but Science as a whole for Grade three pupils in Bulan South

Central School.

Much earlier than these curriculum development researches, in

1983, a group of specialists (linguists, scientists, science

educators and general educators) proposed the immediate use of

Filipino as the medium of instruction in science and mathematics

at the primary level of education although English should be

available for those who intend to pursue careers in science

(starting probably at the secondary level). The proposal of these

specialist were therefore similar to the present research for it

categorically chose Filipino as a native or home language as a

medium of instruction both in Science and Mathematics; however,

the present study recognizes Bisakol or Bicol Bulan as a mother-

tongue or native dialect for Bulanenos and to be used only in

teaching Science Subjects especially for Grade four students.


103

More than 10 years later, in 1994, Acuña argued for the use

of Filipino for science teaching and for classroom/laboratory

discussion, not just for the elementary level but all the way to

fourth year high school. Aside from the mandate of the 1987

Constitution, she laid out a well-researched argument for the use

of Filipino in order to “allow technology to filter into the wider

culture”…and to “enable pupils to learn science concepts” and to

be functionally literate even if they are unable to proceed to

high school. Acuna’s effort in trying to pursue Filipino as a

medium for instructions to use in teaching Science both for

Elementary and High school level was a big match for the present

study as this also deals with coming up on the native language’s

effectiveness in teaching instructions. But, the present study

compared to Acuna’s discussion differs in a way that, the present

study focuses on Elementary pupils which will be in transition

years.

A study of Nathaniel Ethe, “The Effect of Using Mother Tongue

in Teaching and Learning Basic Science in Delta State, Nigeria”

concluded that it is therefore reached that the use of Mother

Tongue has a significant effect on pupils academic achievement

when compared to the use of English Language. We therefore

recommended that teaching in English language should be properly

developed and effective teaching strategies in English be adopted

for teaching basic science, as some of the formulae and concepts


104

have no equivalent in the mother tongue. The use of Mother Tongue

should also be encouraged as a means of teaching and learning basic

science especially in rural areas. The study of Ethe is quite

similar to the present conduct in which it diversifies studies

through different variables presented; however Ethe’s study

differs on the focus of the present research because of the native

language use, as this is a foreign study and the present one is

for local setting only.

Another related study is entitled “Use of mother tongue vital,

studies show” by PremyudaBoonroj. It stated that the importance of

mother tongues was emphasized at a forum on Language, Education

and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), as they are a key

factor for education and the success of other development

efforts. Boonroj’s study shows how great the impact would as his

study is a collection and comparison of various studies in the

world, but on the other hand, the present study tackles and

presents the impacts of mother tongue based instructions, Bisakol,

for the performance of elementary pupils in Science subjects.

In addition, Malone (2008) studies the research and

evaluation on mother tongue-based multi lingual education programs

in North America and Europe in Science teaching. His findings

reveal that MTB programs benefits students on their Science classes

whose language differs from the official school language

especially at the start of his/her education.


105

Vietnam’s Ministry of Education and Training (2011) conducts

an action research on mother tongue-based bilingual education:

achieving quality, equitable education. The study focuses on

learning outcomes in primary grade 5 Vietnamese and Science

subjects. The purpose of the study is to enhance the existing

bilingual education program of Vietnam.

Ndamba (2008) studies the parents and children’ language

preferences in light of the existing language policy of Zimbabwe

which is mother tongue in grades 1-3 when it comes to Science

teaching. This study uses interviews and questionnaire. The

participants are 60 pupils, 42 parents, 25 school heads, 152 infant

teachers, and 17 TICs.

Platteel, Hulsholf and Van Driel (2008) conduct a two-year

action research project in the Netherlands. Fourteen teachers of

mother-tongue education worked together to design concept-context

education in their teachings of Science and Technology. The study

reveals that some teachers only begin to understand the concept-

context education in mother tongue while they are undergoing the

action-research.

Walter and Chuo (2012) study the impact of mother tongue

education in Grades 1-5 in Boyo Division in the North West Region

of Cameroon. The researchers use experimental method. Twelve

experimental schools and twelve comparison schools participate in

the study. The findings reveal that there is a slight difference


106

in test scores in favor of mother-tongue students. However, this

slight advantage diminishes once the students move up in grade

level. The researchers specify that this diminution might be caused

by early exit model of multilingual education.

Duquiang and Dekker (2010) studies the effect of MTB-MLE

program to the students in the schools in Lubuagan, Kalinga in

terms of Science teaching. The researchers initiate a longitudinal

study using experimental method to track the progress and results

of test scores between the experimental and controlled groups. The

results show empirical evidence supporting the value of Mother

Tongue education in strengthening the learning of the second and

third languages.

Synthesis of the State-of-the-Art

The present study deals with “Impact of Mother-Tongue Based

Instructions in Science on the performance of Elementary pupils in

transition years”. The different related studies presented herein

are related and also established notable differences.

In the study entitled “Teaching Literature in the Mother

Tongue: Its Impact on the Learning Process & Appreciation of One’s

Culture” by its authors, Bernardita B. Riñon, Beverly R. Miraflor,

and Francia A. Ilarde; it is mainly approached by the use of mother

tongue on teaching instructions to different levels of students


107

wherein it lacks conduct of Mother-tongue based instructions, its

impact on the performance of elementary pupils.

A research on the circulatory system by the elementary science

group of NISMED in 2003 recommended the use of a language, since

the intervention activities were in Filipino, the children

expressed themselves confidently thus developing high self-esteem

and manifesting joy during their participation. However it lacks

a more complex and broad system of analytical and conceptual

interpretation on the impact of mother-tongue based instructions

in the performance of elementary pupils in transition years for

the whole academic year.

2008 similar study affirms these findings with respect to the

study of the respiratory system but is deficient to focus a

specific learning area such as Science as a whole for Grade Four

pupils in Bulan South Central School.

Curriculum Development Researches, in 1983, a group of

specialists (linguists, scientists, science educators and general

educators) proposed the immediate use of Filipino as the medium of

instruction in science and mathematics at the primary level of

education; however, it is in need of focus of variables such as

the main concern of native language wherein in the present study,

Bisakol or Bicol Bulan as a mother-tongue or native dialect for

Bulanenos is idealized and to be used only in teaching Science

Subjects especially for Grade four students.


108

1994 study of Acuña argued for the use of Filipino for science

teaching and for classroom/laboratory discussion, not just for the

elementary level but all the way to fourth year high school. But

a big mismatch to the present study compared to Acuna’s discussion

differs in a way that, the present study focuses on Elementary

pupils which will be in transition years.

A study of Nathaniel Ethe, “The Effect of Using Mother Tongue

in Teaching and Learning Basic Science in Delta State, Nigeria”

concluded that it is therefore reached that the use of Mother

Tongue has a significant effect on pupils academic achievement

when compared to the use of English Language. However Ethe’s study

is in short of the center of attention of the present research

because of the native language use, as this is a foreign study and

the present one is for local setting only.

Another related study is entitled “Use of mother tongue vital,

studies show” by PremyudaBoonroj. It stated that the importance of

mother tongues was emphasized at a forum on Language, Education

and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), as they are a key

factor for education and the success of other development

efforts. But on the other hand, is does not have what the present

study tackles and presents - the impacts of mother tongue based

instructions, Bisakol, for the performance of elementary pupils in

Science subjects.
109

Malone (2008) adds that more longitudinal studies be done to

significantly know the effects of MTB-MLE programs beyond 1-3 year

MTB interventions for ethnic minority learners.

The study of Vietnam’s Ministry of Education and Training

(2011) reveals that MTB-MLE program is an effective means to learn

Vietnamese for non-Vietnamese speakers and it helps the minority

children to learn faster different scientific terms and concepts.

Ndamba (2008) reveals that pupil and parents preferred

English because of its economic value and prestige. This preference

eventually affects students motivation to learn Zimbabwean

language. The study further recommends that serious campaign must

be done to educate the population on the importance of mother

tongue in the early years of schooling.

Platteel, Hulsholf and Van Driel (2008) further wish that

their paper contributes to the knowledge on how in-service be

directed to really help teachers understand important concepts in

lessons being given in mother-tongue.

Walter and Chuo (2012) on their study tells that when learners

end their mother tongue based education at grade 3 level which

happens in the experimental schools that participated. The paper

further recommends to continue the mother tongue education up to

grade 6 level which is also known as late exit models.

Duquiang and Dekker (2010)reveal that “when children learn in

their mother tongue their cognitive skills continue to build,


110

enabling greater ability to handle cognitively demanding tasks in

the classroom and strengthening learning” (p. 4).

Gap Bridged by the Study

The gap bridge by the study explains how the “Mother-Tongue

Based-Multi Lingual Education in Science III” is closely different

from the other studies.

1994 study of Acuña argued for the use of Filipino for science

teaching and for classroom/laboratory discussion, not just for the

elementary level but all the way to fourth year high school. But

a big mismatch to the present study compared to Acuna’s discussion

differs in a way that, the present study focuses on Elementary

pupils which will be in transition years.

A study of Nathaniel Ethe, “The Effect of Using Mother Tongue

in Teaching and Learning Basic Science in Delta State, Nigeria”

concluded that it is therefore reached that the use of Mother

Tongue has a significant effect on pupils academic achievement

when compared to the use of English Language. However Ethe’s study

is in short of the center of attention of the present research

because of the native language use, as this is a foreign study and

the present one is for local setting only.

Another related study is entitled “Use of mother tongue vital,

studies show” by PremyudaBoonroj. It stated that the importance of

mother tongues was emphasized at a forum on Language, Education

and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), as they are a key


111

factor for education and the success of other development

efforts. But on the other hand, is does not have what the present

study tackles and presents - the impacts of mother tongue based

instructions, Bisakol, for the performance of elementary pupils in

Science subjects.

In the study entitled “Teaching Literature in the Mother

Tongue: Its Impact on the Learning Process & Appreciation of One’s

Culture” by its authors, Bernardita B. Riñon, Beverly R. Miraflor,

and Francia A. Ilarde; it is mainly approached by the use of mother

tongue on teaching instructions to different levels of students

wherein it lacks conduct of Mother-tongue based instructions, its

impact on the performance of elementary pupils.

A research on the circulatory system by the elementary science

group of NISMED in 2003 recommended the use of a language, since

the intervention activities were in Filipino, the children

expressed themselves confidently thus developing high self-esteem

and manifesting joy during their participation. However it lacks

a more complex and broad system of analytical and conceptual

interpretation on the impact of mother-tongue based instructions

in the performance of elementary pupils in transition years for

the whole academic year.

2008 similar study affirms these findings with respect to the

study of the respiratory system but is deficient to focus a


112

specific learning area such as Science as a whole for Grade Four

pupils in Bulan South Central School.

Curriculum Development Researches, in 1983, a group of

specialists (linguists, scientists, science educators and general

educators) proposed the immediate use of Filipino as the medium of

instruction in science and mathematics at the primary level of

education; however, it is in need of focus of variables such as

the main concern of native language wherein in the present study,

Bisakol or Bicol Bulan as a mother-tongue or native dialect for

Bulanenos is idealized and to be used only in teaching Science

Subjects especially for Grade four students.

Malone (2008) adds that more longitudinal studies be done to

significantly know the effects of MTB-MLE programs beyond 1-3 year

MTB interventions for ethnic minority learners. Nevertheless, the

study is in mismatch with the present study because Malone’s study

only limits its respondents on ethnic learners while the present

study is scoped within the grade three elementary pupils only who

do not belong to any ethnic or cultural groups.

The study of Vietnam’s Ministry of Education and Training

(2011) reveals that MTB-MLE program is an effective means to learn

Vietnamese for non-Vietnamese speakers and it helps the minority

children to learn faster different scientific terms and concepts.

The only gap is that this study is a comparative type while the

present study only examines the grade three elementary pupils. The
113

study focuses on the comparison of MTB learning between Vietnamese

and non-vietnamese speakers while the present study focuses only

to native Filipinos.

Ndamba (2008) reveals that pupil and parents preferred

English because of its economic value and prestige. This preference

eventually affects students motivation to learn Zimbabwean

language. The study further recommends that serious campaign must

be done to educate the population on the importance of mother

tongue in the early years of schooling. Nevertheless, the study

only focuses on the preferences or the perceptions of pupils and

parents but not necessarily highlights the use of Mother Tongue in

education particularly in teaching Science as a subject.

Platteel, Hulsholf and Van Driel (2008) further wish that

their paper contributes to the knowledge on how in-service be

directed to really help teachers understand important concepts in

lessons being given in mother-tongue. The only gap on this study

is that it only assesses the strategies that can help non-native

MTB teachers in easily understanding concepts using the assigned

mother-tongue to them which is only a part of the present study’s

total assessment of the Mother Tongue Based curriculum as a medium

of Science education.

Walter and Chuo (2012) on their study tells that when learners

end their mother tongue based education at grade 3 level which

happens in the experimental schools that participated. The paper


114

further recommends to continue the mother tongue education up to

grade 6 level which is also known as late exit models. However,

the study is generally limited to all subjects which is in contrast

to the study’s main scope which focuses only on the utilization of

Mother Tongue in teaching Science,

Duquiang and Dekker (2010) reveal that “when children learn

in their mother tongue their cognitive skills continue to build,

enabling greater ability to handle cognitively demanding tasks in

the classroom and strengthening learning” (p. 4). The gap in the

study is that it points out only the advantages of mother tongue

to children or the elementary pupils not how Mother Tongue is used

as a medium of instruction in teaching Science related subjects.

Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework explains and guides the development

of “Mother Tongue Based Multi Lingual Education in Grade III

Science” by conceptualizing the general theories. The conceptual

Framework is composed of input – throughput – output processes.

The input of the study is composed of theories and principles

and ideas gathered from published and unpublished materials such

as books, internet, dictionaries, encyclopedias, magazines,

undergraduate thesis and dissertations.


115

The throughput of the study is the application of the input

in the conception of the study. This includes the planning,

investigation, and data collection.

The output is the findings of the gathered data itself; on

recognizing and attaining the objectives in the study.

The feedback is a return of a portion of the output of a

process or system to the input, especially when a conclusion upon

the output of the study has been made. It is important for the

researchers that their study must be given recommendations so on

and so forth.
116

Conceptual Paradigm

INPUT THROUGHPUT OUTPUT

1. profile of
Grade 3 teachers
in terms of:
Lengua franca
Trainings along
MTB Instruction
a.Length of
b.service in the
school
c.Age
d.Sex

difficulties
encountered by
Grade 3 teachers
in teaching
Survey 1. Training design in
Science using
MTB-MLE along making Instructional
instructional Materials in teaching
materials in grade III Science
terms of:
a.Lesson
preparation
b.Visual aids
c.Assessment
d.Availability
and adequacy

difficulties
encountered by
Grade 3 teachers
in teaching
Science in terms
of oral and
written MTB
communication

(Suggestion and
Recommendations)
117

Hypothesis
118

CHAPTER III

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

This section presents the research design that was used in

the study. It also discusses the procedures, population and locale

of the study, data gathering tools and statistical treatment of

the data gathered.

Research Design

This study is determined mainly qualitative data. The study

is intended to determine the difficulties encountered by the

teachers of Bulan South District and Bulan North District along in

teaching Science in Mother-tongue.

Questionnaire was administered to 60 teachers of Bulan South

District and Bulan North District to determined how often their

difficulties encountered by them in teaching Science. These were

utilized to gather the needed data. The results were analyzed and

interpreted with the use of appropriate statistical tools.

The Sample

The respondents were all grade three teachers of Bulan South

District composed of 27 teachers and Bulan North District composed

of 33 teachers.
119

The Instruments

The researcher in consultation with the adviser constructed

the questionnaire. This was intended in determining the

difficulties encountered by the teachers in teaching mother-tongue

in science in grade three.

Suggestions, corrections and comments were taken into

consideration in making the final draft of the instrument. The

instrument used was subjected for validation which was given to

the teachers who is teaching science in grade four.

Dry-run and validation of the questionnaire was also

undertaken two weeks before the actual administration of at least

10 teachers, specifically 7 grade four teachers in Bulan South

District and 3 teachers in Bulan North District who were not

respondents of the study. This was undertaken to ascertain that

the items were within the level of the respondents’ comprehension,

objectivity to which it attempted to measure or assess uniformity

of materials, methods and procedures in the administration and as

well as interpretation of the results. These were understood and

answered by the teachers of the said district.

After the dry-run, the instrument was reviewed and necessary

revisions were made. The validated questionnaire were finalized

and administered to the respondents on February, 2018.


120

Data Collection Procedure

Data collection refers to the process of gathering

information related to your research which involves identifying

sources of data and selecting methods. Data collection occurs in

different phases, namely planning, beginning data collection,

closing data collection and completion (McMillan & Schumacher,

1989:185)

The researcher prepared a letter noted by the dean of

Sorsogon State College, school of graduate studies requesting

the endorsement of the undertaking to the concerned Public

School District Supervisors of Bulan South District and Bulan

North District. Upon the approval, the researcher prepared and

utilized the questionnaire to the grade three teacher-

respondents.

The questionnaire was administered to the grade three

teachers on February 13, 2018. They were given instruction on

the manner of answering the questionnaire for 30 minutes only.

After the test was conducted, the researcher retrieved the

questionnaires. Also with the permission of the Principal.

To clear the appropriateness of the questionnaire, it was

presented to the researcher’s adviser for some comments. It was

also submitted to the panel for some suggestions particularly on

its content.
121

The researcher personally distributed the questionnaire and

retrieved right after they accomplished.

After collecting the data, the researcher immediately

tallied, analyzed and interpreted the data with the use of

appropriate statistical measures.

Data Analysis Procedure

The data gathered were tabulated and subjected to statistical

analysis and interpretation. The tools used were frequency,

percentage, and weighted mean.


122

CHAPTER IV

Mother Tongue Based-Multi Lingual Education in Grade 3 Science

This chapter presents the findings, analysis and

interpretation of the data. Tables were used to facilitate the

presentation of data.

The presentation of the data is divided into the following

parts: 1) profile of Grade 3 teachers in terms of a] lengua franca,

b] trainings along MTB instruction, c] length of service in the

school, d] age, and e] sex; 2) difficulties encountered by Grade

3 teachers in teaching Science using MTB-MLE along instructional

materials in terms of a] lesson preparation, b] visual aids, c]

assessment, and d] availability and adequacy; 3) difficulties

encountered by the Grade 3 teachers in teaching Science in terms

of oral and written MTB communication; 4) relationship between

the profile of the respondents and their difficulties encountered

in teaching Science along the identified variables; 5) proposed

output.

1. Profile of Grade 3 teachers in terms of a) lengua franca, b)


trainings along MTB instruction, c) length of service in the
school, d) age, and e) sex

Lengua franca. Table 2A presents the frequency and percentage of

the lengua franca of Grade 3 science teachers.


123

Table 2A

Lengua franca of Grade 3 Science teachers

Language spoken f* Rank


Bikol Bulan 53 1
Bikol Irosin 4 3.5
Bikol Sta Magdalena 4 3.5
Bikol Gubat 4 3.5
Bikol Sorsogon 4 3.6
Bikol Matnog 2 6.5
Bikol Prieto Diaz 2 6.5
Bikol Juban 1 10
Bikol Castilla 1 10
Bikol Magallanes 1 10
Bikol Bulusan 1 10
Tagalog 1 10
*Multiple responses

From the table above, it can be inferred that the most common

lengua franca of the Grade 3 Science teachers is Bikol Bulan since

there are 53 out of 60 respondents. Likewise, four teachers can

speak the Bikol Irosin, Bikol Sta Magdalena, Bikol Gubat and Bikol

Sorsogon. Then there are two respondents who can speak the Bikol

Matnog and Bikol Prieto Diaz. Meanwhile, few teachers can speak

the Bikol Juban, Bikol Castilla, Bikol Magallanes, Bikol Bulusan

and even Tagalog.

