Name: Padero, Mark Angelohil Date: August 14 2019

Strand/Gr/Sec: ICT-1103 Earth and Life Science

Sir. Darylle Hilapo
What is Soil?
Soil is the part of the earth’s surface comprised of disintegrated rock and humus that provides the
medium for plant growth. The development of soil takes time, between hundreds and thousands of
years, and consists of diverse materials which are both inorganic and organic.
The inorganic materials are the non-living aspects of the soil such as minerals and rocks while the
organic materials are the living aspects of the soil such as the soil micro-organisms. The process of soil
formation is through the rock cycle together with the integration of soil microbial and chemical activities
originating from living organisms. For instance, during the decomposition of dead plants and animals,
nutrients are mixed up with the weathered and disintegrated rocks to form soil. Soil is considered as a
natural resource because of its agricultural productivity benefits. Soils have different forms of mineral
and organic compositions that establish their specific characteristics. Soil is also divided in different soil
layers.

Soil covers much of the land on Earth. It is made up of minerals rock, sand, clay, silt air, water, and
organic material matter from dead plants and animals. Soil provides a substrate for plants roots anchor
in soil, a source of food for plants, and a home for many animals (insects, spiders, centipedes, worms,
burrowing animals, bacteria, and many others). A scientist who studies soil is called a pedologist. There
are many different types of soils, and each one has unique characteristics, like color, texture, structure,
and mineral content. The depth of the soil also varies. The kind of soil in an area helps determines what
type of plants can grow. There are 12 orders types of soil Alfisols, Aridisols, Entisols, Histosols,
Inceptisols, Mollisols, Oxisols, Spodosols, Ultisols, Gelisols, Andisols, and Vertisols. Soil is formed slowly
as rock (the parent material) erodes into tiny pieces near the Earth's surface. Organic matter decays and
mixes with inorganic material (rock particles, minerals and water) to form soil.

Why soils are important? Soils are important in so many ways because the bottom line is that soil is
essential for life because it provides the medium for plant growth, acts a filtration system for surface
water, maintains the balance of atmospheric gases, stores carbon, and is a habitat for several organisms.
Here are the detailed reasons rendering the soil important.

There 4 statements why the soil is important

1.Medium for plant growth
Soils serve as the only medium for plant growth. Plants are the basis of life because they are the primary
producers which means, life on earth would be impossible without the soil. Soil support roots and keep
them erect for growth. Soil also avail for plants vital nutrient and minerals and provides for gaseous
exchange between the atmosphere and roots. Soils also protect plants from the destructive biological,
physical, and chemical activities and equally shield them against erosion. Finally, soil ensures
moderation of moisture and holds water which can be utilized for plant growth.
2.Filtration system for surface water
The storm water after rainfall and snowmelts normally flows and discharges into surface water
bodies. However, most of it infiltrates into the ground which is a possibility because of the various layers
of the soil. As the excess storm water infiltrates into the ground, it undergoes filtering from chemicals,
dust, and other contaminants. This process filters water and provides both plants and humans with
clean, unpolluted water required for healthy growth and good health respectively. It is the reason
underground water (aquifers) qualifies as one of the purest water sources.
3.Habitat for several organisms and supports biodiversity
Numerous microbes (minute single cell organisms) and insects live in the soil and depend on it for air,
shelter, and food. Soils are also homers to a diverse population of organisms including termites and
worms. Soils also support biodiversity by creating an enabling environment for plant growth and home
to many organisms. For example, insects and some reptiles lay and hatch eggs in the soil. The
decomposition of organic matter is a possibility because of the soil which offers the required air and
moisture for breaking down the materials.
4. Carbon storage and maintaining the balance of atmospheric gases
Soils help to maintain the balance of atmospheric gases by regulating the amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide (CO2) by serving a carbon store. In the process of humification where soil organisms form stable
and complex organic matter, some organic materials do not break down completely particularly in soils
such as peat because of the high water content and acidity.
As a result, there is the buildup of carbon content in the soil. Soils store about twice the carbon quantity
available in the atmosphere are about thrice the carbon quantity stored in vegetation. Other elements
such as nitrogen and oxides are also stored, transformed and cycled in the soil thus maintaining the
balance of atmospheric gases.

