Cellulose:

Structure:
Cellulose is derived from D-glucose units, which condense through β(1→4)-glycosidic bonds. This
linkage motif contrasts with that for α(1→4)-glycosidic bonds present in starch and glycogen.
Cellulose is a straight chain polymer. Unlike starch, no coiling or branching occurs and the
molecule adopts an extended and rather stiff rod-like conformation, aided by the equatorial
conformation of the glucose residues. The multiple hydroxyl groups on the glucose from one chain
form hydrogen bonds with oxygen atoms on the same or on a neighbor chain, holding the chains
firmly together side-by-side and forming microfibrils with high tensile strength. This confers tensile
strength in cell walls where cellulose microfibrils are meshed into a polysaccharide matrix. The
high tensile strength of plant stems and of the tree wood also arises from the arrangement of
cellulose fibers intimatimely distributed into the lignin matrix. The mechanical role of cellulose
fibers in the wood matrix responsible for its strong structural resistance, can somewhat be
compared to that of the reinforcement bars in concrete, lignin playing here the role of the hardened
cement pasteacting as the "glue" in between the cellulose fibers.

A triple strand of cellulose showing the hydrogen bonds (cyan lines) between glucose strands

Cotton fibres represent the purest natural form of cellulose, containing more than 90% of
this polysaccharide.

Characteristics:

Cellulose has no taste, is odorless, is hydrophilic with the contact angle of 20–30 degrees,[13] is
insoluble in water and most organic solvents, is chiral and is biodegradable. It was shown to melt
at 467 °C in pulse tests made by Dauenhauer et al. (2016).[14] It can be broken down chemically
into its glucose units by treating it with concentrated mineral acids at high temperature
Compared to starch, cellulose is also much more crystalline. Whereas starch undergoes a
crystalline to amorphous transition when heated beyond 60–70 °C in water (as in cooking),
cellulose requires a temperature of 320 °C and pressure of 25 MPa to become amorphous in
water.[16]
Several different crystalline structures of cellulose are known, corresponding to the location of
hydrogen bonds between and within strands. Natural cellulose is cellulose I, with structures I α and
Iβ. Cellulose produced by bacteria and algae is enriched in Iα while cellulose of higher plants
consists mainly of Iβ. Cellulose in regenerated cellulose fibers is cellulose II. The conversion of
cellulose I to cellulose II is irreversible, suggesting that cellulose I is metastable and cellulose II is
stable. With various chemical treatments it is possible to produce the structures cellulose III and
cellulose IV.
Many properties of cellulose depend on its chain length or degree of polymerization, the number of
glucose units that make up one polymer molecule. Cellulose from wood pulp has typical chain
lengths between 300 and 1700 units; cotton and other plant fibers as well as bacterial cellulose
have chain lengths ranging from 800 to 10,000 units.[6]Molecules with very small chain length
resulting from the breakdown of cellulose are known as cellodextrins; in contrast to long-chain
cellulose, cellodextrins are typically soluble in water and organic solvents.
Uses:
Cellulose for industrial use is mainly obtained from wood pulp and cotton.[6] The kraft process is
used to separate cellulose from lignin, another major component of plant matter.

 Paper products: Cellulose is the major constituent of paper, paperboard, and card stock.
 Fibers: Cellulose is the main ingredient of textiles made from cotton, linen, and other plant
fibers. It can be turned into rayon, an important fiber that has been used for textiles since the
beginning of the 20th century. Both cellophane and rayon are known as "regenerated cellulose
fibers"; they are identical to cellulose in chemical structure and are usually made
from dissolving pulp via viscose. A more recent and environmentally friendly method to
produce a form of rayon is the Lyocell process.
 Consumables: Microcrystalline cellulose (E460i) and powdered cellulose (E460ii) are used as
inactive fillers in drug tablets[40] and a wide range of soluble cellulose derivatives, E numbers
E461 to E469, are used as emulsifiers, thickeners and stabilizers in processed foods.
Cellulose powder is, for example, used in processed cheese to prevent caking inside the
package. Cellulose occurs naturally in some foods and is an additive in manufactured foods,
contributing an indigestible component used for texture and bulk, potentially aiding
in defecation.[41]
 Science: Cellulose is used in the laboratory as a stationary phase for thin layer
chromatography. Cellulose fibers are also used in liquid filtration, sometimes in combination
with diatomaceous earth or other filtration media, to create a filter bed of inert material.
 Energy crops:

Main article: Energy crop

The major combustible component of non-food energy crops is cellulose, with lignin second.
Non-food energy crops produce more usable energy than edible energy crops (which have a
large starchcomponent), but still compete with food crops for agricultural land and water
resources.[42] Typical non-food energy crops include industrial hemp (though outlawed in some
countries), switchgrass, Miscanthus, Salix (willow), and Populus (poplar) species.