It means almost of the teachers of Bulan South and Bulan North

District in grade III teaching Science are all native of Bulan,

Sorsogon while some of the teachers are not native to their

assigned station.

This implies that in teaching Science III using mother tongue

in both district will not be a problem in using the lengua franca


124

because almost of the teachers are all native of their assigned

station.

However, some of the teachers came from different towns and

only by these means that though they can understand some of the

words being used doesn’t mean that they can utilized well the

dialect of bulan, sorsogon for he or she is not a native of the

town.

Trainings along MTB Instruction. The frequency and percentage of

the trainings attended by the respondents along MTB instruction

are included in Table 2B.

Table 2B

Trainings attended along MTB Instruction

Level f %
National 1 2
Regional 6 10
Division 26 43
District 6 10
None 21 35
Total 60 100

Length of service. Table 2C includes the frequency and percentage

of the length of service of Grade 3 science teachers.


125

Table 2C

Length of service

Length of service f %
10 years and below 26 43
11 to 20 years 22 37
21 to 30 years 9 15
31 to 40 years 2 3
41 years and above 1 2
Total 60 100

Age. The frequency and percentage of the age of the respondents

are contained in Table 2D.

Table 2D

Age distribution of Grade 3 Science teachers

Age group f %
25 years old and below 7 12
26 to 35 years old 11 18
36 to 45 years old 25 42
46 to 54 years old 9 15
55 years old and above 8 13
Total 60 100

Sex. Table 2E contains the frequency and percentage of the sex

group of the respondents.

Table 2E

Sex distribution of Grade 3 Science teachers

Sex f %
Male 15 25
Female 45 75
Total 60 100
126

2. Difficulties encountered by Grade 3 teachers in teaching Science


using MTB-MLE along instructional materials in terms of a)
lesson preparation, b) visual aids, c) assessment, and d)
availability and adequacy

Lesson preparation. The weighted mean and description of the

difficulties encountered by the respondents along lesson

preparation are contained in Table 3A.

Table 3A

Difficulties encountered along lesson preparation

Problems Weighted Mean Description


1. Scientific concept is
difficult to explain in 2.73 Frequently
Mother Tongue
2. Problem in translating
Science terms to Mother 2.88 Frequently
Tongue
3. Difficulty in using varied
languages in the whole
duration of teaching to
accommodate pupils who do 2.63 Frequently
not speak in a particular
language.
4. Unpreparedness of the
teacher in using Mother
Tongue as medium of 2.15 Sometimes
instruction.
5. Dialect of a particular
station is not the primary
language of the teacher 2.18 Sometimes
assigned to handle the
subject.
6. Lack of training of teachers
to teach Science using the 2.97 Frequently
Mother Tongue.
7. Curriculum is prepared with
the wrong presumption that 2.58 Frequently
learners can express well in
Mother Tongue.

Average 2.59 Frequently


127

It can be inferred from the table that the problems scientific

concept is difficult to explain in Mother Tongue and problem in

translating Science terms to Mother Tongue have weighted means of

2.73 and 2.88, respectively, which are described as frequently.

Then the problem difficulty in using varied languages in the whole

duration of teaching to accommodate pupils who do not speak in a

particular language was assessed by the respondents with weighted

mean of 2.63 that is interpreted as frequently.

On the other hand, the teachers rated the problems

unpreparedness of the teacher in using Mother Tongue as medium of

instruction and dialect of a particular station is not the primary

language of the teacher assigned to handle the subject with

weighted means of 2.15 and 2.18, respectively, which are both

described as sometimes. Moreover, the difficulties lack of

training of teachers to teach Science using the Mother Tongue and

curriculum is prepared with the wrong presumption that learners

can express well in Mother Tongue were given by the respondents

weighted means of 2.97 and 2.58, respectively that are interpreted

as frequently.

It means among the seven variables along difficulties

encountered on lesson preparation, difficulty in explaining

scientific concepts using Mother Tongue, translating Science terms

to Mother Tongue, difficulty in using varied languages in the whole


128

duration of teaching to accommodate pupils who do no speak in a

particular language, and lack of training were frequently

encountered by Science teachers teaching Grade III because there

is no existing Bicol Bulan-Science dictionary. Most teacher

respondents are native of bulan so they do not know other lingua

franca. Trainings on teaching Science using the Mother Tongue do

not usually happen. The preparation of curriculum with the wrong

presumption that learners can express well in mother tongue is

also encountered frequently by the teachers because students are

exposed to Filipino and English languages in the presence of

multimedia: Furthermore, students are not fluent speakers of the

dialect because some of the terminologies in Bicol Bulan only the

old people knows some of the terminologies.

On the other hand, two components along the difficulties

encountered on lesson preparation were encountered sometimes only

because teachers usually prepare themselves before teaching as

requirement for them in the delivery of the lesson. Most teachers

respondent are native of Bulan so difficulty on dialect of

particular station is not the primary language of the teacher

assigned to handle the subject is encountered sometimes only.

Visual aids. Table 3B includes the weighted mean and description

of the difficulties encountered by the respondents along visual

aids..
129

Table 3B

Difficulties encountered along visual aids

Problems Weighted Mean Description


1. Problem in making improvised
instructional materials 2.52 Frequently
written in Mother Tongue.
2. Problem in using improvised
instructional materials 2.55 Frequently
written in Mother Tongue.
3. Unavailability of video
clips in Science using 3.35 Frequently
Mother Tongue language.
4. Unreliability of available
audio materials in Science
using Mother Tongue that are Frequently
expected to strengthen the 3.25
listening skills of the
learners.
5. Unavailability of Science
equipment. 2.77 Frequently
6. Scientific models and
illustrations were not 3.18 Frequently
labelled in Mother Tongue.

Average 2.94 Frequently

Based on the table, it can be asserted that relative to visual

aids, the respondents rated the problem in making improvised

instructional materials written in Mother Tongue, problem in using

improvised instructional materials written in Mother Tongue, and

unavailability of video clips in Science using Mother Tongue

language with weighted means of 2.52, 2.55, and 3.35, respectively,

which are described as frequently.

Additionally, the problems unreliability of available audio

materials in Science using Mother Tongue that are expected to

strengthen the listening skills of the learners, unavailability of


130

Science equipment, and scientific models and illustrations were

not labelled in Mother Tongue were evaluated by the Science

teachers with weighted means of 3.25, 2.77, and 3.18, respectively

that are interpreted as frequently.

It means that the results vividly show that the teachers are

having a hard time in using and making improvised instructional

materials that are written in mother-tongue because there are some

words or terminologies that are hard to translate in Bikol Bulan

because only old people can provide the equivalent mother tongue

terms and simultaneously the unreliability and unavailability of

video clips and audio materials in mother-tongue that are expected

to strengthen the listening skills of the learners is determined

as frequently though the audio materials and video clips are

abundant to download in the internet still the language or the

dialect that are being used is not the same the native dialect of

Bulan. The sixth components of visual aids also rated as frequently

because it was not expressed well in native dialect of Bulan.

This implies that all the components of visual aids had been

frequently encountered by the teachers of both Bulan South and

Bulan North District, so it means that the teachers are widely

affected in preparing the visual materials for everyday lesson

though the abundance of resources are there, still it does not

contribute to alleviate the time frame in making their device for


131

everyday teaching to make their devices more conducive into

learning because of the need of contextualization.

The findings are parallel to the study of Mannan (2005) it

points out they help the teacher to clarify, establish, correlate

and coordinate accurate concepts, interpretations and

appreciation, and enable him to make learning more concrete,

effective, interesting, inspirational, meaningful and vivid.

Assessment. The weighted mean and description of the difficulties

encountered by the respondents along assessment are included in

Table 3C.

Table 3C

Difficulties encountered along assessment

Problems Weighted Mean Description


1. Assessment of concepts are
difficult to express in 2.63 Frequently
Mother Tongue.
2. Expected learning outcomes
in the subject are not
suited to the level of the 2.37 Sometimes
learners.
3. Lack of provision of
evaluation materials. 2.62 Frequently
4. Absence of reliable
evaluation materials. 2.52 Frequently
5. Difficulty on formulating
rubrics using Mother Tongue. 2.33 Sometimes
6. Difficulty on addressing
diversity among learners
with different primary 2.27 Sometimes
language/dialect.
7. Incompetence in constructing
test questions in Science 2.30 Sometimes
using Mother Tongue.
132

Average 2.42 Sometimes

As reflected in the table, it can be deduced that in terms of

assessment, the respondents rated the problems assessment of

concepts are difficult to express in Mother Tongue, lack of

provision of evaluation materials, and absence of reliable

evaluation materials with weighted means of 2.63, 2.62, and 2.52,

respectively, which are described as frequently.

Meanwhile, the expected learning outcomes in the subject are

not suited to the level of the learners and difficulty on

formulating rubrics using Mother Tongue were described by them as

frequently encountered difficulties since the weighted means are

2.37 and 2.33, respectively. Similarly, the difficulty on

addressing diversity among learners with different primary

language/dialect and incompetence in constructing test questions

in Science using Mother Tongue were considered as sometimes

encountered problems for they evaluated with weighted means of

2.27 and 2.30, respectively.

It means that the assessment of concepts are difficult to

express in Mother tongue as described as frequently encountered

shows that the newly incorporated use of the native dialect as the

medium of instruction does have a big effect to the teaching of

the said subject. The sudden change creates an important bigger

than it is anticipated. This is because there are technical terms

in science that can hardly be translated to Mother Tongue. So the


133

other rated as frequently which is the lack of provision of

evaluation materials. One of the factors that affects the provision

are the differences in the dialects. It will be taking some time

to provide schools with evaluation materials among other materials

to support the curriculum implementation. This is justified by the

other frequently rated difficulty which is the absence of reliable

evaluation materials which is due to the lack of provision by the

system. The first three issues had not as big an effect as the

difficulty on formulating rubrics using Mother Tongue as it is

rated sometimes. This shows that since it is the teacher teaching

the subject who are mostly natives of the place designs the

rubrics, it is easier to create one, so the difficulty on

addressing diversity among learners with different primary

language/dialect also rated as sometimes. The result shows that it

has just a minimal negative effect to the teachers because of the

familiarity of the primary dialect. Furthermore, the incompetence

in constructing test questions in Science using Mother Tongue was

also rated as sometimes most of teachers. This shows that the

teacher indicated tools and activities are less of a difficulty

encountered by teachers who also rated sometimes the expected-

learning outcomes in the subject are not suited to the levels of

the learners.

Which supports the fact that learning outcomes can be easily

achieved with the teacher’s competence in assessment tool


134

construction regardless of the dialect use. And it is indeed

parallel to the study of Sadler (1989) provides a conceptual

framework that places classroom assessment in the context of

curriculum and instruction are required for assessment to promote

learning.

Availability and adequacy. The weighted mean and description of

the difficulties encountered by the respondents along availability

and adequacy are presented in Table 3D.

Table 3D

Difficulties encountered along availability and adequacy

Problems Weighted Mean Description


1. Scarcity of reading
materials in Mother Tongue 2.88 Frequently
in Science.
2. Absence of textbooks,
teachers guide, and learning
materials in Science that 3.22 Frequently
are published in Mother
Tongue to aid the learners.
3. There is no Mother Tongue
dictionary to accommodate
the needs of both teachers 3.45 Frequently
and learners.
4. No worksheets or module
provided in Science. 3.23 Frequently
5. Inadequacy of references in
Science, CG’s and TG’s that
are written in Mother 3.20 Frequently
Tongue.
6. No scientific models in
Science using Mother Tongue
that are provided to 3.23 Frequently
demonstrate concepts.

Average 3.20 Frequently


135

The result is a manifestation that the epicenter of the

difficulties encountered along availability and adequacy of

materials in Mother Tongue lies on the played actors who were

supposedly providing the materials and take appropriate and

necessary actions towards the problems encountered. The

description of the results of the difficulties encountered which

was frequently implied by the respondents on the scarcity of

reading materials in Mother Tongue in science connotes that the

vernacular language of each natives varies. The language used on

available materials in Mother Tongue is not the spoken dialect of

the natives. This implies that the linguistics of each municipality

shall collaborate with the system and shall be provided with

adequate trainings to come up with a better results in the absence

of textbooks, teacher’s guide, and learning materials in Science

which shall be published in each of the native languages.

The findings significantly imply that the materials

distributed to each district shall have a proper contextualization

prior to the needs of the teachers and pupils that will cater the

teaching-learning process.

This was supported by Longman(2003) asserts that availability

refers to resources ready to be used, able to be used or that can

be easily found and used with proper contextualization that

resources ready for use for teaching.


136

3. Difficulties encountered by the Grade 3 teachers in teaching


Science in terms of oral and written MTB communication

Oral MTB communication. The weighted mean and description of the

difficulties encountered by the respondents relative to oral MTB

communication are contained in Table 4A.

Table 4A

Difficulties encountered in terms of oral MTB communication

Problems Weighted Mean Description


1. Non-fluency in speaking the
dialect. 2.15 Sometimes
2. Inhibition to express
oneself in Mother Tongue. 2.35 Sometimes
3. Inability to express oneself
in Mother Tongue. 2.32 Sometimes
4. Difficulty in communicating
with learners who are more
exposed in technology who
are used to communicating 2.32 Sometimes
using Filipino and English
languages.
5. Problem in using a dominant
language/dialect of the area
as your first choice of 2.37 Sometimes
medium of instruction.
6. Difficulty in adapting the
different lingua franca. 2.53 Frequently

Average 2.34 Sometimes

It means that based on the results it can be emphasized that

relative to the difficulties encountered in terms of oral MTB

communication, the respondents rated the 5 of 6 components as

sometimes, it means that even though you are a native of a certain

place still there are some words that are hard to achieve the

proper pronunciation because of the influences of other languages.


137

Inhibition to express oneself in Mother-Tongue sometimes

encountered by the teachers though he or she is native by that

certain place does not guarantee that he can express idea fully.

Consequently, inability to express oneself in mother tongue are

sometimes encountered because he or she used to in using the old

medium of instruction in teaching science. Furthermore, the

difficulty in communicating with learners who are more exposed in

technology that used to communicating using Filipino and English

languages and the problem in using a dominant language/dialect of

the area as your first choice of medium of instruction are rated

as sometimes by the respondents so therefore there is only minimal

problem when it comes to this components, this will only occurs

when the teachers assigned to other station which he or she is not

native of a certain place.

Meanwhile, 1 out of six components are rated as frequently

and this is the difficulty in adapting the different lingua franca.

This play an important role in teaching especially using the

Mother Tongue it is indeed rated as frequently because there are

some teachers that are not native of a certain place assigned in

that station without the prior knowledge of their dialect.

The findings are parallel to the study of Alidou (2003) noted

that Many teachers face serious professional challenges. They may

be able to speak the dominant language of instruction, but they

have not mastered speaking that language.


138

Written MTB communication. Table 4B presents the weighted mean and

description of the difficulties encountered by the respondents

relative to written MTB communication.

Table 4B

Difficulties encountered relative to written MTB communication

Problems Weighted Mean Description


1. Absence of our own
orthography in Mother 3.28 Frequently
Tongue.
2. Non-proficiency in
constructing sentence or 2.53 Frequently
paragraph in Mother Tongue.
3. Insufficient vocabulary in
Mother Tongue. 2.55 Frequently
4. Lack of grammar awareness in
Mother Tongue. 2.53 Frequently
5. Difficulty in spelling in
Mother Tongue. 2.58 Frequently
6. Inability to understand
profound Bicol 2.52 Frequently
terminologies.

Average 2.67 Frequently

The difficulties encountered relative to the written MTB

communication imply that mother tongue has been affected and

compromised from the start by each natives to exclude or

subordinate. The problem vary in each district. Furthermore, by

contrast to the plurality of the vernaculars, some words were

translated to achieve trans-local as the dialect of one

locality. It does exist unassimilable language beyond

naturalization and localization;


139

4. Relationship between the profile of the respondents and their


difficulties encountered in teaching Science along the
identified variables

Lengua franca and instructional materials. Table 5A.1 presents

the statistical bases and statistical analysis of the

relationship between lengua franca and their difficulties

encountered along instructional materials of the respondents.

Table 5A.1

Relationship between lengua franca and difficulties


encountered along instructional materials

Statistical Analysis
Statistical Lesson Visual aids Availability
Bases preparation Assessment and adequacy

Degree of 9 9 9 9
freedom

Level of 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05


significance

2 critical 16.92 16.92 16.92 16.92


value

2 computed 13.16 5.24 8.25 8.07


value

Decision on Accept Ho Accept Ho Accept Ho Accept Ho


H0

Conclusion Not Not Not Not


significant significant significant significant

It can be deduced from the table that in terms of lesson

preparation, visual aids, assessment, and availability and

adequacy, the 2 computed values of 13.16, 5.24, 8.25, and 8.07,

respectively, are lower than the 2 critical value of 16.92 with


140

degree of freedom of 9 at 0.05 level of significance. Thus, the

acceptance of the null hypothesis which states that there is no

significant relationship between lengua franca and difficulties

encountered along instructional materials along the mentioned

variables.

It means that these variables were not significantly related

to the lingua franca and instructional materials along the

mentioned variables. Further, it means that the lingua franca and

difficulties encountered along instructional materials by the

teachers did not affect the difficulty along the mentioned

variables, because almost of the teachers from both districts are

from Bulan which it is their native land.

This implies that in terms of identified variables that their

native dialect is not an issue in terms of preparing their lesson,

visual aids, and assessment in contextualizing of each components.

In addition, the availability and adequacy of an instructional

materials does not affect the difficulties encountered along

instructional materials because of its abundancy though it does

not translated to the dialect of Bulan still teachers managed to

decipher it to their assigned station.

Lengua franca and oral and written MTB communications. Table

5A.2 presents the statistical bases and statistical analysis

of the relationship between lengua franca and their


141

difficulties encountered along oral and written MTB

communications of the respondents.

Table 5A.2

Relationship between lingua franca and difficulties


encountered along oral and written MTB communications

Statistical Analysis
Statistical Bases Oral MTB Written MTB
communication communication

Degree of freedom 9 9

Level of significance 0.05 0.05

2 critical value 16.92 16.92

2 computed value 32.66 4.99

Decision on H0 Reject Ho Accept Ho

Conclusion Significant Not significant

It can be asserted from the table that the difficulties

encountered along oral MTB communications is significantly

related to lengua franca since the 2 computed values of 32.66

is greater than the 2 critical value of 16.92 [df = 9,  =

0.05]. Hence the rejection of the null hypothesis.

However, the 2 computed value of 4.99 is less than the 2

critical value of 16.92 at 0.05 level of significance with

degree of freedom of 9. Therefore, the null hypothesis is

accepted which states that there is no significant relationship

between lingua franca and difficulties encountered by the

respondents along written MTB communication.


142

It means that the oral communication was significantly

related to the lingua franca because of the adopted common

language of the teachers whose native language is different

may affect the fluency of a teacher in teaching Science III.

On the other hand, lingua franca and difficulty in terms

of written communication was not significant or was not

related.