There Different Layers of Soil

 soil is divided into various different layers top to bottom and this arrangement is termed as the soil
horizons. The categorization into various soil layers is known as the soil profile. The soil horizons
ranges from the fertile, organic upper layers composed of the top soil and humus to the underlying
rock layers composed of the subsoil, regolith and the bedrock. Each layer is of different make up,
texture, age and characteristic.

The O-Horizon:
The O-Horizon is the superficial or topmost layer of the soil that is primarily composed of decaying
organic matter, living organism, and fresh soil. The color of the topmost layer is normally either brown
or black due to its organic composition. It is the layer that hosts most of the roots of small vegetation
cover like grass and contains about 20% of organic matter.

The A-Horizon:
The A-Horizon is the second layer of the soil. It is referred to as the top-soil. It is composed of highly
decaying organic matter and minerals, and its color ranges from gray to brown. It is the layer that hosts
many plants and supports many agricultural and grassland areas. Thus, seed germination and the
growth of plant roots take place in this soil layer. It is distinguishable by the different soil types including
loam, clay, sand, and silt. It is also the soil layer that is most vulnerable to water and wind erosion.

The E-Horizon:
This is the third and the thinnest soil layer, and it is lighter in color compared to the A-Horizon. It is
termed as the eluviation layer due to the leaching of minerals. As a result, this layer is depleted of
aluminum, clay, organic compounds, and other soluble elements. It is mainly made up of silt and sand
after losing most of its minerals as they drip down through the soil.

The B-Horizon:
The B-horizon is the fourth layer and is also referred to as the sub-soil. It is mainly made up of large
rocks, clay, and bedrock. The color of the sub-soil is lighter than the layers above it and ranges from rust
to tan. It is also composed of minerals and little organic matter. The sub-soil accumulates a lot of clay,
aluminum, iron, and organic compounds from the layers above it from the dripping down of mineralized
water through a process known as illuviation. Hence, it is sometimes called the illuviation zone. It is the
layer where the roots of big trees end.

The C-Horizon:
This is the fifth layer of the soil and it also known as the regolith. Plant roots do not go through this layer
and it has very little organic matter. The color of the C-Horizon is gray and is made up of fragmented
pieces of bedrock. Also, it has compacted sediment and cemented geological material. Very little activity
is present in this layer but there may be instance of additions or losses of minerals and other soluble
compounds.

The R-Horizon:
The R-Horizon is the sixth and final layer of the soil. It is also known as the bedrock. The materials here
are mainly solid unweathered rock that are cemented and compacted by the weight of the overlying
layers. The color of this layer is gray with several hard rocks.This layer is beyond 50 meters from the top-
soil. Some of the rocks found here include granite, limestone, and basalt.
What is a Mineral?
The word "mineral" is used to refer to two different kinds of components. One is the dietary minerals,
and second is the elements formed due to geographical processes, simply called minerals.
A mineral is solid matter having a crystalline atomic or molecular structure. It is a homogeneous,
naturally occurring substance with a clearly defined chemical composition. In 1965, the International
Mineralogical Association adopted a standard definition for minerals as "an element or chemical
compound that is normally crystalline and that has been formed as a result of geological processes."
Many minerals are used for extracting useful metals; and hence, it becomes important to study them
thoroughly. There is an overwhelming number of known minerals. Currently, the International
Mineralogical Association lists more than 4,600 minerals with new minerals still being discovered. Only
100 of these are common, while the rest are either encountered occasionally, or are very rare. With
such a large number of minerals, it is difficult to identify and classify them separately. However,
mineralogists identify minerals based on the following characteristics:

This are the nine Characteristics to identify minerals:

Streak
Luster
Sheen
Hardness
Cleavage
Crystal system/habit
Color
Specific Gravity
Clarity or Transparency

After the mineral has been identified and proven to be a mineral, it is classified as a silicate or non-
silicate mineral, based on its composition.

Silicate Minerals
The most commonly found group of minerals in the Earth's crust is the silicate group. Almost all silicate
minerals have silicon and oxygen as their base units. Most silicate minerals are formed by the cooling of
molten rocks. As the molten rocks come closer to the surface inside the Earth's crust, they start cooling
very fast and combine with the most abundant element in the Earth's crust -- silicon. Silicate minerals
constitute approximately 90% of the Earth's crust. Mica, quartz, amazonites, olivine, and biotite are
some of the examples of silicate minerals.