 Biofuel: TU-103, a strain of Clostridium bacteria found in zebra waste, can convert nearly any
form of cellulose into butanol fuel.[43][44]
 Building material: Hydroxyl bonding of cellulose in water produces a sprayable, moldable
material as an alternative to the use of plastics and resins. The recyclable material can be
made water- and fire-resistant. It provides sufficient strength for use as a building
material.[45] Cellulose insulation made from recycled paper is becoming popular as an
environmentally preferable material for building insulation. It can be treated with boric acid as
a fire retardant.
 Miscellaneous: Cellulose can be converted into cellophane, a thin transparent film. It is the
base material for the celluloid that was used for photographic and movie films until the mid-
1930s. Cellulose is used to make water-soluble adhesives and binders such as methyl
cellulose and carboxymethyl cellulose which are used in wallpaper paste. Cellulose is further
used to make hydrophilic and highly absorbent sponges. Cellulose is the raw material in the
manufacture of nitrocellulose (cellulose nitrate) which is used in smokeless gunpowder.

Pharmaceuticals: Cellulose derivatives, such as microcrystalline cellulose (MCC), have the
advantages of retaining water, being a stabilizer and thickening agent, and in reinforcement of
drug tablets.


Chitin:

Structure:
In its pure, unmodified form, chitin is translucent, pliable, resilient, and quite tough. In
most arthropods, however, it is often modified, occurring largely as a component of composite
materials, such as in sclerotin, a tanned proteinaceous matrix, which forms much of
the exoskeleton of insects. Combined with calcium carbonate, as in the shells
of crustaceans and molluscs, chitin produces a much stronger composite. This composite material
is much harder and stiffer than pure chitin, and is tougher and less brittle than pure calcium
carbonate.[4] Another difference between pure and composite forms can be seen by comparing the
flexible body wall of a caterpillar (mainly chitin) to the stiff, light elytron of a beetle (containing a
large proportion of sclerotin).
In butterfly wing scales, chitin is organized into stacks of gyroids constructed of chitin photonic
crystals that produce various iridescent colors serving phenotypic signaling and communication for
mating and foraging.[6] The elaborate chitin gyroid construction in butterfly wings creates a model
of optical devices having potential for innovations in biomimicry.[6] Scarab beetles in the
genus Cyphochilus also utilize chitin to form extremely thin scales (five to
fifteen micrometres thick) that diffusely reflect white light. These scales are networks of randomly
ordered filaments of chitin with diameters on the scale of hundreds of nanometres, which serve to
scatter light. The multiple scattering of light is thought to play a role in the unusual whiteness of the
scales.[7][8] In addition, some social wasps, such as Protopolybia chartergoides, orally secrete
material containing predominantly chitin to reinforce the outer nest envelopes, composed of paper.
Characteristics:
Chitin is a modified polysaccharide that contains nitrogen; it is synthesized from units of N-acetyl-
D-glucosamine (to be precise, 2-(acetylamino)-2-deoxy-D-glucose). These units form covalent β-
(1→4)-linkages (like the linkages between glucose units forming cellulose). Therefore, chitin may
be described as cellulose with one hydroxyl group on each monomer replaced with
an acetyl amine group. This allows for increased hydrogen bonding between adjacent polymers,
giving the chitin-polymer matrix increased strength.

Uses:
Agriculture:
Chitin is a good inducer of plant defense mechanisms for controlling diseases.[20] It has also been
assessed as a fertilizer that can improve overall crop yields.[21]
Industrial:
Chitin is used in industry in many processes. Examples of the potential uses of chemically
modified chitin in food processing include the formation of edible films and as an additive to
thicken and stabilize foods.[22]Processes to size and strengthen paper employ chitin and chitosan.
Carbohydrates:

Structure:
A carbohydrate (/kɑːrboʊˈhaɪdreɪt/) is a biomolecule consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H)
and oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atomratio of 2:1 (as in water) and thus
with the empirical formula Cm(H2O)n (where m may be different from n). This formula holds true
for monosaccharides. Some exceptions exist; for example, deoxyribose, a sugar component
of DNA,[1] has the empirical formula C5H10O4.[2] The carbohydrates are technically hydratesof
carbon; structurally it is more accurate to view them as aldoses and ketoses.
The term is most common in biochemistry, where it is a synonym of saccharide, a group that
includes sugars, starch, and cellulose. The saccharides are divided into four chemical groups:
monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides and
disaccharides, the smallest (lower molecular weight) carbohydrates, are commonly referred to as
sugars
Characteristics:
Carbohydrates perform numerous roles in living organisms. Polysaccharides serve for the storage
of energy (e.g. starch and glycogen) and as structural components (e.g. cellulose in plants
and chitin in arthropods). The 5-carbon monosaccharide ribose is an important component
of coenzymes (e.g. ATP, FAD and NAD) and the backbone of the genetic molecule known
as RNA. The related deoxyribose is a component of DNA. Saccharides and their derivatives
include many other important biomolecules that play key roles in the immune system, fertilization,
preventing pathogenesis, blood clotting, and development.[5]
They are found in a wide variety of natural and processed foods. Starch is a polysaccharide. It is
abundant in cereals (wheat, maize, rice), potatoes, and processed food based on cereal flour,
such as bread, pizza or pasta. Sugars appear in human diet mainly as table sugar (sucrose,
extracted from sugarcane or sugar beets), lactose (abundant in milk), glucose and fructose, both
of which occur naturally in honey, many fruits, and some vegetables. Table sugar, milk, or honey
are often added to drinks and many prepared foods such as jam, biscuits and cakes.
Uses:
The human body contains about 100,000 different protein polymers, or proteins. When you eat
foods that contain protein from animals or plants, your body breaks their protein content down into
individual amino acids, then uses these acids to form polymers that fit human nutritional
requirements. Specific uses of human protein polymers include transportation of oxygen in your
bloodstream, carbohydrate digestion and formation of structures such as your muscles, skin,
tendons and hair.
DNA:
Structure:

Deoxyribonucleic acid (/diˈɒksɪraɪboʊnjuːkliːɪk, -kleɪ-/ ( listen);[1] DNA) is a molecule composed