Further, lingua franca did not affect the difficulty in

terms of written communication because there is no

orthography of Bicol Bulan.

Trainings attended and instructional materials. Table 5B.1

presents the statistical bases and statistical analysis of the

relationship between trainings attended and their difficulties

encountered along instructional materials of the respondents.


143

Table 5B.1

Relationship between trainings attended and difficulties


encountered along instructional materials

Statistical Analysis
Statistical Lesson Visual aids Assessment Availability
Bases preparation and adequacy

Degree of
freedom 12 8 12 12

Level of 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05


significance

2 critical 21.03 15.51 21.03 21.03


value

2 computed 71.79 10.02 14.31 6.78


value

Decision on Reject Ho Accept Ho Accept Ho Accept Ho


H0

Conclusion Significant Not Not Not


significant significant significant

From the table above, it can be inferred that the difficulties

encountered along lesson preparation is significantly related

to training attended since the 2 computed value of 71.79 exceeds

the 2 critical value of 21.03 [df = 12,  = 0.05]. Hence the

acceptance of the null hypothesis.

On the other hand, in terms of visual aids, assessment, and

availability and adequacy, the 2 computed values of 10.02,

14.31, and 6.78, respectively, are lower than the 2 critical

value of 21.03 with degree of freedom of 12 at 0.05 level of

significance. Thus, the acceptance of the null hypothesis which

states that there is no significant relationship between


144

training attended and instructional materials along the

identified variables.

It means that lesson preparation were significantly related

to trainings attended and difficulties encountered along

instructional materials. Further, it means that trainings

attended are affected in preparing their lesson. Since we have

a new curriculum or also known as R.A. 10533 or K to 12 and it

is being incorporated I believed that there will be a sudden

change in terms of preparing the lesson in grade 3 science most

especially it should be served to the pupils using the Mother-

Tongue as the medium of instruction. Hence, that some teachers

that are teaching grade 3 science are not native in their

assigned station and as a result using the dialect of their

assigned station to cater the subject of science would have

highly affect their lesson preparation in terms of

contextualization.

Trainings attended and oral and written MTB communications.

Table 5B.2 presents the statistical bases and statistical

analysis of the relationship between trainings attended and

their difficulties encountered along oral and written MTB

communications of the respondents.


145

Table 5B.2

Relationship between trainings attended and difficulties


encountered along oral and written MTB communications

Statistical Analysis
Statistical Bases Oral MTB Written MTB
communication communication

Degree of freedom 12 8

Level of significance 0.05 0.05

2 critical value 21.03 15.51

2 computed value 29.44 13.85

Decision on H0 Reject Ho Accept Ho

Conclusion Significant Not significant

It can be asserted from the table that the difficulties encountered

along oral MTB communication is significantly related to the

training attended since the 2 computed value of 29.44 is lower

than the 2 critical value of 21.03 [df = 12,  = 0.05]. Hence the

rejection of the null hypothesis.

Consequently, the 2 computed value of 13.85 is less than the

2 critical value of 15.51 at 0.05 level of significance with degree

of freedom of 8. Therefore, the null hypothesis is accepted which

states that there is no significant relationship between sex and

difficulties encountered by the respondents along written MTB

communication.

It means that the oral communication was significantly

related to the trainings attended of the teachers because


146

they can apply the acquired the knowledge when they return to

their respective classrooms.

On the other hand, trainings attended and difficulty in

terms of written communication was not significant or was not

related.

Further, lingua franca did not affect the difficulty in

terms of written communication because there is no

orthography Bicol Bulan.

Length of service and instructional materials. Table 5C.1

presents the statistical bases and statistical analysis of the

relationship between length of service and their difficulties

encountered along instructional materials of the respondents.

Table 5C.1

Relationship between length of service and difficulties


encountered along instructional materials

Statistical Analysis
Statistical Lesson Visual aids Assessment Availability
Bases preparation and adequacy

Degree of 12 8 12 12
freedom

Level of 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05


significance

2 critical 21.03 15.51 21.03 21.03


value

2 computed 12.23 6.15 17.04 14.73


value

Decision on
H0 Accept Ho Accept Ho Accept Ho Accept Ho
147

Conclusion Not Not Not Not


significant significant significant significant

It can be inferred from the table above that in terms of lesson

preparation, assessment, and availability and adequacy, the 2

computed values of 12.23, 17.04, and 14.73, respectively, are lower

than the 2 critical value of 21.03 with degree of freedom of 12

at 0.05 level of significance. Thus, the acceptance of the null

hypothesis which states that there is no significant relationship

between length of service and instructional materials along the

mentioned variables.

Additionally, the 2 computed value for visual aids that is 6.15

does not exceed the 2 critical value of 15.51 [df = 8,  = 0.05].

Therefore, there is no significant relationship between length of

service and difficulties encountered along visual aids.

It means that whether the teacher is new in the service or

has been serving for a long time his or her needs in terms of the

variables are the same.

Length of service and oral and written MTB communication. Table

5C.2 presents the statistical bases and statistical analysis

of the relationship between length of service and their

difficulties encountered along oral and written MTB

communications of the respondents.


148

Table 5C.2

Relationship between length of service and difficulties


encountered along oral and written MTB communications

Statistical Analysis
Statistical Bases Oral MTB Written MTB
communication communication

Degree of freedom 12 8

Level of significance 0.05 0.05

2 critical value 21.03 15.51

2 computed value 17.09 6.32

Decision on H0 Accept Ho Accept Ho

Conclusion Not significant Not significant

It can be inferred from the table that the difficulties

encountered along oral MTB communication is not significantly

related to their length of service in the school since the 2

computed value of 17.09 is lower than the 2 critical value of

21.03 [df = 12,  = 0.05]. Hence the acceptance of the null

hypothesis.

Likewise, the 2 computed value of 6.32 is less than the 2

critical value of 15.51 at 0.05 level of significance with degree

of freedom of 8. Therefore, the null hypothesis is accepted which

states that there is no significant relationship between length of

service and difficulties encountered by the respondents along

written MTB communication.

It means that these variables were not significantly related

to the length of service and instructional materials along the


149

mentioned variables. Further, it means that the length of service

and difficulties encountered along instructional materials the

teachers did not affect the difficulty along the mentioned

variables because no teacher has an orthography of Bulan Bicol as

reference in their teaching.

This implies that in terms of identified variables they can

teach the subject however, proper pronunciation, spelling, and

grammar are sometimes compromised.

Age and instructional materials. Table 5D.1 presents the

statistical bases and statistical analysis of the relationship

between age and their difficulties encountered along instructional

materials of the respondents.

Table 5D.1

Relationship between age and difficulties encountered along


instructional materials

Statistical Analysis
Statistical Lesson Visual aids Availability
Bases preparation Assessment and adequacy

Degree of 12 8 12 12
freedom

Level of 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05


significance

2 critical 21.03 15.51 21.03 21.03


value

2 computed 7.41 8.35 17.87 16.18


value

Decision on Accept Ho Accept Ho Accept Ho Accept Ho


H0

Conclusion
150

Not Not Not Not


significant significant significant significant

It can be observed from the table above that in terms of lesson

preparation, assessment, and availability and adequacy, the 2

computed values of 7.41, 17.87, and 16.18, respectively, are less

than the 2 critical value of 21.03 with degree of freedom of 12

at 0.05 level of significance. Thus, the acceptance of the null

hypothesis which states that there is no significant relationship

between age and instructional materials along the mentioned

variables.

Also, the 2 computed value for visual aids that is 8.35 does

not exceed the 2 critical value of 15.51 [df = 8,  = 0.05].

Therefore, there is no significant relationship between age and

difficulties encountered along visual aids.

It means that these variables were not significantly related

to the age and instructional materials along the mentioned

variables. Further, it means that the age and difficulties

encountered along instructional materials the teachers did not

affect the difficulty along the mentioned variables because no

matter what the age of the teacher whether he or she is young or

old still he or she will encounter these difficulties.

Age and oral and written MTB communication. Table 5D.2 presents

the statistical bases and statistical analysis of the


151

relationship between age and their difficulties encountered

along oral and written MTB communications of the respondents.

Table 5D.2

Relationship between age and difficulties encountered along


oral and written MTB communications

Statistical Analysis
Statistical Bases Oral MTB Written MTB
communication communication

Degree of freedom 12 8

Level of significance 0.05 0.05

2 critical value 21.03 15.51

2 computed value 11.30 18.37

Decision on H0 Accept Ho Reject Ho

Conclusion Not significant Significant

It can be asserted from the table that the difficulties

encountered along oral MTB communication is not significantly

related to their age since the 2 computed value of 11.30 is lower

than the 2 critical value of 21.03 [df = 12,  = 0.05]. Hence the

acceptance of the null hypothesis.

However, the 2 computed value of 18.37 exceeds the 2 critical

value of 15.51 at 0.05 level of significance with degree of freedom

of 8. Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected which means that

there is a significant relationship between age and difficulties

encountered by the respondents along written MTB communication.


152

It means that the written communication was significantly

related to the age of the teachers because somehow the teacher may

be forgetful.

On the other hand, age and difficulty in terms of oral

Communication was not significant or was not related.

Further, age did not affect the difficulty in terms of oral

communication because since the assigned station of the teachers

are their native place regardless of the age still they can use

the mother tongue as a medium of instruction however, the phonics

are sometimes compromised because of the absence of orthography of

Bicol Bulan.

Sex and instructional materials. Table 5E.1 presents the

statistical bases and statistical analysis of the relationship

between sex and their difficulties encountered along

instructional materials of the respondents.

Table 5E.1

Relationship between sex and difficulties encountered along


instructional materials

Statistical Analysis
Statistical Lesson Visual aids Assessment Availability
Bases preparation and adequacy

Degree of 3 2 3 3
freedom

Level of 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05


significance

2 critical 7.81 5.99 7.81 7.81


value

4.65 2.25 2.72 0.32


153

2 computed
value

Decision on Accept Ho Accept Ho Accept Ho Accept Ho


H0

Conclusion Not Not Not Not


significant significant significant significant

From the table, it can be inferred that in terms of lesson

preparation, assessment, and availability and adequacy, the 2

computed values of 4.65, 2.72, and 0.32, respectively, are lower

than the 2 critical value of 7.81 with degree of freedom of 3 at

0.05 level of significance. Thus, the acceptance of the null

hypothesis which states that there is no significant relationship

between sex and instructional materials along the mentioned

variables.

In addition, the 2 computed value for visual aids that is 2.25

does not exceed the 2 critical value of 5.99 [df = 2,  = 0.05].

Therefore, there is no significant relationship between

respondents’ sex and difficulties encountered along visual aids.

It means that the sex of the teachers does not affect the

difficulties encountered by the teachers along instructional

material in terms of lesson preparation, visual aids, assessment,

and availability and adequacy, because whether the teacher is male

or female still they will encounter these difficulties.


154

Sex and oral and written MTB communication. Table 5E.2 presents

the statistical bases and statistical analysis of the

relationship between sex and their difficulties encountered

along oral and written MTB communications of the respondents.

Table 5E.2

Relationship between sex and difficulties encountered along


oral and written MTB communications

Statistical Analysis
Statistical Bases Oral MTB Written MTB
communication communication

Degree of freedom 3 2

Level of significance 0.05 0.05

2 critical value 7.81 5.99

2 computed value 2.63 0.77

Decision on H0 Accept Ho Accept Ho

Conclusion Not significant Not significant

It can be asserted from the table that the difficulties

encountered along oral MTB communication is not significantly

related to their sex since the 2 computed value of 2.63 is lower

than the 2 critical value of 7.81 [df = 3,  = 0.05]. Hence the

acceptance of the null hypothesis.

Similarly, the 2 computed value of 0.77 is less than the 2

critical value of 5.99 at 0.05 level of significance with degree

of freedom of 2. Therefore, the null hypothesis is accepted which

states that there is no significant relationship between sex and


155

difficulties encountered by the respondents along written MTB

communication.

This means that the respondents’ gender whether male or female

is independent of the problems met in their communications in terms

of oral and written.

5. Proposed trainings design for teachers in teaching Mother-Tongue

Based Multilingual Education in Science III.

Teachers occupy the center stage in a learning environment.

They shine in a number of roles-the teaching, managing, leading

and facilitating and more importantly motivating and inspiring

children. (Salandanan, 2013)

Being a teacher is not an easy task. There are different

problems met by them that affected the work attitudes and

performance of the teachers. One of this is on making instructional

materials. There is not enough supplies of interventions, and

modules and other materials needed in teaching Science III.

The training design in making instructional materials for

grade III Science were developed to enhance the performance of the

teachers in terms of lingua franca especially along instructional

materials. It focused on the proper contextualization.

Objectives of the training design for teachers in teaching

Mother-Tongue Based Multilingual Education in Science III.

A. Provide the participants with adequate information in


156

teaching mother-tongue based multilingual education in science III

to suit in the newly incorporated curriculum.

B. Conduct activities to determine the effectiveness of the

practices of current teachers in Grade III science and

C. Give comprehensive discussion on transformational grade

III teachers.
157

Republic of the Philippines

Department of Education
Region V
Schools Division of Sorsogon
Bulan South District
FABRICA ELEMENTARY SCHOOL
Bulan

PROJECT PROPOSAL

II. TITLE:
Training for teachers in making Instructional Materials in
MTB-MLE in grade III Science.

III. DATE:
June 8, 2018

IV: VENUE:
BULAN SOUTH CENTRAL SCHOOL

V. THEME:
Transforming Teachers in Grade III Science to fit in to the
newly incorporated Curriculum

VI. RATIONALE:
In consonance with the implementation of The Department
of Education issued DepED Order No. 74, s. 2009,
“Institutionalizing Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education
(MLE)” in July 2009[1]. It had two enclosures: Enclosure No. 1
“Fundamental Requirements for a Strong Mother Tongue-Based
Multilingual Education (MLE)” and Enclosure No. 2 “MLE Bridging
Plan A (L1 MT, L2 Filipino, L3 English) and MLE Bridging Plan B
(L1 Filipino, L2 English, L3 Local Language, L4
Foreign).” Bridging Plan A is for pupils whose mother tongue is
not Filipino; Bridging Plan B is for those whose MT is Filipino.
Both plans provide for the use of English as the language of
learning and instruction (LOLI) for Science and Mathematics
starting in Grade 3.
This seminar will inspire the participants to realize their
teaching skills and potentials. Moreover, this training will
serve as an avenue to evaluate their current teaching practices
to suit in today’s curriculum.
With the above identified purposes, this training has been
conceptualized.
158

VII. TRAINING OBJECTIVES


At the end of this training, he participants will:
A. Provide the participants with adequate information in
teaching mother-tongue based multilingual education in science III
to suit in the newly incorporated curriculum.
B. Conduct activities to determine the effectiveness of the
practices of current teachers in Grade III science and
C. Give comprehensive discussion on transformational grade
III teachers.

VIII. TRAINING DESIGN, STRATEGIES AND METHODOLOGIES

A. General Concept of the Training


The training will be participated by all grade III
Science teachers of Bulan South and BUlan North District.
They are expected to attend the said training starting 7:00
in the morning until 5:00 in the afternoon. Different
topics will be discussed as stated in the Matrix of
Training. Attendance and flow of the activity will be
documented.

B. Salient topic for Discussion


The salient topic in this training are the following
1. New Curriculum
2. Preliminary to topic no.3
3. Transforming School Teachers to Fit in to the newly
incorporated curriculum
 K to 12 Curriculum
 contextualization
 Transformational Teacher
 Making instructional material

TENTATIVE PROGRAM AND SCHEDULE OF ACTIVITIES

Date June 8, 2018


TIME ACTIVITY TOPIC/REFERENCE SPEAKER/ VENUE
DURATION FACILITATOR
7:00AM- REGISTRATION BSCS
8:00AM
8:00AM- Opening Prayer (AVP)
8:30AM
Philippine National Anthem
Welcome Aeron Ray Girado Gratil
address Chairman
Message Ferdinand E. Hamor
BSCS-Principal III
159

Inspirational Dr. Juliet B. Tamboong


Message Public School District
Supervisor
Ice Breaker
8:30AM- TOPIC 1 New curriculum
10:00AM
10:00AM- FORUM
10:15AM
INTERMISSION NUMBER
10:15AM- TOPIC 2 1. Preliminary-
11:30AM Transforming
School Teachers
to Fit in to
the newly
incorporated
curriculum

11:30AM- FORUM
11:45AM
11:45AM- LUNCH BREAK
1:00PM
1:00PM- ICE BREAKER
1:30PM
1:30PM- TOPIC 3 Transforming
3:30PM School Teachers
to Fit in to the
newly
incorporated
curriculum

3:30PM- FORUM
4:00PM
4:00PM- Distribution of Certificate to the Resource
4:20PM Speakers and Participants
4:20PM- Intermission N umber
4:30PM
4:30PM- Closing Menandro Triguero
4:40PM Remarks
4:40pm-5:00 HOME SWEET HOME

IX. IMPLEMENTING AGENCY


Grade III teacher OF FABRICA ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

X. COOPERATING AGENCY
FABRICA ELEMENTARY SCHOOL
BULAN SOUTH BULAN NORTH DISTRICT
TEACHING AND NON-TEACHING STAFF OF BULAN SOUTH AND BULAN
NORTH DISTRICT
160

XI. RESOURCE PERSON/ TARGET SPEAKER


A. Administrator and Teacher

XII. TARGET PARTICIPANTS


GRADE III TEACHERS TEAHING SCIENCE OF BULAN SOUTH AND BULAN
NORTH DISTRICT

XIII. WORKING COMMITTEE


EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

EXECUTIVE CHAIRPERSON JULIET B. TAMBOONG, Ed. D.


PSDS

CO-CHAIRPERSON FERDINAND E. HAMOR


ESP III

TECHNICAL WORKING COMMITTEE

CHAIRMAN AERON RAY GIRADO GRATIL

CO-CHAIRMAN LYN CELADENA SERGIO

MEMBERS: JERIC H. POLON (COASTAL SECTOR)


MARYLENE M. BALBAS (INLAND SECTOR)
FREYNALDIR F. GUTLAY (CENTRAL SECTOR)
MAYLENE BESID (EASTERN SECTOR)

WORKING COMMITTEES

VENUE/ROOM ASSIGNMENTS

CHAIRMAN: LEOMAR GERONILLA


MEMBERS: MARITES BANDOLA
MERCY GIMAO
MAYLENE BESID

SOUND

CHAIRMAN: OMAR GIRADO


MEMBER: JULIAN CANADA

DOCUMENTATION

CHIARMAN: ANTHONY BERTEZ


MEMBERS: NOLIRIC NUNES
CINDY POLO
MELISSA PENTECOSTE
161

PROGRAM/CERTIFICATES

CHAIRMAN: EDMON T. DELLOMAS


MEMBERS: CINDY G. RELLEVE
PSALM GERALDINO
IVY B. GEROLA

STAGE/HALL DECORATION

CHAIRMAN: VILMA G. GUELAS


MEMBERS: MELBA G. GRATIL
RODA A. GOYAL
MILAGROSA E. GABIONSA
ABELARDO G. GEALONE

FOOD

CHAIRMAN: CRISTINE BENDANA


MEMBERS: FATIMA CALMA TAMBOONG
UNICA G. INSTRELLA

REGISTRATION/ACCOMODATION

CHAIRMAN: AERON RAY GIRADO GRATIL


MEMBERS: LYN CELADENA SERGIO
JERIC HIZOLA POLON
FEYNALDIR F. GUTLAY
MARYLENE M. BALBAS

XIV. ESTIMATED EXPENSES


A. FOODS
Snacks for Resources Speakers and Company (Php 100 x 3) 300
For participants ………………….………………………….(Php 20 x 150) 3,000
B. SUPPLIES AND MATERIALS
Tarpaulin and Stage ……………………………… 500
Certificates and Frames ……………………….(Php150 x 3) 450
TOTAL…………………………………………………………… 4,250
162

XV. EXPECTED OUTPUT


The training aims to develop the teachers in making
instructional material to improve the teaching of Science using
the Mother Tongue-Based instruction

Prepared by:

AERON RAY GIRADO GRATIL


Teacher I, Proponent

Noted:

HERMINIGILDA S. TOLETE
ESP I of Fabrica Elementary School

MENANDRO TRIGUERO
District Araling Panlipunan Coordinator

JULIET B. TAMBOONG
Public Schools District Supervisor

Recommending Approval:

MA. JEANY T. POSTRADO


Assistant Schools Division Superintendent

APPROVED:

LOIDA N. NIDEA, CESO V


Schools Division Superintendent
163

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter presents the summary, findings, and


recommendations based on the analysis and interpretation of the
data gathered in the study.