Non-silicate Minerals
There is a complete range of non-silicate minerals. Some of these are formed when there is cooling of
magma, while some others are formed when water in them evaporates, or due to mineral
decomposition. The non-silicates can be further classified into different groups which are:

Native Elements: Many pure elements that are found with a distinct mineral structure and occur
naturally in an uncombined form, fall under this category. For example: uncombined carbon is often
found in its pure state in the form of graphite or more rarely as diamond. Gold, silver, and sulfur are
other elements, which are also found in their pure state. Even though these are pure elements, they
qualify to be known as minerals, but no chemical process is required on them further.

Sulfides: This class of minerals have sulfide (S2−) as their basic unit. These inorganic compounds are
 sometimes as economically important as other ores. Some examples include Nickeline (NiAs), Pyrite
(FeS2) and Molybdenite (MoS2).

Oxides: When an ore is found in which one or more elements are combined with oxygen, it is an oxide
mineral. These may have chemical formulas of the type XO (MgO, ZnO, CuO, etc.), X2O (Cu2O),
X2O3 (Al2O3, Fe2O3), XO2 (MnO2, SnO2) and XY2O4 (MgAl2O4, FeCr2O4). The oxide minerals are
mostly of metallic elements. Example: hematite, magnetite, and cuprite. Silicates and oxides are the
most common types of minerals in volcanoes, especially after an eruption.

Carbonates: This particular type is formed when a single carbonate ion (CO32-) reacts with a metal ion
of complementing polarity. Example: siderite (FeCO3), smithsonite (ZnCO3), calcite (CaCO3). Carbonate
minerals are used in making cement and other bonding material.

Sulfates: The mineral class which includes the sulfate ion (SO42-) within its molecular structure is
categorized as a sulfate mineral. Minerals like Gypsum (CaSO4·2H2O) and Barite (BaSO4) are examples
of sulfate minerals.

Organic Minerals: This class of minerals includes biogenic substances, genesis, or origin of which can be
attributed to a geological process. Organic minerals include all types of oxalates, mellitates, citrates,
cyanates, acetates, formates, hydrocarbons, etc. Examples of organic minerals include whewellite,
moolooite, mellite, fichtelite, carpathite, evenkite, and abelsonite. Apart from these, there are many
more non-silicate minerals, like nitrates, sulfides, halides, phosphates, etc., but most of the 4,000-odd
listed minerals are grouped in the above categories. Make sure you do not get confused between
minerals and rocks. A rock is a combination of a number of minerals, which may also include organic
remains and mineraloids, i.e., non-crystalline minerals.

Dietary Minerals
We know that there are four elements that are crucial for the existence of all living organisms. These are
carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen. However, apart from these, there are certain chemical
elements that are also required for sustainability of living organisms. These chemical elements are called
dietary minerals. These dietary minerals are again divided into two groups based on their requirements.

Macrominerals
These minerals are required in large quantities, and their deficiency in the body can result in various
ailments. However, excess of these minerals can also result in certain disorders

Types of minerals
Minerals, being natural chemicals, are classified according to their chemistry and crystal form.

A basic classification for minerals is:

 Native elements. eg. Gold, Silver, Mercury, graphite, diamond.

 Oxides. eg corundum (incl. sapphire), hematite, spinel.
 Hydroxides. eg. Goethite, brucite.
 Sulfides. eg. Pyrite, galena, sphalerite.
 Sulfates. eg. Baryte, gypsum.
 Carbonates. eg. Calcite, magnesite, dolomite.
 Phosphates. eg. Apatite, monazite.
 Halides. eg. Fluorite, halite (rock salt).
 Silicates (most common)
 Orthosilicates. eg. Garnet, olivine.
 Ring silicates. eg. Tourmaline, beryl.
 Chain silicates. eg. Pyroxenes, amphiboles.
 Sheet silicates. eg. Muscovite mica, biotite mica, clay minerals
 Framework silicates. eg. Quartz, feldspars, zeolites

And the identification is

Identifying common minerals can usually be accomplished by examining a hand specimen. Minerals
have distinct physical properties such as specific gravity, streak, and form which can easily distinguish
the major rock-forming minerals.
More detailed examination of minerals can be undertaken by examining a microscope thin section of a
rock or mineral. The optical properties of each mineral are unique, and minerals can be readily identified
in thin section. More accurate analysis of minerals can be undertaken with a variety of analytical
machines. These include X-ray diffraction, microprobe analysis, mass spectrometry and more. The
science of minerals is called Mineralogy.