Summary

This study determined the difficulties encountered by Grade


3 Science teachers in the implementation of MTB-MLE for school
year 2017-2018.

Specifically, it answered the following questions:

1. What is the profile of Grade 3 Science teachers in terms of

a) lengua franca, b) trainings along MTB instruction, c)

length of service in the school, d) age, and e) sex?

2. What are the difficulties encountered by Grade 3 teachers in

teaching Science using along instructional materials in terms

of a) lesson preparation, b) visual aids, c) assessment, and

d) availability and adequacy?

3. What are the difficulties encountered by Grade 3 teachers in

teaching Science in terms of oral and written MTB

communication?

4. Is there a significant relationship between the profile of

the respondents and their difficulties encountered in

teaching Science along the identified variables?

5. What could be proposed based on the results of the study?


164

The study used the descriptive-survey method since a


questionnaire was devised in gathering the primary data as
reflected in the problem. The respondents were the 60 Grade 3
Science teachers from Bulan North and South Districts.

The statistical tools utilized were frequency count,


percentage, ranking, and weighted mean. The chi-square was used to
determine the significant relationship between the profile of the
respondents and difficulties encountered along the identified
variables.

Findings

Based on the data collected, the following are the findings


of the study:

1. Of the 60 Grade 3 Science teachers, 53 of them are using the

Bikol Bulan [rank 1] as the lengua franca in teaching the

subject. Most of the trainings attended along MTB instruction

is at Division level by 26 teachers or 43 percent. Then 43

percent or 26 teachers have a length of service in the school

of 10 years and below. Likewise, 25 teachers or 42 percent

belong to 36 to 45 years old and almost three-fourth [75

percent] of them are female.

2. The difficulties encountered by Grade 3 teachers in teaching

Science using the MTB-MLE along instructional materials along

lesson preparation, visual aids and availability and adequacy

have averages of 2.59, 2.94, and 3.20, respectively, which

are described as frequently. On the other hand, in terms of

assessment the average is 2.42 that is interpreted as

sometimes.
165

3. The difficulties encountered by the Grade 3 teachers in

teaching Science in terms of oral MTB communication has

average of 2.34 which is described as sometimes while along

written MTB communications it has an average of 2.67 that is

interpreted as frequently.

4. The trainings attended and difficulties encountered along

lesson preparation and oral MTB communication are

significantly related because the 2 computed values of 71.79

and 29.44, respectively, are greater than the critical value

of 21.03 [df = 12,  = 0.05]. Similarly, the lengua franca

and difficulties encountered along oral MTB communication are

significantly related since the 2 computed value of 32.66

exceeds the 2 critical value of 16.92 [df = 9,  = 0.05].

Also, the age and difficulties encountered along written MTB

communication are significantly related because the 2

computed value of 18.37 is greater than the 2 critical value

of 15.51 [df = 8,  = 0.05].

5. An instructional material may be designed to improve the

teaching of Science using the Mother Tongue-Based

instruction.
166

Conclusions

Based on the findings of the study, the researcher arrived at the


following conclusions:

1. The Grade 3 Science teachers have varied background in terms

of lengua franca, trainings attended, length of service, age,

and sex.

2. The Grade 3 Science teachers frequently encountered the

difficulties in lesson preparation, visual aids, and

availability and adequacy but sometimes the problems on

assessment of the instructional materials.

3. The difficulties encountered by the Grade 3 Science teachers

are frequently on oral MTB communication whereas sometimes

met in the written MTB communication.

4. There is a significant relationship between lingua franca and

difficulties encountered in oral MTB communication. Also,

there is a significant relationship between training attended

and difficulties encountered along lesson preparation and

oral MTB communication. Then, there is a significant

relationship between age and difficulties encountered along

written MTB communication.

5. An instructional material has been designed to improve the

teaching of Science using the Mother Tongue-Based

instruction.
167

Recommendations

Based on the findings and conclusions, the following are


recommended:

1. The teachers should be aware their place of origin in teaching

Grade III Science.

2. The teachers should have an orthography in Mother-Tongue

3. Teachers must attend seminars in teaching MTB-MLE in Science

III.

4. A training design in making instructional material to improve

the teaching of Science using the Mother Tongue-Based

instruction

5. Further research may be conducted in other areas related to

the subject of this research.


168

CHAPTER IV

MOTHER TONGUE BASED-MULTI LINGUAL EDUCATION IN GRADE 3 SCIENCE

This chapter expounds the findings, analysis and

interpretation of data gathered from the respondents of the study.

For clearer discussions, tales are used for clarity of

representation followed by the narrative treatment.

The presentation of data is divided into the following parts: 1)

Profile of grade e teacher in the province of Sorsogon in terms

of: a) age b) sex c) mother tongue used d) number of years using

mother tongue 2 Difficulties encountered by Grade 3 teachers in

teaching Science using MTB-MLE along instructional materials in

terms of a) lesson preparation, b) visual aids, c) assessment, and

d) availability and adequacy 3) Difficulties encountered by the

Grade 3 teachers in teaching Science in terms of oral and written

MTB communication 4) Relationship between the profile of the

respondents and their difficulties encountered in teaching Science

along the identified variables and the output.

I. Profile of Grade 3 Teachers

Age. Table II-A shows the Profile of grade e teaches in terms

of AGE. Most of the teachers aged 26-35 which is on the 1st rank

with 238 frequencies, followed by those who are 25-below which is

on the 2nd rank with 125 frequencies, next on the rank are those
169

who are in the age 36-45 with 115 frequencies, then on the 4th rank

are those in the age of 46-54 with 58 frequencies and on the 5th

rank are those who are 55-above with 9 frequencies and a total of

545.

Table II-A

Profile of grade 3 teachers in terms of AGE

Age Frequency Rank


25-below 125 2
26-35 238 1
36-45 115 3
46-54 58 4
55-above 9 5
Total 545

It means that ranges 26-35 got the highest rank and with

frequency of 238. These ages are from teachers who were served 5

to 10 years of service in the school of which they are very young

and energetic from the service.

It implies that grade 3 teachers in the province of Sorsogon

statistically range from 26-35 years old. They served and thought

Mother tongue energetically and systematically inside the

classroom. This is supported by Malik and Usman (2010) in their

study on Impact of MTB-MLE of primary learners in Sienna Colleges

that almost 30 years old are those who thought mother tongue

dialect

Sex. Table II-B shows the Profile of grade e teaches in terms

of SEX. Most of the teachers are female with a frequency count of


170

428 and placed on the rank 1 while the Males has a frequency count

of 117 which is placed on the 2nd rank and a total of 545.

Table II-B

Profile of grade e teaches in terms of SEX

Profile Frequency Rank


Male 117 2
Female 428 1
Total 545
It can be inferred from the table that female is more dominant

than male with frequency of 428 than 117 males. It is always proven

with some recent studies in most cases males are being outnumbered

by females. It is now the current trends as far as the number of

male and female are concerned.

This is in consonance with (Labo, 2012) on his study that

female was dominated than males in terms of learning statistics.

Mother Tongue. Table III-C shows the Mother Tongue of Grade

3 teachers. Most of the teachers speak Bikol Bulan with a frequency

count of 82 and placed on the 1st rank, followed by those who speak

Bikol Castilla with a frequency count of 77 which is placed on the

2nd rank, then next are those who speak Bikol Pilar with a frequency

count of 68 and on the 3rd rank, while on the 4th rank are those

who speak Bikol Gubat with a frequency count of 52, then on the

5th rank are those who speak Bikol Dansol with 49 frequencies, then

followed by those who speak Bikol Irosin with 45 frequencies and

on the 6th rank, then on the 7th rank are those who speak Bikol
171

Matnog with a frequeny count of 38, then on 8th rank are those who

speak Bikol Magallanes with 32 frequencies, then those who speak

Bikol Juban with 30 frequencies, while those who speak Bikol

Bulusan and Bikol Prieto Diaz with the same frequency count of 21

and on the last rank are those who speak Bikol Barcelona with 16

frequencies.
172

Table III-C

Mother Tongue of Grade 3 teachers

Mother Tongue Frequency Rank


Bikol Barcelona 16 12
Bikol Bulusan 21 10.5
Bikol Gubat 52 4
Bikol Prieto Diaz 21 10.5
Bikol Sta. Magdalena 14 13
Bikol Irosin 45 6
Bikol Matnog 38 7
Bikol Juban 30 9
Bikol Bulan 82 1
Bikol Castilla 77 2
Bikol Donsol 49 5
Bikol Magallanes 32 8
Bikol Pilar 68 3
Total 545

It can be deduced from the table Bikol Bulan got the highest

rank and 82 frequencies. It means that most grade 3 teachers found

in the Bulan.

It implies that bikol bulan was frequently used in the

province of Sorsogon.

Number of Years. Table II-D shows the Numbers of Years in

Teaching Grade III using Mother Tongue. The majority of the

teachers are already teaching Grade III using Mother Tongue for 10

years and below with a frequency count of 325 which is placed on

the 1st rank, while on the 2nd rank are those who are teaching for

11 to 20 years with 127 frequencies and placed on the 2nd rank,

followed by those who are teaching for 21-30 years with 76


173

frequencies, then on the 4th rank are those who are teaching for

31-40 years with a frequency count of 17.

Table II-D

Numbers of Years in Teaching Grade III using Mother Tongue

Profile Frequency Rank


10 years and below 325 1
11 to 20 years 127 2
21 to 30 years 76 3
31 to 40 years 17 4
Total 545

It means that the number of years in teaching grade 3 using

mother tongue ranges 10 years and below. Since the K to 12

curriculum implemented 5 years below it connotes that teachers

were not yet experience enough to used mother tongue.

It implies that the teachers were not yet experienced teaching

the mother tongue and they were not be adjusted from native dialect

because they are supposed to used bicol naga.

Trainings. Table II-E shows the Trainings attended along MTB

Instruction. Most of the teachers attended District seminars with

453 frequencies which is 83.1%, while others are those who attended

seminars in Division with a frequency count of 22.8%, then some

are those who attended Regional Seminars has a 112 frequencies

which is 20.6%, on the other hand are those who attended National

Seminars with 73 frequencies which is 13.4% and there are some

teachers who are already attended International Seminars with a


174

frequency count of 67 which is 12.3% while there are also teachers

who didn’t attend any seminars with 35 frequencies which is 6.4%.

Table II-E

Trainings attended along MTB Instruction

Level Frequency Percentage


International 67 12.3%
National 73 13.4%
Regional 112 20.6%
Division 124 22.8%
District 453 83.1%
None 35 6.4%
Total 545 100%

It can be gleaned from the table that most training that

teachers attended was from district. Teachers may only focus on

native language they do not have time to explore and discover some

dialect being used in some different places in the province of

Sorsogon.

This is in parallel with Diaz (2018) that when it comes to

attending trainings, many MTB teachers only attend those that are

under the district based brackets because they want first to focus

on their native languages before learning others.

II. Difficulties encountered by Grade 3 teachers in teaching


Science using MTB-MLE along instructional materials in terms of a)
lesson preparation, b) visual aids, c) assessment, and d)
availability and adequacy

Table 3A

Difficulties encountered along visual aids


175

Problems Weighted Mean Description


7. Problem in making improvised
instructional materials 3.28 Always
written in Mother Tongue.
8. Problem in using improvised
instructional materials 3.8 Always
written in Mother Tongue.
9. Unavailability of video
clips in Science using 2.8 Frequently
Mother Tongue language.
10. Unreliability of
available audio materials in
Science using Mother Tongue Frequently
that are expected to 3.0
strengthen the listening
skills of the learners.
11. Unavailability of Science
equipment. 2.79 Frequently
12. Scientific models and
illustrations were not 2.9 Frequently
labelled in Mother Tongue.

Average 3.095 Frequently


Table 3A presented the Difficulties encountered along visual

aids. As the table shows, most of the problems encountered are

Problem in making improvised instructional materials written in

Mother Tongue and Problem in using improvised instructional

materials written in Mother Tongue with a weighted means of 3.28

and 3.8 which are described as Always, while some of the problems

such as Unavailability of video clips in Science using Mother

Tongue language with a weighted mean of 2.8, Unreliability of

available audio materials in Science using Mother Tongue that are

expected to strengthen the listening skills of the learners with

3.0 weighted mean, Unavailability of Science equipment with 2.79

weighted mean, Scientific models and illustrations were not


176

labelled in Mother Tongue with a weighted mean of 2.9 are described

as frequently and the Average mean is 3.095 which is described as

frequently.

This is in accordance with Delfin, Sandro, Zschech et. al

(2018) stating that there is really a huge discrepancy when it

comes to the usage of Mother Tongue in creating visual aids and

other learning materials because of the absence of the official

written rules and regulations or the orthography set to native

languages ever since English was adapted by many countries as the

universal medium of communication in Education, Business, Law and

other areas.

On the other hand, the teachers rated the problems

unpreparedness of the teacher in using Mother Tongue as medium of

instruction and dialect of a particular station is not the primary

language of the teacher assigned to handle the subject with

weighted means of 2.15 and 2.18, respectively, which are both

described as sometimes. Moreover, the difficulties lack of

training of teachers to teach Science using the Mother Tongue and

curriculum is prepared with the wrong presumption that learners

can express well in Mother Tongue were given by the respondents

weighted means of 2.97 and 2.58, respectively that are interpreted

as frequently.

It means among the seven variables along difficulties

encountered on lesson preparation, difficulty in explaining


177

scientific concepts using Mother Tongue, translating Science terms

to Mother Tongue, difficulty in using varied languages in the whole

duration of teaching to accommodate pupils who do no speak in a

particular language, and lack of training were frequently

encountered by Science teachers teaching Grade III because there

is no existing Bicol Bulan-Science dictionary. Most teacher

respondents are native of bulan so they do not know other lingua

franca. Trainings on teaching Science using the Mother Tongue do

not usually happen. The preparation of curriculum with the wrong

presumption that learners can express well in mother tongue is

also encountered frequently by the teachers because students are

exposed to Filipino and English languages in the presence of

multimedia: Furthermore, students are not fluent speakers of the

dialect because some of the terminologies in Bicol Bulan only the

old people knows some of the terminologies.

This is in lined with Uddha (2016) claiming that scientific

terms are considered as one of the hardest and incomprehensive

concepts in literature, thus it is also one of the most difficult

translatable subject when it comes to Science teaching and

education.

On the other hand, two components along the difficulties

encountered on lesson preparation were encountered sometimes only

because teachers usually prepare themselves before teaching as

requirement for them in the delivery of the lesson. Most teachers’


178

respondent was native of Bulan so difficulty on dialect of

particular station is not the primary language of the teacher

assigned to handle the subject is encountered sometimes only.

The finding is in parallel with Soriano (2018) deducing that

problems in visual aids in relation with mother tongue usually

happens only to non-native speakers while those teachers native to

it only find it a difficulty sometimes.

Table 3B

Difficulties encountered along assessment

Problems Weight Description


ed
Mean
8. Assessments of concepts are difficult
to express in Mother Tongue. 2.63 Frequently
9. Expected learning outcomes in the
subject are not suited to the level
of the learners. 2.37 Sometimes
10. Lack of provision of evaluation
materials. 2.62 Frequently
11. Absence of reliable evaluation
materials. 2.52 Frequently
12. Difficulty on formulating rubrics
using Mother Tongue. 2.33 Sometimes
13. Difficulty on addressing diversity
among learners with different primary
language/dialect. 2.27 Sometimes
14. Incompetence in constructing test
questions in Science using Mother 2.30 Sometimes
Tongue.

Average 2.42 Sometimes

Assessment. The weighted mean and description of the

difficulties encountered by the respondents along assessment are


179

included in Table 3C. As reflected in the table, it can be deduced

that in terms of assessment, the respondents rated the problems

assessment of concepts are difficult to express in Mother Tongue,

lack of provision of evaluation materials, and absence of reliable

evaluation materials with weighted means of 2.63, 2.62, and 2.52,

respectively, which are described as frequently.

Meanwhile, the expected learning outcomes in the subject are

not suited to the level of the learners and difficulty on

formulating rubrics using Mother Tongue were described by them as

frequently encountered difficulties since the weighted means are

2.37 and 2.33, respectively. Similarly, the difficulty on

addressing diversity among learners with different primary

language/dialect and incompetence in constructing test questions

in Science using Mother Tongue was considered as sometimes

encountered problems for they evaluated with weighted means of

2.27 and 2.30, respectively.

It means that the assessment of concepts are difficult to

express in Mother tongue as described as frequently encountered

shows that the newly incorporated use of the native dialect as the

medium of instruction does have a big effect to the teaching of

the said subject. The sudden change creates an important bigger

than it is anticipated. This is because there are technical terms

in science that can hardly be translated to Mother Tongue. So the

other rated as frequently which is the lack of provision of


180

evaluation materials. One of the factors that affects the provision

are the differences in the dialects. It will be taking some time

to provide schools with evaluation materials among other materials

to support the curriculum implementation. This is justified by the

other frequently rated difficulty which is the absence of reliable

evaluation materials which is due to the lack of provision by the

system. The first three issues had not as big an effect as the

difficulty on formulating rubrics using Mother Tongue as it is

rated sometimes. This shows that since it is the teacher teaching

the subject who is mostly native of the place designs the rubrics,

it is easier to create one, so the difficulty on addressing

diversity among learners with different primary language/dialect

also rated as sometimes. The result shows that it has just a

minimal negative effect to the teachers because of the familiarity

of the primary dialect. Furthermore, the incompetence in

constructing test questions in Science using Mother Tongue was

also rated as sometimes most of teachers. This shows that the

teacher indicated tools and activities are less of a difficulty

encountered by teachers who also rated sometimes the expected-

learning outcomes in the subject are not suited to the levels of

the learners.

This supports the fact that learning outcomes can be easily

achieved with the teacher’s competence in assessment tool

construction regardless of the dialect use. And it is indeed


181

parallel to the study of Sadler (1989) provides a conceptual

framework that places classroom assessment in the context of

curriculum and instruction are required for assessment to promote

learning.

Availability and adequacy. The weighted mean and description of

the difficulties encountered by the respondents along availability

and adequacy are presented in Table 3D.


182

Table 3C

Difficulties encountered along availability and adequacy

Problems Weighted Mean Description


7. Scarcity of reading
materials in Mother Tongue 2.91 Frequently
in Science.
8. Absence of textbooks,
teachers guide, and learning
materials in Science that 3.09 Frequently
are published in Mother
Tongue to aid the learners.
9. There is no Mother Tongue
dictionary to accommodate
the needs of both teachers 3.07 Frequently
and learners.
10. No worksheets or module
provided in Science. 3.12 Frequently
11. Inadequacy of references
in Science, CG’s and TG’s
that are written in Mother 3.20 Frequently
Tongue.
12. No scientific models in
Science using Mother Tongue
that are provided to 3.13 Frequently
demonstrate concepts.

Average 3.09 Frequently

III. Difficulties encountered by the Grade 3 teachers in teaching


Science in terms of oral and written MTB communication

Oral MTB communication. The weighted mean and description of the

difficulties encountered by the respondents relative to oral MTB

communication are contained in Table 4A.


183

Table 4A

Difficulties encountered in terms of oral MTB communication

Problems Weighted Mean Description


7. Non-fluency in speaking the
dialect. 2.15 Sometimes
8. Inhibition to express
oneself in Mother Tongue. 2.35 Sometimes
9. Inability to express oneself
in Mother Tongue. 2.32 Sometimes
10. Difficulty in
communicating with learners
who are more exposed in
technology who are used to 2.32 Sometimes
communicating using Filipino
and English languages.
11. Problem in using a
dominant language/dialect of
the area as your first 2.37 Sometimes
choice of medium of
instruction.
12. Difficulty in adapting
the different lingua franca. 2.53 Frequently

Average 2.34 Sometimes

It means that based on the results it can be emphasized that

relative to the difficulties encountered in terms of oral MTB

communication, the respondents rated the 5 of 6 components as

sometimes, it means that even though you are a native of a certain

place still there are some words that are hard to achieve the

proper pronunciation because of the influences of other languages.

Inhibition to express oneself in Mother-Tongue sometimes

encountered by the teachers though he or she is native by that

certain place does not guarantee that he can express idea fully.

Consequently, inabilities to express oneself in mother tongue are


184

sometimes encountered because he or she used to in using the old

medium of instruction in teaching science. Furthermore, the

difficulty in communicating with learners who are more exposed in

technology that used to communicating using Filipino and English

languages and the problem in using a dominant language/dialect of

the area as your first choice of medium of instruction are rated

as sometimes by the respondents so therefore there is only minimal

problem when it comes to this components, this will only occurs

when the teachers assigned to other station which he or she is not

native of a certain place.

Meanwhile, 1 out of six components are rated as frequently

and this is the difficulty in adapting the different lingua franca.

This play an important role in teaching especially using the

Mother Tongue it is indeed rated as frequently because there are

some teachers that are not native of a certain place assigned in

that station without the prior knowledge of their dialect.

The findings are parallel to the study of Alidou (2003) noted

that many teachers face serious professional challenges. They may

be able to speak the dominant language of instruction, but they

have not mastered speaking that language.

Written MTB communication. Table 4B presents the weighted mean and

description of the difficulties encountered by the respondents

relative to written MTB communication.


185

Table 4B

Difficulties encountered relative to written MTB communication

Problems Weighted Mean Description


7. Absence of our own
orthography in Mother 3.18 Frequently
Tongue.
8. Non-proficiency in
constructing sentence or 2.65 Frequently
paragraph in Mother Tongue.
9. Insufficient vocabulary in
Mother Tongue. 2.89 Frequently
10. Lack of grammar awareness
in Mother Tongue. 2.84 Frequently
11. Difficulty in spelling in
Mother Tongue. 2.92 Frequently
12. Inability to understand
profound Bicol 2.67 Frequently
terminologies.
2.86
Average Frequently

The difficulties encountered relative to the written MTB

communication imply that mother tongue has been affected and

compromised from the start by each native to exclude or

subordinate. The problem varies in each district. Furthermore, by

contrast to the plurality of the vernaculars, some words were

translated to achieve trans-local as the dialect of one locality.

It does exist inassimilable language beyond naturalization and

localization;

The finding is the same with Perez (2018) claiming that the

most problem being faced by many MTB teachers is the absence of

the orthography or rules in writing the native languages to be

used in their teachings. In order to address this issue, many MTB


186

teachers already create their own rules just to have a formal

presentation of the words during their class discussion.

4. Relationship between the profile of the respondents and their


difficulties encountered in teaching Science along the identified
variables

Mother Tongue and instructional materials. Table 5A.1 presents

the statistical bases and statistical analysis of the

relationship between Mother Tongue and their difficulties

encountered along instructional materials of the respondents.

Table 5A.1

Relationship between Mother Tongue and difficulties


encountered along instructional materials

Statistical Analysis
Statistical Bases Visual aids Availability
Assessment and adequacy

Degree of freedom 9 9 9

Level of 0.05 0.05 0.05


significance

2 critical value 16.92 16.92 16.92

2 computed value 5.24 8.25 8.07

Decision on H0 Accept Ho Accept Ho Accept Ho

Conclusion Not Not Not


significant significant significant

It can be deduced from the table that in terms of visual aids,

assessment, and availability and adequacy, the 2 computed values

of, 5.24, 8.25, and 8.07, respectively, are lower than the 2

critical value of 16.92 with degree of freedom of 9 at 0.05 level


187

of significance. Thus, the acceptance of the null hypothesis which

states that there is no significant relationship between Mother

tongue and difficulties encountered along instructional materials

along the mentioned variables.

It means that these variables were not significantly related

to the lingua franca and instructional materials along the

mentioned variables. Further, it means that the mother tongue and

difficulties encountered along instructional materials by the

teachers did not affect the difficulty along the mentioned

variables, because almost of the teachers from all districts of

Sorsogon are having their own native land.

This implies that in terms of identified variables that their

native dialect is not an issue in terms of preparing their visual

aids, and assessment in contextualizing of each component. In

addition, the availability and adequacy of an instructional

materials does not affect the difficulties encountered along

instructional materials because of its abundance though it does

not translated to the dialect of Sorsogon Province District still

teachers managed to decipher it to their assigned station.

This is partly the same with Sanchez (2015) stating that since

orthography of native languages is still being studied, the

relationship of making visual aids cannot be linked yet because

teachers have their own rules of orthography thus, difficulty of

creating such is found to be absent.


188

Lengua franca and oral and written MTB communications. Table

5A.2 presents the statistical bases and statistical analysis

of the relationship between lengua franca and their

difficulties encountered along oral and written MTB

communications of the respondents.

Table 5A.2

Relationship between lingua franca and difficulties


encountered along oral and written MTB communications

Statistical Analysis
Statistical Bases Oral MTB Written MTB
communication communication

Degree of freedom 9 9

Level of 0.05 0.05


significance

2 critical value 16.92 16.92

2 computed value 32.66 4.99

Decision on H0 Reject Ho Accept Ho

Conclusion Significant Not significant

It can be asserted from the table that the difficulties

encountered along oral MTB communications is significantly

related to lengua franca since the 2 computed values of 32.66

is greater than the 2 critical value of 16.92 [df = 9,  =

0.05]. Hence the rejection of the null hypothesis.

However, the 2 computed value of 4.99 is less than the 2

critical value of 16.92 at 0.05 level of significance with


189

degree of freedom of 9. Therefore, the null hypothesis is

accepted which states that there is no significant relationship

between lingua franca and difficulties encountered by the

respondents along written MTB communication.

It means that the oral communication was significantly

related to the lingua franca because of the adopted common

language of the teachers whose native language is different

may affect the fluency of a teacher in teaching Science III.

The finding is synonymous with Hughes (2015) stating

that in many schools in the country, many teachers still find

it hard to communicate and teach orally through MTB especially

those who are not native to such languages. However, for those

who are native already to such languages they do not find any

difficulty with it at all.

On the other hand, lingua franca and difficulty in terms

of written communication was not significant or was not

related.

Further, lingua franca did not affect the difficulty in

terms of written communication because there is no

orthography of Bicol Bulan.

The finding is synonymous with Ferido (2017) claiming

that since many native languages in the country do not have their

own orthography yet, there is still no available reports of


190

correlation or relationships between the lingua franca and the

difficulty faced by the teachers in terms of written communication.

Trainings attended and instructional materials. Table 5B.1

presents the statistical bases and statistical analysis of the

relationship between trainings attended and their difficulties

encountered along instructional materials of the respondents.

Table 5B.1

Relationship between trainings attended and difficulties


encountered along instructional materials

Statistical Analysis
Statistical Bases Visual aids Assessment Availability
and adequacy

Degree of freedom
8 12 12

Level of 0.05 0.05 0.05


significance

2 critical value 15.51 21.03 21.03

2 computed value 11.89 18.39 16.14

Decision on H0 Accept Ho Accept Ho Accept Ho

Conclusion Not Not Not


significant significant significant

From the table above, it can be inferred that the difficulties

encountered along visual aids, assessment, and availability and

adequacy, the 2 computed values of 11.89, 18.39, and 16.14,

respectively, are lower than the 2 critical values of 21.03

with degree of freedom of 12 at 0.05 level of significance.

Thus, the acceptance of the null hypothesis which states that


191

there is no significant relationship between training attended

and instructional materials along the identified variables.

It means that lesson preparations were significantly related

to trainings attended and difficulties encountered along

instructional materials. Further, it means that trainings

attended are affected in preparing their lesson. Since we have

a new curriculum or also known as R.A. 10533 or K to 12 and it

is being incorporated I believed that there will be a sudden

change in terms of preparing the lesson in grade 3 science most

especially it should be served to the pupils using the Mother-

Tongue as the medium of instruction. Hence, that some teachers

that are teaching grade 3 science are not native in their

assigned station and as a result using the dialect of their

assigned station to cater the subject of science would have

highly affect their lesson preparation in terms of

contextualization.

This is further in lined with Le Gaspi (2017) saying that

since the curriculum of the Mother Tongue Based teaching is new to

all teachers and students, trainings are really vital for them to

be able to carry and prepare their lessons and instructional

materials more effectively.

Trainings attended and oral and written MTB communications.

Table 5B.2 presents the statistical bases and statistical

analysis of the relationship between trainings attended and


192

their difficulties encountered along oral and written MTB

communications of the respondents.

Table 5B.2

Relationship between trainings attended and difficulties


encountered along oral and written MTB communications

Statistical Analysis
Statistical Bases Oral MTB Written MTB
communication communication

Degree of freedom 12 8

Level of significance 0.05 0.05

2 critical value 21.03 15.51

2 computed value 34.76 11.28

Decision on H0 Reject Ho Accept Ho

Conclusion Significant Not significant

It can be asserted from the table that the difficulties encountered

along oral MTB communication is significantly related to the

training attended since the 2 computed value of 34.76 is lower

than the 2 critical value of 21.03 [df = 12,  = 0.05]. Hence the

rejection of the null hypothesis.

Consequently, the 2 computed value of 11.28 is less than the

2 critical value of 15.51 at 0.05 level of significance with degree

of freedom of 8. Therefore, the null hypothesis is accepted which

states that there is no significant relationship between sex and


193

difficulties encountered by the respondents along written MTB

communication.

It means that the oral communication was significantly

related to the trainings attended of the teachers because

they can apply the acquired the knowledge when they return to

their respective classrooms.

On the other hand, trainings attended and difficulty in

terms of written communication was not significant or was not

related.

The finding is supported by Agullana (2018) stating that

teachers still face difficulties in terms of communication

even though they attend trainings, conferences, seminars and

the like. Agullana asserts that communication skills are

inborn skills; thus such activities would be no help.

Length of service and instructional materials. Table 5C.1

presents the statistical bases and statistical analysis of the

relationship between length of service and their difficulties

encountered along instructional materials of the respondents.


194

Table 5C.1

Relationship between length of service and difficulties


encountered along instructional materials

Statistical Analysis
Statistical Bases Visual aids Assessment Availability
and adequacy

Degree of freedom 8 12 12

Level of significance 0.05 0.05 0.05

2 critical value 15.51 21.03 21.03

2 computed value 9.45 11.36 13.27

Decision on H0
Accept Ho Accept Ho Accept Ho

Conclusion Not Not Not


significant significant significant

It can be inferred from the table above that in terms of

assessment, and availability and adequacy, the 2 computed values

of 11.36, and 13.27, respectively, are lower than the 2 critical

value of 21.03 with degree of freedom of 12 at 0.05 level of

significance. Thus, the acceptance of the null hypothesis which

states that there is no significant relationship between length of

service and instructional materials along the mentioned variables.

Additionally, the 2 computed value for visual aids that is 9.45

does not exceed the 2 critical value of 15.51 [df = 8,  = 0.05].

Therefore, there is no significant relationship between length of

service and difficulties encountered along visual aids.


195

It means that whether the teacher is new in the service or

has been serving for a long time his or her needs in terms of the

variables are the same.

Nevertheless, the finding is in contrast with Gondilla (2018)

claiming that there is a marked correlation between teacher’s

length of service and the difficulties they encounter in making

their instructional materials. His journal on Contemporary

Education revealed that teachers with longer length of service do

not encounter any difficulty at all in terms of their instructional

materials because they have already been used in doing so.

Length of service and oral and written MTB communication. Table

5C.2 presents the statistical bases and statistical analysis

of the relationship between length of service and their

difficulties encountered along oral and written MTB

communications of the respondents.

Table 5C.2

Relationship between length of service and difficulties


encountered along oral and written MTB communications

Statistical Analysis
Statistical Bases Oral MTB Written MTB
communication communication

Degree of freedom 12 8

Level of 0.05 0.05


significance

2 critical value 21.03 15.51


196

2 computed value 18.91 19.75

Decision on H0 Accept Ho Accept Ho

Conclusion Not significant Not significant

It can be inferred from the table that the difficulties

encountered along oral MTB communication is not significantly

related to their length of service in the school since the 2

computed value of 18.91 is lower than the 2 critical value of

21.03 [df = 12,  = 0.05]. Hence the acceptance of the null

hypothesis.

Likewise, the 2 computed value of 19.75 is less than the 2

critical value of 15.51 at 0.05 level of significance with degree

of freedom of 8. Therefore, the null hypothesis is accepted which

states that there is no significant relationship between length of

service and difficulties encountered by the respondents along

written MTB communication.

It means that these variables were not significantly related

to the length of service and instructional materials along the

mentioned variables. Further, it means that the length of service

and difficulties encountered along instructional materials the

teachers did not affect the difficulty along the mentioned

variables because no teacher has orthography of Bicol of Sorsogon

Province as reference in their teaching.


197

This implies that in terms of identified variables they can

teach the subject however, proper pronunciation, spelling, and

grammar are sometimes compromised.

The finding is further supported by Binasbas (2016),

presenting that teacher’s length of service is no longer correlated

in many schools when it comes to teaching mother tongue based

subjects. The article posted on his journal shows that since the

curriculum is new, teachers regardless of their length of service

are also new to such system.

Age and instructional materials. Table 5D.1 presents the

statistical bases and statistical analysis of the relationship

between age and their difficulties encountered along instructional

materials of the respondents.

Table 5D.1

Relationship between age and difficulties encountered along


instructional materials

Statistical Analysis
Statistical Bases Visual aids Availability
Assessment and adequacy

Degree of freedom 8 12 12

Level of significance 0.05 0.05 0.05

2 critical value 15.51 21.03 21.03

2 computed value 9.35 11.90 13.17

Decision on H0 Accept Ho Accept Ho Accept Ho

Conclusion Not Not Not


significant significant significant
198

It can be observed from the table above that in terms of

assessment, and availability and adequacy, the 2 computed values

of 11.90, and 13.17, respectively, are less than the 2 critical

value of 21.03 with degree of freedom of 12 at 0.05 level of

significance. Thus, the acceptance of the null hypothesis which

states that there is no significant relationship between age and

instructional materials along the mentioned variables.

Also, the 2 computed value for visual aids that is 9.35 does

not exceed the 2 critical value of 15.51 [df = 8,  = 0.05].

Therefore, there is no significant relationship between age and

difficulties encountered along visual aids.

It means that these variables were not significantly related

to the age and instructional materials along the mentioned

variables. Further, it means that the age and difficulties

encountered along instructional materials the teachers did not

affect the difficulty along the mentioned variables because no

matter what the age of the teacher whether he or she is young or

old still he or she will encounter these difficulties.

The finding is in lined with the study of Frigdale (2018)

stating that there is no marked correlation between instructor’s

age and the difficulties they encountered in terms of instructional

materials revealing that almost all teachers regardless of age


199

face different complexities when it comes to creating visual aids

such as flash cards and literary presentations and flow charts.

Age and oral and written MTB communication. Table 5D.2 presents

the statistical bases and statistical analysis of the

relationship between age and their difficulties encountered

along oral and written MTB communications of the respondents.


200

Table 5D.2

Relationship between age and difficulties encountered along


oral and written MTB communications

Statistical Analysis
Statistical Bases Oral MTB Written MTB
communication communication

Degree of freedom 12 8

Level of 0.05 0.05


significance

2 critical value 21.03 15.51

2 computed value 19.17 23.87

Decision on H0 Accept Ho Reject Ho

Conclusion Not significant Significant

It can be asserted from the table that the difficulties

encountered along oral MTB communication is not significantly

related to their age since the 2 computed value of 19.17 is lower

than the 2 critical value of 21.03 [df = 12,  = 0.05]. Hence the

acceptance of the null hypothesis.

However, the 2 computed value of 23.87 exceeds the 2 critical

value of 15.51 at 0.05 level of significance with degree of freedom

of 8. Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected which means that

there is a significant relationship between age and difficulties

encountered by the respondents along written MTB communication.


201

It means that the written communication was significantly

related to the age of the teachers because somehow the teacher may

be forgetful.

On the other hand, age and difficulty in terms of oral

Communication was not significant or was not related.

Further, age did not affect the difficulty in terms of oral

communication because since the assigned station of the teachers

are their native place regardless of the age still they can use

the mother tongue as a medium of instruction however, the phonics

are sometimes compromised because of the absence of orthography of

Bicol Bulan.

The finding is in corroboration with Ramos (2018) on his

sociological study regarding the use of mother tongue as a medium

of instruction in the provinces of the Philippines. The study

revealed that age has never been related to difficulty of oral

communication when it comes to MTB teaching especially for teachers

who have been native residents to their respective provinces.

Sex and instructional materials. Table 5E.1 presents the

statistical bases and statistical analysis of the relationship

between sex and their difficulties encountered along

instructional materials of the respondents.


202

Table 5E.1

Relationship between sex and difficulties encountered along


instructional materials

Statistical Analysis
Statistical Bases Visual aids Assessment Availability
and adequacy

Degree of freedom 2 3 3

Level of significance 0.05 0.05 0.05

2 critical value 5.99 7.81 7.81

2 computed value 0.98 4.82 5.27

Decision on H0 Accept Ho Accept Ho Accept Ho

Conclusion Not Not Not


significant significant significant

From the table, it can be inferred that in terms of

assessment, availability and adequacy, the 2 computed values of

4.82, and 5.27, respectively, are lower than the 2 critical value

of 7.81 with degree of freedom of 3 at 0.05 level of significance.

Thus, the acceptance of the null hypothesis which states that there

is no significant relationship between sex and instructional

materials along the mentioned variables.

In addition, the 2 computed value for visual aids that is 0.98

does not exceed the 2 critical value of 5.99 [df = 2,  = 0.05].

Therefore, there is no significant relationship between

respondents’ sex and difficulties encountered along visual aids.


203

It means that the sex of the teachers does not affect the

difficulties encountered by the teachers along instructional

material in terms of lesson preparation, visual aids, assessment,

and availability and adequacy, because whether the teacher is male

or female still they will encounter these difficulties.

This is in lined with Morella (2016) claiming that sex is not

connected to the ability of the teachers to do or prepare

instructional materials reporting that in Cambodia both female and

male teachers are both capable of giving some touches of creativity

on their visual aids and power point presentations.

Sex and oral and written MTB communication. Table 5E.2 presents

the statistical bases and statistical analysis of the

relationship between sex and their difficulties encountered

along oral and written MTB communications of the respondents.

Table 5E.2

Relationship between sex and difficulties encountered along


oral and written MTB communications

Statistical Analysis
Statistical Bases Oral MTB Written MTB
communication communication

Degree of freedom 3 2

Level of 0.05 0.05


significance

2 critical value 7.81 5.99

2 computed value 4.61 2.38

Decision on H0 Accept Ho Accept Ho

Conclusion Not significant Not significant


204

It can be asserted from the table that the difficulties

encountered along oral MTB communication is not significantly

related to their sex since the 2 computed value of 4.61 is lower

than the 2 critical value of 7.81 [df = 3,  = 0.05]. Hence, the

acceptance of the null hypothesis.

Similarly, the 2 computed value of 2.38 is less than the 2

critical value of 5.99 at 0.05 level of significance with degree

of freedom of 2. Therefore, the null hypothesis is accepted which

states that there is no significant relationship between sex and

difficulties encountered by the respondents along written MTB

communication.

This means that the respondents’ gender whether male or female

is independent of the problems met in their communications in terms

of oral and written.

The finding is correspondingly synonymous with Atalanta

(2018), stating that in many countries in Asia, sex or gender has

never been interrelated to problems and difficulties when it comes

to oral and written communication especially between teacher-

student/pupil interaction on every day basis of class discussion.

Nevertheless, the problem dominantly occurs between teacher-parent

relations because gender has been found out to be the highest

predictor of communication between these two parties where both


205

teachers and parents are found out to be more comfortable when

they converse to the same sex like theirs.


206

R E F E R E N C E S
207

A.Books

Adams, et al. (1997). Towards effective Teaching. Mandaluyong


City: Philippines National Bookstore.

Berester, Wals M. 1993. How to Design Education in Research.


New York: Mcgraw Hill Book Company.

Brown, Chesler R. 1992. Science on the Go for the Future,


Universiy of Mcguffin, Austria.

Comptous Encyclopedia (1982) Chicago Comptous Learning Computer


asubsidary of soft International Inc.Vol. 7

Epps,M. (1999) Its Your Choice (Encyclopedia of Science and Beyond)

European Journal of Teacher Education, Volume 38, Issue 4, 2015

Gregorio, H. C. (1961). School Administration and Supervision.


Quezon City: Garotech Publising.

Gregorio “Principles and Methods of Teaching (Manila:Alex


Publishing Co. 1987)

Jett N. (2009). Written and Oral Communication in Elementary and


Secondary Students Reviewers, Loyola University, Chicago

Kelly, W, A. (1965). Educational Psychology, Revised Edition.


Milwaukee: the Bruce Publishing Company.

Patt M. (2009). Importance of Instructional Materials in Teaching:


Educational research,25,37-40

Richey, (planning for Instruction to Education, (New Jersey:


Prentice Hall, 1993) p78.

Salandanan, G. 2005)”Teaching and the Teacher” (Lorimar Publishing


Co. Inc. Boston Street Cubao, Quezon City, Metro Manila.
208

A. Published Materials

R.A. 105333, s. 2013. An Act Enhancing the Philippines Basic


Education System by Strengthening its Curriculum and
Increasing the Number of Years for Basic Education
Curriculum, Appropriating Thereof and Other Purposes.
Fifteenth Congress. Metro Manila, Philippines. 2014

DepED Order No. 74, s. 2009, “Institutionalizing Mother Tongue-


Based Multilingual Education (MLE)” in July 2009[1]. It had
two enclosures: Enclosure No. 1 “Fundamental Requirements for
a Strong Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education (MLE)”
and Enclosure No. 2 “MLE Bridging Plan A (L1 MT, L2 Filipino,
L3 English) and MLE Bridging Plan B (L1 Filipino, L2 English,
L3 Local Language, L4 Foreign).” Bridging Plan A is for
pupils whose mother tongue is not Filipino; Bridging Plan B
is for those whose MT is Filipino. Both plans provide for the
use of English as the language of learning and instruction
(LOLI) for Science and Mathematics starting in Grade 3.

B. Unpublished Materials

Cadag, A. 2008 Prepared Training Design in the Teaching of Science


to Grade III and IV Pupils in Donsol East District.
Unpublished Master’s Thesis. Bicol University, Legaspi City.

Diaz, Ma. Elena S. 2014 The Proficiency Level in Listening Skills


of Grade IV: Input to the Development of Instructional
Material, SOrsogon State College, Sorsogon City

Gealone, Benjie M. 2014 Effectiveness of Modular Instruction in


Techonology and livelihood Education of Grade 7, Sorsogon
State College, Sorsogon City.

Maguslog, C. The effect of Modularized Insruction on the Achivement


of Science Student in Grade III 2001.

Morals, M. The Teaching of Science, Philippines:Phonex Publishing


House Inc. 19998
209

Navarro, The Importance of Teachers in Teaching Science in


Producing Productive Individuals, 1999

Taumatargo, R. Performance and Difficulties in Teaching Science


for Developing Instructional Materials for Grade II Pupils.
Unpublished Master’s Thesis. Bicol University, Legaspi City.
2012

Timber, The Importance of Experential Activity for Students, 2000

C. Electronic Sources

Adejanju, Lade Dr. Teachers Perception of the effects and use of


Learning Aids in Teaching: A case Study of Winneba Basic
and Secondary Schools.
Ultibase.rmit.edu.au./Articles/novo3/adeyannjul.htm

Ali. Riasat. ”an Interrelated Approach to Teaching Science in


Secondary Schools,” Published Doctoral Dissertation,
Loughborough University, 1986. Retrieved April 10, 2013
from: https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-
jspui/handle/2134/7476

Ibe, Ebele N.1998. Instructional materials for Teaching.


www.file://crc

Kitao, Francisco M. 1997. Selecting and developing


teaching/learning materials.
Iteslj.org/Articles/Kitao-Materials.html.
http://www.DepEd.NETRC.ph

http://www.traningmaking.com

http://instructionalmaking.net

(http://www.aaeteachers.org.)
210

A P P E N D I C E S
211

APPENDIX A

REQUESST TO CONDUCT STUDY


Sorsogon State College
SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES
SORSOGON CITY
January 31, 2018

DR. LOIDA N. NIDEA CESO V


Schools Division Superintendent
Schools Division of Sorsogon
Sorsogon City

Madam:

I am currently working on my thesis entitled, “Mother Tongue


Based – Multi lingual Education in Grade 3 Science”.
In this regard, may I request permission from your good office
to gather data to Grade III teacher/s through a survey
questionnaire. Rest assured that the data you will entrust to me
will remain confidential, private and will be used only for the
purpose of this study.
I look forward to your favourable response to this request.
Thank you and God Bless.

Very truly yours,

AERON RAY GIRADO GRATIL


Researcher
Noted:

MARIA FLORA J. RENOVALLES


Adviser

Recommending Approval:

GERRY A. CARRETERO, ED. D.


Dean, SSC-SGS
Approved:

DR LOIDA N. NIDEA CESO V


Schools Division Superintendent
212

APPENDIX B

DO NOT LEAVE ANY ITEM UNANSWERED

QUESTIONNAIRE-CHECKLIST

Respondent,

The researcher is currently conducting a research entitled “Mother Tongue Based-Multi Lingual Education
in Grade 3 Science”. In connection with this, I will be needing data about Grade Three Science Teachers’ Profile
and problems they encounter in teaching Science using MTB-MLE.

This questionnaire will help me gather information that I need and come up with a relevant
recommendations based on the responses that you will provide. Thank you.

Please answer these questions honestly. Take a few minutes to complete this survey. Your kind cooperation
is greatly appreciated.

_______________________________________________________________Researcher_____________________

Direction. Kindly put a check (/) mark and/or provide the requested data and information needed.

PART I. PROFILE OF THE GRADE THREE TEACHER

NAME:__________________________________________________optional____

AGE:

______ 25-BELOW
______ 26-35
______ 36-45
______ 46-54
______ 55-ABOVE

SEX;

______ MALE
______ FEMALE

Direction. Kindly put a check (/) the lingua franca that you can speak with fluency because you are a native of a
certain place.

______ BIKOL BARCELONA


______ BIKOL BULUSAN
______ BIKOL GUBAT
______ BIKOL PTO. DIAZ
______ BIKOL STA. MAGDALENA
______ BIKOL IROSIN
______ BIKOL JUBAN
______ BIKOL BULAN
______ BIKOL MATNOG
______ BIKOL CASTILLA
______ BIKOL DONSOL
______ BIKOL BACON
213

______ BIKOL SORSOGON


______ BIKOL MAGALLANES
______ BIKOL PILAR
______ Others, please specify ____________________________________

LENGTH OF SERVICE OF TEACHERS:

______ 10yrs and below


______ 11-20
______ 21-30
______ 31-40
______ 41- and above

BACCALAUREATE DEGREE:

______ Bachelor of Elementary Education major in:


______General Education
______Special Education (SPED)
______with units in Early Childhood Education
Others, please specify your specialization, ____________________________________
______ Bachelor in Early Childhood Education
______ Bachelor of Science in Preschool Education
______ Bachelor of Science in Family life and Childhood Development
______ Bachelor of Secondary Education major in:
______ Filipino
______ English
______ Mathematics
______ Social Science
______ TLE/TVE
______ Values Education
______ Science
______ MAPEH
______ Special Education
______ With units in ECE or additional Diploma in ECE/Preschool Ed.
Others, please specify your specialization, ____________________________________
Others, please specify your course. ___________________________________________

RESPONDENT SCHOOL DISTRICT: (Check the appropriate answer.)

Bulan South District Bulan North District

HIGHEST LEVEL OF MOTHER TONGUE-BASED MULTILINGUAL EDUCATION TRAININGS IN


SCIENCE ATTENDED IN THE LAST THREE YEARS. (Check the appropriate answer.)

______ INTERNATIONAL LEVEL

______ NATIONAL LEVEL

______ REGIONAL LEVEL

______ DIVISION LEVEL

______ DISTRICT LEVEL

______ NONE
214

Difficulties encountered by Grade 3 teachers in teaching Science using Mother


Part II.
Tongue along instructional materials in terms of:
Direction: In scale of 1-4, how often do you encounter each
difficulty? Please check the box that corresponds to your
answer.
4-Always 3-Frequently 2-Sometimes 1-Never

Lesson Preparation 4 3 2 1
1. Scientific concept is difficult to explain in
Mother tongue
2. Problem in translating Science terms to Mother
tongue
3. Difficulty in using varied languages in the whole
duration of teaching to accommodate pupils who do
not speak in a particular language
4. Unpreparedness of the teacher in using Mother
tongue as medium of instruction
5. Dialect of a particular station is not the primary
language of the teacher assigned to handle the
subject
6. Lack of training of teachers to teach science using
mother tongue
7. Curriculum is prepared with the wrong presumption
that learners can express well in mother tongue

Visual Aids 4 3 2 1
1. Problem in making improvised instructional
materials written in Mother tongue
2. Problem in using improvised instructional materials
written in Mother tongue
3. Unavailability of video clips in science using
Mother tongue language
4. Unreliability of available audio materials in
science using mother tongue that are expected to
strengthen the listening skills of the learners
5. Unavailability of Science equipment
6. Scientific models and illustrations were not
labelled in Mother tongue

Assessment 4 3 2 1
1. Assessment of concepts are difficult to express in
mother tongue
2. Expected learning outcomes in the subject are not
suited to the level of the learners
3. Lack of provision of evaluation materials
4. Absence of reliable evaluation materials
5. Difficulty on formulating rubrics using Mother
tongue
215

6. Difficulty on addressing diversity among learners


with different primary language/dialect
7. Incompetence in constructing test questions in
science using mother tongue

Availability and Adequacy 4 3 2 1


1. Scarcity of reading materials in Mother tongue in
science
2. Absence of textbooks, teachers guide, and learning
materials in science that are published mother
tongue (bicol bulan/ bisakol) to aid the learners
3. There is no mother tongue dictionary to accommodate
the needs of both teachers and learners
4.No worksheet or module provided in science
4. Inadequacy of references in science, CG’s, and
TG’S that are written in mother tongue
5. No scientific models in science using mother
tongue that are provided to demonstrate concepts

PART III. Difficulties encountered by Grade 3 teachers in teaching Science.

In scale of 1-4, how often do you encounter the


difficulties in oral and written communication using mother
tongue? Direction: Please check the box that corresponds to your
answer.
4-Always 3-Frequently 2-Sometimes 1-Never

Oral Communication 4 3 2 1
1. Non-fluency in speaking the dialect
2. Inhibition of the proper use of words
3. Inability to express oneself in mother tongue
4. Difficulty in communicating with learners who are
more exposed in technology who are used to
communicating using Filipino and English languages
5. Problem in using a dominant language/dialect of the
area as your first choice of medium of instruction
6. Difficulty in adapting the different lingua franca

Written Communication 4 3 2 1
1. Absence of our own orthography in Mother tongue
216

2. Non-proficiency in constructing sentences or


paragraph in mother tongue
3. Insufficient vocabulary in mother tongue
4. Lack of grammar awareness in mother tongue
5. Difficulty in spelling Bicol Terms
6. Inability to understand profound Bicol terminologies

Thank you very much!


217

APPENDIX C
CALCULATIONS FOR WEIGHTED MEANS

LESSON PREPARATION
Problems 4 3 2 1 Total Mean Description
1. Scientific concept is
difficult to explain in 10 24 26 0 60 2.73 Frequently
Mother Tongue
2. Problem in
translating Science 14 26 19 1 60 2.88 Frequently
terms to Mother Tongue
3. Difficulty in using
varied languages in the
whole duration of
9 28 15 8 60 2.63 Frequently
teaching to accommodate
pupils who do not speak
in a particular
4. Unpreparedness of the
teacher in using Mother
2 17 29 12 60 2.15 Sometimes
Tongue as medium of
instruction.
5. Dialect of a
particular station is
not the primary
7 18 14 21 60 2.18 Sometimes
language of the teacher
assigned to handle the
subject.
6. Lack of training of
teachers to teach
20 21 16 3 60 2.97 Frequently
Science using the
Mother Tongue.
7. Curriculum is
prepared with the wrong
presumption that 8 25 21 6 60 2.58 Frequently
learners can express
well in Mother Tongue.
Average 2.59 Frequently
218

VISUAL AIDS
Problems 4 3 2 1 Total Mean Description
1. Problem in making
improvised
instructional materials 4 26 27 3 60 2.52 Frequently
written in Mother
Tongue.
2. Problem in using
improvised
5 26 26 3 60 2.55 Frequently
instructional materials
written in Mother
3. Unavailability of
video clips in Science
36 10 13 1 60 3.35 Frequently
using Mother Tongue
language.
4. Unreliability of
available audio
materials in Science
using Mother Tongue
28 21 9 2 60 3.25 Frequently
that are expected to
strengthen the
listening skills of the
learners.
5. Unavailability of
16 18 22 4 60 2.77 Frequently
Science equipment.
6. Scientific models and
illustrations were not
30 13 15 2 60 3.18 Frequently
labelled in Mother
Tongue.
Average 2.94 Frequently
219

Availability and Adequacy


Problems 4 3 2 1 Total Mean Description
1. Scarcity of reading
materials in Mother 18 20 19 3 60 2.88 Frequently
Tongue in Science.
2. Absence of textbooks,
teachers guide, and
learning materials in
Science that are 29 21 4 6 60 3.22 Frequently
published in Mother
Tongue to aid the
learners.
3. There is no Mother
Tongue dictionary to
accommodate the needs 40 10 7 3 60 3.45 Frequently
of both teachers and
learners.
4. No worksheets or
module provided in 31 15 11 3 60 3.23 Frequently
Science.
5. Inadequacy of
references in Science,
CG’s and TG’s that are 27 21 9 3 60 3.20 Frequently
written in Mother
Tongue.
6. No scientific models
in Science using Mother
Tongue that are 28 20 10 2 60 3.23 Frequently
provided to demonstrate
concepts.
Average 3.20 Frequently
220

Oral Communication
Problems 4 3 2 1 Total Mean Description
1. Non-fluency in
4 15 27 14 60 2.15 Sometimes
speaking the dialect.
2. Inhibition to express
oneself in Mother 3 19 34 4 60 2.35 Sometimes
Tongue.
3. Inability to express
oneself in Mother 7 16 26 11 60 2.32 Sometimes
Tongue.
4. Difficulty in
communicating with
learners who are more
exposed in technology
7 13 32 8 60 2.32 Sometimes
who are used to
communicating using
Filipino and English
languages.
5. Problem in using a
dominant
language/dialect of the
4 23 24 9 60 2.37 Sometimes
area as your first
choice of medium of
instruction.
6. Difficulty in
adapting the different 7 21 29 3 60 2.53 Frequently
lingua franca.
Average 2.34 Sometimes
221

Written Communication
Problems 4 3 2 1 Total Mean Description
1. Absence of our own
orthography in Mother 29 19 12 0 60 3.28 Frequently
Tongue.
2. Non-proficiency in
constructing sentence
9 21 23 7 60 2.53 Frequently
or paragraph in Mother
Tongue.
3. Insufficient
vocabulary in Mother 8 19 31 2 60 2.55 Frequently
Tongue.
4. Lack of grammar
awareness in Mother 8 18 32 2 60 2.53 Frequently
Tongue.
5. Difficulty in
spelling in Mother 6 25 27 2 60 2.58 Frequently
Tongue.
6. Inability to
understand profound 7 20 30 3 60 2.52 Frequently
Bicol terminologies.
Average 2.67 Frequently

APPENDIX D

CHI-SQUARE (2) CALCULATIONS USING DATA ANALYSIS OF

MICROSOFT EXCEL
222

Chi-Square Test

Observed Frequencies
Lesson preparation Calculations
Age 4 3 2 1 Total fo-fe
25 and below 0 4 2 0 6 -0.2 0.9 -0.3 -0.4
26 to 35 0 7 4 0 11 -0.36667 1.316667 -0.21667 -0.73333
36 to 45 1 10 10 3 24 0.2 -2.4 0.8 1.4
46 to 54 1 5 5 0 11 0.633333 -0.68333 0.783333 -0.73333
55 and above 0 5 2 1 8 -0.26667 0.866667 -1.06667 0.466667
Total 2 31 23 4 60

Expected Frequencies
Lesson preparation
Age 4 3 2 1 Total (fo-fe)^2/fe
25 and below 0.2 3.1 2.3 0.4 6 0.2 0.26129 0.03913 0.4
26 to 35 0.366667 5.683333 4.216667 0.733333 11 0.366667 0.305034 0.011133 0.733333
36 to 45 0.8 12.4 9.2 1.6 24 0.05 0.464516 0.069565 1.225
46 to 54 0.366667 5.683333 4.216667 0.733333 11 1.093939 0.08216 0.14552 0.733333
55 and above 0.266667 4.133333 3.066667 0.533333 8 0.266667 0.18172 0.371014 0.408333
Total 2 31 23 4 60

Data
Level of Significance 0.05
Number of Rows 5
Number of Columns 4
Degrees of Freedom 12

Results
Critical Value 21.02607
Chi-Square Test Statistic 7.408358
p -Value 0.829491
Do not reject the null hypothesis
223

Chi-Square Test

Observed Frequencies
Visual aids Calculations
Age 4 3 2 Total fo-fe
25 and below 1 4 1 6 -0.2 0.3 -0.1
26 to 35 1 9 1 11 -1.2 2.216667 -1.01667
36 to 45 4 16 4 24 -0.8 1.2 -0.4
46 to 54 2 6 3 11 -0.2 -0.78333 0.983333
55 and above 4 2 2 8 2.4 -2.93333 0.533333
Total 12 37 11 60

Expected Frequencies
Visual aids
Age 4 3 2 Total (fo-fe)^2/fe
25 and below 1.2 3.7 1.1 6 0.033333 0.024324 0.009091
26 to 35 2.2 6.783333 2.016667 11 0.654545 0.724365 0.512534
36 to 45 4.8 14.8 4.4 24 0.133333 0.097297 0.036364
46 to 54 2.2 6.783333 2.016667 11 0.018182 0.090459 0.479477
55 and above 1.6 4.933333 1.466667 8 3.6 1.744144 0.193939
Total 12 37 11 60

Data
Level of Significance 0.05
Number of Rows 5
Number of Columns 3
Degrees of Freedom 8

Results
Critical Value 15.50731
Chi-Square Test Statistic 8.351389
p -Value 0.39992
Do not reject the null hypothesis
224

Chi-Square Test

Observed Frequencies
Lesson preparation Calculations
Age 4 3 2 1 Total fo-fe
25 and below 0 2 4 0 6 -0.2 -0.7 1.2 -0.3
26 to 35 0 7 4 0 11 -0.36667 2.05 -1.13333 -0.55
36 to 45 0 11 12 1 24 -0.8 0.2 0.8 -0.2
46 to 54 0 5 5 1 11 -0.36667 0.05 -0.13333 0.45
55 and above 2 2 3 1 8 1.733333 -1.6 -0.73333 0.6
Total 2 27 28 3 60

Expected Frequencies
Assessment
Age 4 3 2 1 Total (fo-fe)^2/fe
25 and below 0.2 2.7 2.8 0.3 6 0.2 0.181481 0.514286 0.3
26 to 35 0.366667 4.95 5.133333 0.55 11 0.366667 0.84899 0.250216 0.55
36 to 45 0.8 10.8 11.2 1.2 24 0.8 0.003704 0.057143 0.033333
46 to 54 0.366667 4.95 5.133333 0.55 11 0.366667 0.000505 0.003463 0.368182
55 and above 0.266667 3.6 3.733333 0.4 8 11.26667 0.711111 0.144048 0.9
Total 2 27 28 3 60

Data
Level of Significance 0.05
Number of Rows 5
Number of Columns 4
Degrees of Freedom 12

Results
Critical Value 21.02607
Chi-Square Test Statistic 17.86646
p -Value 0.119806
Do not reject the null hypothesis
225

Chi-Square Test

Observed Frequencies
Availability and adequacy Calculations
Age 4 3 2 1 Total fo-fe
25 and below 1 3 2 0 6 -1.6 0.5 1.2 -0.1
26 to 35 5 6 0 0 11 0.233333 1.416667 -1.46667 -0.18333
36 to 45 8 13 1 1 23 -1.96667 3.416667 -2.06667 0.616667
46 to 54 7 2 3 0 12 1.8 -3 1.4 -0.2
55 and above 5 1 2 0 8 1.533333 -2.33333 0.933333 -0.13333
Total 26 25 8 1 60

Expected Frequencies
Availability and adequacy
Age 4 3 2 1 Total (fo-fe)^2/fe
25 and below 2.6 2.5 0.8 0.1 6 0.984615 0.1 1.8 0.1
26 to 35 4.766667 4.583333 1.466667 0.183333 11 0.011422 0.437879 1.466667 0.183333
36 to 45 9.966667 9.583333 3.066667 0.383333 23 0.388071 1.218116 1.392754 0.992029
46 to 54 5.2 5 1.6 0.2 12 0.623077 1.8 1.225 0.2
55 and above 3.466667 3.333333 1.066667 0.133333 8 0.678205 1.633333 0.816667 0.133333
Total 26 25 8 1 60

Data
Level of Significance 0.05
Number of Rows 5
Number of Columns 4
Degrees of Freedom 12

Results
Critical Value 21.02607
Chi-Square Test Statistic 16.1845
p -Value 0.182931
Do not reject the null hypothesis
226

Chi-Square Test

Observed Frequencies
Oral communication Calculations
Age 4 3 2 1 Total fo-fe
25 and below 1 2 2 1 6 0.6 -0.1 -0.9 0.4
26 to 35 2 4 5 0 11 1.266667 0.15 -0.31667 -1.1
36 to 45 0 9 14 1 24 -1.6 0.6 2.4 -1.4
46 to 54 1 3 5 2 11 0.266667 -0.85 -0.31667 0.9
55 and above 0 3 3 2 8 -0.53333 0.2 -0.86667 1.2
Total 4 21 29 6 60

Expected Frequencies
Oral communication
Age 4 3 2 1 Total (fo-fe)^2/fe
25 and below 0.4 2.1 2.9 0.6 6 0.9 0.004762 0.27931 0.266667
26 to 35 0.733333 3.85 5.316667 1.1 11 2.187879 0.005844 0.018861 1.1
36 to 45 1.6 8.4 11.6 2.4 24 1.6 0.042857 0.496552 0.816667
46 to 54 0.733333 3.85 5.316667 1.1 11 0.09697 0.187662 0.018861 0.736364
55 and above 0.533333 2.8 3.866667 0.8 8 0.533333 0.014286 0.194253 1.8
Total 4 21 29 6 60

Data
Level of Significance 0.05
Number of Rows 5
Number of Columns 4
Degrees of Freedom 12

Results
Critical Value 21.02607
Chi-Square Test Statistic 11.30113
p -Value 0.503304
Do not reject the null hypothesis
227

Chi-Square Test

Observed Frequencies
Written communication Calculations
Age 4 3 2 Total fo-fe
25 and below 0 4 2 6 -0.8 0.9 -0.1
26 to 35 2 6 3 11 0.533333 0.316667 -0.85
36 to 45 0 15 9 24 -3.2 2.6 0.6
46 to 54 2 6 3 11 0.533333 0.316667 -0.85
55 and above 4 0 4 8 2.933333 -4.13333 1.2
Total 8 31 21 60

Expected Frequencies
Written communication
Age 4 3 2 Total (fo-fe)^2/fe
25 and below 0.8 3.1 2.1 6 0.8 0.26129 0.004762
26 to 35 1.466667 5.683333 3.85 11 0.193939 0.017644 0.187662
36 to 45 3.2 12.4 8.4 24 3.2 0.545161 0.042857
46 to 54 1.466667 5.683333 3.85 11 0.193939 0.017644 0.187662
55 and above 1.066667 4.133333 2.8 8 8.066667 4.133333 0.514286
Total 8 31 21 60

Data
Level of Significance 0.05
Number of Rows 5
Number of Columns 3
Degrees of Freedom 8

Results
Critical Value 15.50731
Chi-Square Test Statistic 18.36685
p -Value 0.018638
Reject the null hypothesis
228

Chi-Square Test

Observed Frequencies
Lesson preparation Calculations
Sex 4 3 2 1 Total fo-fe
Male 1 7 7 0 15 0.75 -0.75 1 -1
Female 0 24 17 4 45 -0.75 0.75 -1 1
Total 1 31 24 4 60

Expected Frequencies
Lesson preparation
Sex 4 3 2 1 Total (fo-fe)^2/fe
Male 0.25 7.75 6 1 15 2.25 0.072581 0.166667 1
Female 0.75 23.25 18 3 45 0.75 0.024194 0.055556 0.333333
Total 1 31 24 4 60

Data
Level of Significance 0.05
Number of Rows 2
Number of Columns 4
Degrees of Freedom 3

Results
Critical Value 7.814728
Chi-Square Test Statistic 4.65233
p -Value 0.199099
Do not reject the null hypothesis
229

Chi-Square Test

Observed Frequencies
Visual aids Calculations
Sex 4 3 2 Total fo-fe
Male 4 10 1 15 0.75 1.25 -2
Female 9 25 11 45 -0.75 -1.25 2
Total 13 35 12 60

Expected Frequencies
Visual aids
Sex 4 3 2 Total (fo-fe)^2/fe
Male 3.25 8.75 3 15 0.173077 0.178571 1.333333
Female 9.75 26.25 9 45 0.057692 0.059524 0.444444
Total 13 35 12 60

Data
Level of Significance 0.05
Number of Rows 2
Number of Columns 3
Degrees of Freedom 2

Results
Critical Value 5.991465
Chi-Square Test Statistic 2.246642
p -Value 0.325198
Do not reject the null hypothesis
230

Chi-Square Test

Observed Frequencies
Assessment Calculations
Sex 4 3 2 1 Total fo-fe
Male 1 8 6 0 15 0.5 1.75 -1.5 -0.75
Female 1 17 24 3 45 -0.5 -1.75 1.5 0.75
Total 2 25 30 3 60

Expected Frequencies
Assessment
Sex 4 3 2 1 Total (fo-fe)^2/fe
Male 0.5 6.25 7.5 0.75 15 0.5 0.49 0.3 0.75
Female 1.5 18.75 22.5 2.25 45 0.166667 0.163333 0.1 0.25
Total 2 25 30 3 60

Data
Level of Significance 0.05
Number of Rows 2
Number of Columns 4
Degrees of Freedom 3

Results
Critical Value 7.814728
Chi-Square Test Statistic 2.72
p -Value 0.436839
Do not reject the null hypothesis
231

Chi-Square Test

Observed Frequencies
Availability Calculations
Sex 4 3 2 1 Total fo-fe
Male 6 6 2 0 14 0.166667 -0.06667 0.133333 -0.23333
Female 19 20 6 1 46 -0.16667 0.066667 -0.13333 0.233333
Total 25 26 8 1 60

Expected Frequencies
Availability
Sex 4 3 2 1 Total (fo-fe)^2/fe
Male 5.833333 6.066667 1.866667 0.233333 14 0.004762 0.000733 0.009524 0.233333
Female 19.16667 19.93333 6.133333 0.766667 46 0.001449 0.000223 0.002899 0.071014
Total 25 26 8 1 60

Data
Level of Significance 0.05
Number of Rows 2
Number of Columns 4
Degrees of Freedom 3

Results
Critical Value 7.814728
Chi-Square Test Statistic 0.323937
p -Value 0.955465
Do not reject the null hypothesis
232

Chi-Square Test

Observed Frequencies
Oral communication Calculations
Sex 4 3 2 1 Total fo-fe
Male 2 6 5 2 15 1 0.75 -2.25 0.5
Female 2 15 24 4 45 -1 -0.75 2.25 -0.5
Total 4 21 29 6 60

Expected Frequencies
Oral communication
Sex 4 3 2 1 Total (fo-fe)^2/fe
Male 1 5.25 7.25 1.5 15 1 0.107143 0.698276 0.166667
Female 3 15.75 21.75 4.5 45 0.333333 0.035714 0.232759 0.055556
Total 4 21 29 6 60

Data
Level of Significance 0.05
Number of Rows 2
Number of Columns 4
Degrees of Freedom 3

Results
Critical Value 7.814728
Chi-Square Test Statistic 2.629447
p -Value 0.45235
Do not reject the null hypothesis
233

Chi-Square Test

Observed Frequencies
Written communication Calculations
Sex 4 3 2 Total fo-fe
Male 3 7 5 15 1 -0.5 -0.5
Female 5 23 17 45 -1 0.5 0.5
Total 8 30 22 60

Expected Frequencies
Written communication
Sex 4 3 2 Total (fo-fe)^2/fe
Male 2 7.5 5.5 15 0.5 0.033333 0.045455
Female 6 22.5 16.5 45 0.166667 0.011111 0.015152
Total 8 30 22 60

Data
Level of Significance 0.05
Number of Rows 2
Number of Columns 3
Degrees of Freedom 2

Results
Critical Value 5.991465
Chi-Square Test Statistic 0.771717
p -Value 0.679867
Do not reject the null hypothesis
234

Chi-Square Test

Observed Frequencies
Lesson preparation Calculations
Length of service 4 3 2 1 Total fo-fe
10 yrs and below 0 16 9 1 26 -0.43333 2.566667 -1.4 -0.73333
11 to 20 years 1 10 9 2 22 0.633333 -1.36667 0.2 0.533333
21 to 30 years 0 4 5 0 9 -0.15 -0.65 1.4 -0.6
31 to 40 years 0 1 0 1 2 -0.03333 -0.03333 -0.8 0.866667
41 yrs and above 0 0 1 0 1 -0.01667 -0.51667 0.6 -0.06667
Total 1 31 24 4 60

Expected Frequencies
Lesson preparation
Length of service 4 3 2 1 Total (fo-fe)^2/fe
10 yrs and below 0.433333 13.43333 10.4 1.733333 26 0.433333 0.490405 0.188462 0.310256
11 to 20 years 0.366667 11.36667 8.8 1.466667 22 1.093939 0.164321 0.004545 0.193939
21 to 30 years 0.15 4.65 3.6 0.6 9 0.15 0.09086 0.544444 0.6
31 to 40 years 0.033333 1.033333 0.8 0.133333 2 0.033333 0.001075 0.8 5.633333
41 yrs and above 0.016667 0.516667 0.4 0.066667 1 0.016667 0.516667 0.9 0.066667
Total 1 31 24 4 60

Data
Level of Significance 0.05
Number of Rows 5
Number of Columns 4
Degrees of Freedom 12

Results
Critical Value 21.02607
Chi-Square Test Statistic 12.23225
p -Value 0.427212
Do not reject the null hypothesis
235

Chi-Square Test

Observed Frequencies
Visual aids Calculations
Length of service 4 3 2 Total fo-fe
10 yrs and below 6 17 3 26 0.366667 1.833333 -2.2
11 to 20 years 5 11 6 22 0.233333 -1.83333 1.6
21 to 30 years 1 6 2 9 -0.95 0.75 0.2
31 to 40 years 1 0 1 2 0.566667 -1.16667 0.6
41 yrs and above 0 1 0 1 -0.21667 0.416667 -0.2
Total 13 35 12 60

Expected Frequencies
Visual aids
Length of service 4 3 2 Total (fo-fe)^2/fe
10 yrs and below 5.633333 15.16667 5.2 26 0.023866 0.221612 0.930769
11 to 20 years 4.766667 12.83333 4.4 22 0.011422 0.261905 0.581818
21 to 30 years 1.95 5.25 1.8 9 0.462821 0.107143 0.022222
31 to 40 years 0.433333 1.166667 0.4 2 0.741026 1.166667 0.9
41 yrs and above 0.216667 0.583333 0.2 1 0.216667 0.297619 0.2
Total 13 35 12 60

Data
Level of Significance 0.05
Number of Rows 5
Number of Columns 3
Degrees of Freedom 8

Results
Critical Value 15.50731
Chi-Square Test Statistic 6.145555
p -Value 0.630931
Do not reject the null hypothesis
236

Chi-Square Test

Observed Frequencies
Assessment Calculations
Length of service 4 3 2 1 Total fo-fe
10 yrs and below 1 11 14 0 26 0.133333 0.166667 1 -1.3
11 to 20 years 0 10 10 2 22 -0.73333 0.833333 -1 0.9
21 to 30 years 1 2 6 0 9 0.7 -1.75 1.5 -0.45
31 to 40 years 0 1 0 1 2 -0.06667 0.166667 -1 0.9
41 yrs and above 0 1 0 0 1 -0.03333 0.583333 -0.5 -0.05
Total 2 25 30 3 60

Expected Frequencies
Assessment
Length of service 4 3 2 1 Total (fo-fe)^2/fe
10 yrs and below 0.866667 10.83333 13 1.3 26 0.020513 0.002564 0.076923 1.3
11 to 20 years 0.733333 9.166667 11 1.1 22 0.733333 0.075758 0.090909 0.736364
21 to 30 years 0.3 3.75 4.5 0.45 9 1.633333 0.816667 0.5 0.45
31 to 40 years 0.066667 0.833333 1 0.1 2 0.066667 0.033333 1 8.1
41 yrs and above 0.033333 0.416667 0.5 0.05 1 0.033333 0.816667 0.5 0.05
Total 2 25 30 3 60

Data
Level of Significance 0.05
Number of Rows 5
Number of Columns 4
Degrees of Freedom 12

Results
Critical Value 21.02607
Chi-Square Test Statistic 17.03636
p -Value 0.148235
Do not reject the null hypothesis
237

Chi-Square Test

Observed Frequencies
Availability Calculations
Length of service 4 3 2 1 Total fo-fe
10 yrs and below 11 13 2 0 26 0.166667 2.166667 -1.9 -0.43333
11 to 20 years 8 10 3 1 22 -1.16667 0.833333 -0.3 0.633333
21 to 30 years 4 1 4 0 9 0.25 -2.75 2.65 -0.15
31 to 40 years 2 0 0 0 2 1.166667 -0.83333 -0.3 -0.03333
41 yrs and above 0 1 0 0 1 -0.41667 0.583333 -0.15 -0.01667
Total 25 25 9 1 60

Expected Frequencies
Availability
Length of service 4 3 2 1 Total (fo-fe)^2/fe
10 yrs and below 10.83333 10.83333 3.9 0.433333 26 0.002564 0.433333 0.925641 0.433333
11 to 20 years 9.166667 9.166667 3.3 0.366667 22 0.148485 0.075758 0.027273 1.093939
21 to 30 years 3.75 3.75 1.35 0.15 9 0.016667 2.016667 5.201852 0.15
31 to 40 years 0.833333 0.833333 0.3 0.033333 2 1.633333 0.833333 0.3 0.033333
41 yrs and above 0.416667 0.416667 0.15 0.016667 1 0.416667 0.816667 0.15 0.016667
Total 25 25 9 1 60

Data
Level of Significance 0.05
Number of Rows 5
Number of Columns 4
Degrees of Freedom 12

Results
Critical Value 21.02607
Chi-Square Test Statistic 14.72551
p -Value 0.256792
Do not reject the null hypothesis
238

Chi-Square Test

Observed Frequencies
Oral communication Calculations
Length of service 4 3 2 1 Total fo-fe
10 yrs and below 2 9 14 1 26 0.266667 -0.1 1.433333 -1.6
11 to 20 years 2 10 6 4 22 0.533333 2.3 -4.63333 1.8
21 to 30 years 0 1 8 0 9 -0.6 -2.15 3.65 -0.9
31 to 40 years 0 1 0 1 2 -0.13333 0.3 -0.96667 0.8
41 yrs and above 0 0 1 0 1 -0.06667 -0.35 0.516667 -0.1
Total 4 21 29 6 60

Expected Frequencies
Oral communication
Length of service 4 3 2 1 Total (fo-fe)^2/fe
10 yrs and below 1.733333 9.1 12.56667 2.6 26 0.041026 0.001099 0.163484 0.984615
11 to 20 years 1.466667 7.7 10.63333 2.2 22 0.193939 0.687013 2.018913 1.472727
21 to 30 years 0.6 3.15 4.35 0.9 9 0.6 1.46746 3.062644 0.9
31 to 40 years 0.133333 0.7 0.966667 0.2 2 0.133333 0.128571 0.966667 3.2
41 yrs and above 0.066667 0.35 0.483333 0.1 1 0.066667 0.35 0.552299 0.1
Total 4 21 29 6 60

Data
Level of Significance 0.05
Number of Rows 5
Number of Columns 4
Degrees of Freedom 12

Results
Critical Value 21.02607
Chi-Square Test Statistic 17.09046
p -Value 0.146226
Do not reject the null hypothesis
239

Chi-Square Test

Observed Frequencies
Written communication Calculations
Length of service 4 3 2 Total fo-fe
10 yrs and below 3 15 8 26 -0.46667 2 -1.53333
11 to 20 years 2 11 9 22 -0.93333 0 0.933333
21 to 30 years 2 3 4 9 0.8 -1.5 0.7
31 to 40 years 1 0 1 2 0.733333 -1 0.266667
41 yrs and above 0 1 0 1 -0.13333 0.5 -0.36667
Total 8 30 22 60

Expected Frequencies
Written communication
Length of service 4 3 2 Total (fo-fe)^2/fe
10 yrs and below 3.466667 13 9.533333 26 0.062821 0.307692 0.24662
11 to 20 years 2.933333 11 8.066667 22 0.29697 0 0.107989
21 to 30 years 1.2 4.5 3.3 9 0.533333 0.5 0.148485
31 to 40 years 0.266667 1 0.733333 2 2.016667 1 0.09697
41 yrs and above 0.133333 0.5 0.366667 1 0.133333 0.5 0.366667
Total 8 30 22 60

Data
Level of Significance 0.05
Number of Rows 5
Number of Columns 3
Degrees of Freedom 8

Results
Critical Value 15.50731
Chi-Square Test Statistic 6.317546
p -Value 0.611709
Do not reject the null hypothesis
240

Chi-Square Test

Observed Frequencies
Lesson preparation Calculations
Trainings attended 4 3 2 1 Total fo-fe
National 1 0 0 0 1 0.983333 -0.5 -0.41667 -0.06667
Regional 0 5 1 0 6 -0.1 2 -1.5 -0.4
Division 0 9 13 4 26 -0.43333 -4 2.166667 2.266667
District 0 2 4 0 6 -0.1 -1 1.5 -0.4
None 0 14 7 0 21 -0.35 3.5 -1.75 -1.4
Total 1 30 25 4 60

Expected Frequencies
Lesson preparation
Trainings attended 4 3 2 1 Total (fo-fe)^2/fe
National 0.016667 0.5 0.416667 0.066667 1 58.01667 0.5 0.416667 0.066667
Regional 0.1 3 2.5 0.4 6 0.1 1.333333 0.9 0.4
Division 0.433333 13 10.83333 1.733333 26 0.433333 1.230769 0.433333 2.964103
District 0.1 3 2.5 0.4 6 0.1 0.333333 0.9 0.4
None 0.35 10.5 8.75 1.4 21 0.35 1.166667 0.35 1.4
Total 1 30 25 4 60

Data
Level of Significance 0.05
Number of Rows 5
Number of Columns 4
Degrees of Freedom 12

Results
Critical Value 21.02607
Chi-Square Test Statistic 71.79487
p -Value 1.48E-10
Reject the null hypothesis
241

Chi-Square Test

Observed Frequencies
Visual aids Calculations
Trainings attended 4 3 2 Total fo-fe
National 1 0 0 1 0.783333 -0.56667 -0.21667
Regional 1 5 0 6 -0.3 1.6 -1.3
Division 4 15 7 26 -1.63333 0.266667 1.366667
District 0 4 2 6 -1.3 0.6 0.7
None 7 10 4 21 2.45 -1.9 -0.55
Total 13 34 13 60

Expected Frequencies
Visual aids
Trainings attended 4 3 2 Total (fo-fe)^2/fe
National 0.216667 0.566667 0.216667 1 2.832051 0.566667 0.216667
Regional 1.3 3.4 1.3 6 0.069231 0.752941 1.3
Division 5.633333 14.73333 5.633333 26 0.47357 0.004827 0.331558
District 1.3 3.4 1.3 6 1.3 0.105882 0.376923
None 4.55 11.9 4.55 21 1.319231 0.303361 0.066484
Total 13 34 13 60

Data
Level of Significance 0.05
Number of Rows 5
Number of Columns 3
Degrees of Freedom 8

Results
Critical Value 15.50731
Chi-Square Test Statistic 10.01939
p -Value 0.263667
Do not reject the null hypothesis
242

Chi-Square Test

Observed Frequencies
Assessment Calculations
Trainings attended 4 3 2 1 Total fo-fe
National 0 1 0 0 1 -0.03333 0.583333 -0.5 -0.05
Regional 0 5 1 0 6 -0.2 2.5 -2 -0.3
Division 0 10 14 2 26 -0.86667 -0.83333 1 0.7
District 0 3 2 1 6 -0.2 0.5 -1 0.7
None 2 6 13 0 21 1.3 -2.75 2.5 -1.05
Total 2 25 30 3 60

Expected Frequencies
Assessment
Trainings attended 4 3 2 1 Total (fo-fe)^2/fe
National 0.033333 0.416667 0.5 0.05 1 0.033333 0.816667 0.5 0.05
Regional 0.2 2.5 3 0.3 6 0.2 2.5 1.333333 0.3
Division 0.866667 10.83333 13 1.3 26 0.866667 0.064103 0.076923 0.376923
District 0.2 2.5 3 0.3 6 0.2 0.1 0.333333 1.633333
None 0.7 8.75 10.5 1.05 21 2.414286 0.864286 0.595238 1.05
Total 2 25 30 3 60

Data
Level of Significance 0.05
Number of Rows 5
Number of Columns 4
Degrees of Freedom 12

Results
Critical Value 21.02607
Chi-Square Test Statistic 14.30842
p -Value 0.281448
Do not reject the null hypothesis
243

Chi-Square Test

Observed Frequencies
Availability Calculations
Trainings attended 4 3 2 1 Total fo-fe
National 1 0 0 0 1 0.583333 -0.43333 -0.13333 -0.01667
Regional 1 4 1 0 6 -1.5 1.4 0.2 -0.1
Division 10 12 4 0 26 -0.83333 0.733333 0.533333 -0.43333
District 3 3 0 0 6 0.5 0.4 -0.8 -0.1
None 10 7 3 1 21 1.25 -2.1 0.2 0.65
Total 25 26 8 1 60

Expected Frequencies
Availability
Trainings attended 4 3 2 1 Total (fo-fe)^2/fe
National 0.416667 0.433333 0.133333 0.016667 1 0.816667 0.433333 0.133333 0.016667
Regional 2.5 2.6 0.8 0.1 6 0.9 0.753846 0.05 0.1
Division 10.83333 11.26667 3.466667 0.433333 26 0.064103 0.047732 0.082051 0.433333
District 2.5 2.6 0.8 0.1 6 0.1 0.061538 0.8 0.1
None 8.75 9.1 2.8 0.35 21 0.178571 0.484615 0.014286 1.207143
Total 25 26 8 1 60

Data
Level of Significance 0.05
Number of Rows 5
Number of Columns 4
Degrees of Freedom 12

Results
Critical Value 21.02607
Chi-Square Test Statistic 6.777219
p -Value 0.871978
Do not reject the null hypothesis
244

Chi-Square Test

Observed Frequencies
Oral Calculations
Trainings attended 4 3 2 1 Total fo-fe
National 1 0 0 0 1 0.933333 -0.35 -0.48333 -0.1
Regional 0 6 0 0 6 -0.4 3.9 -2.9 -0.6
Division 1 7 14 4 26 -0.73333 -2.1 1.433333 1.4
District 0 1 4 1 6 -0.4 -1.1 1.1 0.4
None 2 7 11 1 21 0.6 -0.35 0.85 -1.1
Total 4 21 29 6 60

Expected Frequencies
Oral
Trainings attended 4 3 2 1 Total (fo-fe)^2/fe
National 0.066667 0.35 0.483333 0.1 1 13.06667 0.35 0.483333 0.1
Regional 0.4 2.1 2.9 0.6 6 0.4 7.242857 2.9 0.6
Division 1.733333 9.1 12.56667 2.6 26 0.310256 0.484615 0.163484 0.753846
District 0.4 2.1 2.9 0.6 6 0.4 0.57619 0.417241 0.266667
None 1.4 7.35 10.15 2.1 21 0.257143 0.016667 0.071182 0.57619
Total 4 21 29 6 60

Data
Level of Significance 0.05
Number of Rows 5
Number of Columns 4
Degrees of Freedom 12

Results
Critical Value 21.02607
Chi-Square Test Statistic 29.43634
p -Value 0.003392
Reject the null hypothesis
245

Chi-Square Test

Observed Frequencies
Written Calculations
Trainings attended 4 3 2 Total fo-fe
National 1 0 0 1 0.866667 -0.5 -0.36667
Regional 1 5 0 6 0.2 2 -2.2
Division 1 12 13 26 -2.46667 -1 3.466667
District 1 3 2 6 0.2 0 -0.2
None 4 10 7 21 1.2 -0.5 -0.7
Total 8 30 22 60

Expected Frequencies
Written
Trainings attended 4 3 2 Total (fo-fe)^2/fe
National 0.133333 0.5 0.366667 1 5.633333 0.5 0.366667
Regional 0.8 3 2.2 6 0.05 1.333333 2.2
Division 3.466667 13 9.533333 26 1.755128 0.076923 1.260606
District 0.8 3 2.2 6 0.05 0 0.018182
None 2.8 10.5 7.7 21 0.514286 0.02381 0.063636
Total 8 30 22 60

Data
Level of Significance 0.05
Number of Rows 5
Number of Columns 3
Degrees of Freedom 8

Results
Critical Value 15.50731
Chi-Square Test Statistic 13.8459
p -Value 0.085871
Do not reject the null hypothesis
246

Chi-Square Test

Observed Frequencies
Lesson preparation Calculations
Lengua franca 4 3 2 1 Total fo-fe
Bulan 12 33 5 3 53 0.516667 2.083333 -2.06667 -0.53333
Irosin 1 1 1 1 4 0.133333 -1.33333 0.466667 0.733333
Matnog 0 1 1 0 2 -0.43333 -0.16667 0.733333 -0.13333
Juban 0 0 1 0 1 -0.21667 -0.58333 0.866667 -0.06667
Total 13 35 8 4 60

Expected Frequencies
Lesson preparation
Lengua franca 4 3 2 1 Total (fo-fe)^2/fe
Bulan 11.48333 30.91667 7.066667 3.533333 53 0.023246 0.140386 0.604403 0.080503
Irosin 0.866667 2.333333 0.533333 0.266667 4 0.020513 0.761905 0.408333 2.016667
Matnog 0.433333 1.166667 0.266667 0.133333 2 0.433333 0.02381 2.016667 0.133333
Juban 0.216667 0.583333 0.133333 0.066667 1 0.216667 0.583333 5.633333 0.066667
Total 13 35 8 4 60

Data
Level of Significance 0.05
Number of Rows 4
Number of Columns 4
Degrees of Freedom 9

Results
Critical Value 16.91898
Chi-Square Test Statistic 13.1631
p -Value 0.155364
Do not reject the null hypothesis
247

Chi-Square Test

Observed Frequencies
Visual aids Calculations
Lengua franca 4 3 2 1 Total fo-fe
Bulan 6 32 12 3 53 -0.18333 1.083333 -0.36667 -0.53333
Irosin 1 1 1 1 4 0.533333 -1.33333 0.066667 0.733333
Matnog 0 1 1 0 2 -0.23333 -0.16667 0.533333 -0.13333
Juban 0 1 0 0 1 -0.11667 0.416667 -0.23333 -0.06667
Total 7 35 14 4 60

Expected Frequencies
Visual aids
Lengua franca 4 3 2 1 Total (fo-fe)^2/fe
Bulan 6.183333 30.91667 12.36667 3.533333 53 0.005436 0.03796 0.010872 0.080503
Irosin 0.466667 2.333333 0.933333 0.266667 4 0.609524 0.761905 0.004762 2.016667
Matnog 0.233333 1.166667 0.466667 0.133333 2 0.233333 0.02381 0.609524 0.133333
Juban 0.116667 0.583333 0.233333 0.066667 1 0.116667 0.297619 0.233333 0.066667
Total 7 35 14 4 60

Data
Level of Significance 0.05
Number of Rows 4
Number of Columns 4
Degrees of Freedom 9

Results
Critical Value 16.91898
Chi-Square Test Statistic 5.241914
p -Value 0.812731
Do not reject the null hypothesis
248

Chi-Square Test

Observed Frequencies
Assessment Calculations
Lengua franca 4 3 2 1 Total fo-fe
Bulan 8 31 12 2 53 0.05 1.85 -1.25 -0.65
Irosin 1 1 1 1 4 0.4 -1.2 0 0.8
Matnog 0 1 1 0 2 -0.3 -0.1 0.5 -0.1
Juban 0 0 1 0 1 -0.15 -0.55 0.75 -0.05
Total 9 33 15 3 60

Expected Frequencies
Assessment
Lengua franca 4 3 2 1 Total (fo-fe)^2/fe
Bulan 7.95 29.15 13.25 2.65 53 0.000314 0.11741 0.117925 0.159434
Irosin 0.6 2.2 1 0.2 4 0.266667 0.654545 0 3.2
Matnog 0.3 1.1 0.5 0.1 2 0.3 0.009091 0.5 0.1
Juban 0.15 0.55 0.25 0.05 1 0.15 0.55 2.25 0.05
Total 9 33 15 3 60

Data
Level of Significance 0.05
Number of Rows 4
Number of Columns 4
Degrees of Freedom 9

Results
Critical Value 16.91898
Chi-Square Test Statistic 8.425386
0.49191
Do not reject the null hypothesis
249

Chi-Square Test

Observed Frequencies
Availability Calculations
Lengua franca 4 3 2 1 Total fo-fe
Bulan 7 33 12 1 53 0.816667 1.2 -2.13333 0.116667
Irosin 0 2 2 0 4 -0.46667 -0.4 0.933333 -0.06667
Matnog 0 0 2 0 2 -0.23333 -1.2 1.466667 -0.03333
Juban 0 1 0 0 1 -0.11667 0.4 -0.26667 -0.01667
Total 7 36 16 1 60

Expected Frequencies
Availability
Lengua franca 4 3 2 1 Total (fo-fe)^2/fe
Bulan 6.183333 31.8 14.13333 0.883333 53 0.107862 0.045283 0.322013 0.015409
Irosin 0.466667 2.4 1.066667 0.066667 4 0.466667 0.066667 0.816667 0.066667
Matnog 0.233333 1.2 0.533333 0.033333 2 0.233333 1.2 4.033333 0.033333
Juban 0.116667 0.6 0.266667 0.016667 1 0.116667 0.266667 0.266667 0.016667
Total 7 36 16 1 60

Data
Level of Significance 0.05
Number of Rows 4
Number of Columns 4
Degrees of Freedom 9

Results
Critical Value 16.91898
Chi-Square Test Statistic 8.073899
p -Value 0.526716
Do not reject the null hypothesis
250

Chi-Square Test

Observed Frequencies
Oral Calculations
Lengua franca 4 3 2 1 Total fo-fe
Bulan 13 25 15 0 53 1.516667 -1.5 0.866667 -0.88333
Irosin 0 3 1 0 4 -0.86667 1 -0.06667 -0.06667
Matnog 0 1 0 1 2 -0.43333 0 -0.53333 0.966667
Juban 0 1 0 0 1 -0.21667 0.5 -0.26667 -0.01667
Total 13 30 16 1 60

Expected Frequencies
Oral
Lengua franca 4 3 2 1 Total (fo-fe)^2/fe
Bulan 11.48333 26.5 14.13333 0.883333 53 0.200314 0.084906 0.053145 0.883333
Irosin 0.866667 2 1.066667 0.066667 4 0.866667 0.5 0.004167 0.066667
Matnog 0.433333 1 0.533333 0.033333 2 0.433333 0 0.533333 28.03333
Juban 0.216667 0.5 0.266667 0.016667 1 0.216667 0.5 0.266667 0.016667
Total 13 30 16 1 60

Data
Level of Significance 0.05
Number of Rows 4
Number of Columns 4
Degrees of Freedom 9

Results
Critical Value 16.91898
Chi-Square Test Statistic 32.6592
p -Value 0.000153
Reject the null hypothesis
251

Chi-Square Test

Observed Frequencies
Written Calculations
Lengua franca 4 3 2 1 Total fo-fe
Bulan 12 26 11 4 53 0.516667 -0.5 0.4 -0.41667
Irosin 1 1 1 1 4 0.133333 -1 0.2 0.666667
Matnog 0 2 0 0 2 -0.43333 1 -0.4 -0.16667
Juban 0 1 0 0 1 -0.21667 0.5 -0.2 -0.08333
Total 13 30 12 5 60

Expected Frequencies
Written
Lengua franca 4 3 2 1 Total (fo-fe)^2/fe
Bulan 11.48333 26.5 10.6 4.416667 53 0.023246 0.009434 0.015094 0.039308
Irosin 0.866667 2 0.8 0.333333 4 0.020513 0.5 0.05 1.333333
Matnog 0.433333 1 0.4 0.166667 2 0.433333 1 0.4 0.166667
Juban 0.216667 0.5 0.2 0.083333 1 0.216667 0.5 0.2 0.083333
Total 13 30 12 5 60

Data
Level of Significance 0.05
Number of Rows 4
Number of Columns 4
Degrees of Freedom 9

Results
Critical Value 16.91898
Chi-Square Test Statistic 4.990929
p -Value 0.835098
Do not reject the null hypothesis
252

C U R R I C U L U M V I T A E

AERON RAY GIRADO GRATIL

PERSONAL DATA

Address : Barangay Fabrica, Sitio BLISS


Bulan, Sorsogon
Date of Birth : March 10, 1990
Place of Birth : Bulan, Sorsogon
Sex : Male
Citizenship : Filipino
Civil Status : Single
Email Address : aeronray_gratil@yahoo.com

EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND

Elementary : Bulan South Central School


Zone-3, Bulan, Sorsogon
1996-2002

Secondary : Bulan National High School


Zone-8, Bulan, Sorsogon
2002-2006

Tertiary : R. G. De Castro Colleges


Zone-3, Bulan, Sorsogon
2009-2012
Course : Bachelor of Elementary
Education

Graduate School : Sorsogon State College


Sorsogon of Graduate Studies
2012-2018
Course : Master of Arts in Management
Major : Administration and
Supervision
253

ELIGIBILITY

Examination Taken : Licensure Examination for


Teachers
September 30, 2012

WORK EXPERIENCE

June 1, 2012-
March 30, 2014 : Teacher
Immaculate Conception Academy
of Bulan
Brgy. Pawa, Bulan Sorsogon

June 1, 2014-
March 30, 2015 : Teacher
A. G. Villaroya Technological
Foundation Institute
Brgy. Managa-naga, Bulan,
Sorsogon

June 1, 2014-
March 30, 2016 : Instructor
R. G. de Castro Colleges
Zone-3,Bulan, Sorsogon

February 22, 2016-


Present : Teacher I
Fabrica Elementary School
Brgy. Fabrica, Bulan,
Sorsogon

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