of two chains that coil around each other to form a double helix carrying the genetic instructions
used in the growth, development, functioning, and reproduction of all known organisms and
many viruses. DNA and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are nucleic acids; alongside proteins, lipids and
complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides), nucleic acids are one of the four major types
of macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life.
The two DNA strands are also known as polynucleotides as they are composed of
simpler monomeric units called nucleotides.[2][3] Each nucleotide is composed of one of
four nitrogen-containing nucleobases (cytosine [C], guanine [G], adenine [A] or thymine [T]),
a sugar called deoxyribose, and a phosphate group. The nucleotides are joined to one another in
a chain by covalent bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next,
resulting in an alternating sugar-phosphate backbone. The nitrogenous bases of the two separate
polynucleotide strands are bound together, according to base pairing rules (A with T and C with
G), with hydrogen bonds to make double-stranded DNA.
The complementary nitrogenous bases are divided into two groups, pyrimidines and purines. In
DNA, the pyrimidines are thymine and cytosine; the purines are adenine and guanine.
Both strands of double-stranded DNA store the same biological information. This information is
replicated as and when the two strands separate. A large part of DNA (more than 98% for
humans) is non-coding, meaning that these sections do not serve as patterns for protein
sequences.
The two strands of DNA run in opposite directions to each other and are thus antiparallel. Attached
to each sugar is one of four types of nucleobases (informally, bases). It is the sequence of these
four nucleobases along the backbone that encodes genetic information. RNA strands are created
using DNA strands as a template in a process called transcription. Under the genetic code, these
RNA strands specify the sequence of amino acids within proteins in a process called translation.
Properties:
DNA is a long polymer made from repeating units called nucleotides.[6][7] The structure of DNA is
dynamic along its length, being capable of coiling into tight loops and other shapes.[8] In all species
it is composed of two helical chains, bound to each other by hydrogen bonds. Both chains are
coiled around the same axis, and have the same pitch of 34 angstroms (Å) (3.4 nanometres). The
pair of chains has a radius of 10 angstroms (1.0 nanometre).[9] According to another study, when
measured in a different solution, the DNA chain measured 22 to 26 angstroms wide (2.2 to
2.6 nanometres), and one nucleotide unit measured 3.3 Å (0.33 nm) long.[10] Although each
individual nucleotide is very small, a DNA polymer can be very large and contain hundreds of
millions, such as in chromosome 1. Chromosome 1 is the largest human chromosome with
approximately 220 million base pairs,[11] and would be 85 mm long if straightened.
DNA does not usually exist as a single strand, but instead as a pair of strands that are held tightly
together.[9][12] These two long strands coil around each other, in the shape of a double helix. The
nucleotide contains both a segment of the backbone of the molecule (which holds the chain
together) and a nucleobase(which interacts with the other DNA strand in the helix). A nucleobase
linked to a sugar is called a nucleoside, and a base linked to a sugar and to one or more
phosphate groups is called a nucleotide. A biopolymer comprising multiple linked nucleotides (as
in DNA) is called a polynucleotide.[13]
The backbone of the DNA strand is made from alternating phosphate and sugar residues.[14] The
sugar in DNA is 2-deoxyribose, which is a pentose (five-carbon) sugar. The sugars are joined
together by phosphate groups that form phosphodiester bonds between the third and fifth
carbon atoms of adjacent sugar rings. These are known as the 3′-end (three prime end), and 5′-
end (five prime end) carbons, the prime symbol being used to distinguish these carbon atoms from
those of the base to which the deoxyribose forms a glycosidic bond. When imagining DNA, each
phosphoryl is normally considered to "belong" to the nucleotide whose 5′ carbon forms a bond
therewith. Any DNA strand therefore normally has one end at which there is a phosphoryl attached
to the 5′ carbon of a ribose (the 5′ phosphoryl) and another end at which there is a free hydroxyl
attached to the 3′ carbon of a ribose (the 3′ hydroxyl). The orientation of the 3′ and 5′ carbons
along the sugar-phosphate backbone confers directionality (sometimes called polarity) to each
DNA strand. In a nucleic acid double helix, the direction of the nucleotides in one strand is
opposite to their direction in the other strand: the strands are antiparallel. The asymmetric ends of
DNA strands are said to have a directionality of five prime end (5′ ), and three prime end (3′), with
the 5′ end having a terminal phosphate group and the 3′ end a terminal hydroxyl group. One major
difference between DNA and RNA is the sugar, with the 2-deoxyribose in DNA being replaced by
the alternative pentose sugar ribose in RNA.[12]
A section of DNA. The bases lie horizontally between the two spiraling strands
The DNA double helix is stabilized primarily by two forces: hydrogen bonds between nucleotides
and base-stacking interactions among aromatic nucleobases.[16] In the cytosol of the cell, the
conjugated pi bonds of nucleotide bases align perpendicular to the axis of the DNA molecule,
minimizing their interaction with the solvation shell. The four bases found in DNA
are adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) and thymine (T). These four bases are attached to the
sugar-phosphate to form the complete nucleotide, as shown for adenosine monophosphate.
Adenine pairs with thymine and guanine pairs with cytosine, forming A-T and G-C base pairs.
Uses:
Genetic engineering
Methods have been developed to purify DNA from organisms, such as phenol-chloroform
extraction, and to manipulate it in the laboratory, such as restriction digests and the polymerase
chain reaction. Modern biology and biochemistry make intensive use of these techniques in
recombinant DNA technology. Recombinant DNA is a man-made DNA sequence that has been
assembled from other DNA sequences. They can be transformed into organisms in the form
of plasmids or in the appropriate format, by using a viral vector.[168] The genetically
modified organisms produced can be used to produce products such as recombinant proteins,
used in medical research, or be grown in agriculture.
DNA profiling
Forensic scientists can use DNA in blood, skin, saliva or hair found at a crime scene to identify a
matching DNA of an individual, such as a perpetrator.[172] This process is formally termed DNA
profiling, also called DNA fingerprinting. In DNA profiling, the lengths of variable sections of
repetitive DNA, such as short tandem repeats and minisatellites, are compared between people.
This method is usually an extremely reliable technique for identifying a matching DNA.
Anthropology
Because DNA collects mutations over time, which are then inherited, it contains historical
information, and, by comparing DNA sequences, geneticists can infer the evolutionary history of
organisms, their phylogeny.[191] This field of phylogenetics is a powerful tool in evolutionary
biology. If DNA sequences within a species are compared, population geneticists can learn the
history of particular populations. This can be used in studies ranging from ecological
genetics to anthropology.
Rubber:
Structure:
Rubber is an example of an elastomer type polymer, where the polymer has the ability to return to its
original shape after being stretched or deformed. The rubber polymer is coiled when in the resting state. The
elastic properties arise from the its ability to stretch the chains apart, but when the tension is released the
chains snap back to the original position. Natural rubber is from the monomer isoprene (2-methyl-1,3-
butadiene). Since isoprene has two double bonds, it still retains one of them after the polymerization
reaction. Natural rubber has the cis configuration for the methyl groups.
Characteristics:
Rubber exhibits unique physical and chemical properties. Rubber's stress–strain behavior exhibits
the Mullins effect and the Payne effect and is often modeled as hyperelastic. Rubber strain
crystallizes.Due to the presence of weakened allylic C-H bonds in each repeat unit, natural rubber
is susceptible to vulcanisation as well as being sensitive to ozone cracking.The two
main solvents for rubber are turpentine and naphtha (petroleum). Because rubber does not
dissolve easily, the material is finely divided by shredding prior to its
immersion.An ammonia solution can be used to prevent the coagulation of raw latex.
Rubber begins to melt at approximately 180 °C (356 °F).
On a microscopic scale, relaxed rubber is a disorganized cluster of erratically changing wrinkled
chains. In stretched rubber, the chains are almost linear. The restoring force is due to the
preponderance of wrinkled conformations over more linear ones.Cooling below the glass transition
temperature permits local conformational changes but a reordering is practically impossible
because of the larger energy barrier for the concerted movement of longer chains. "Frozen"
rubber's elasticity is low and strain results from small changes of bond lengths and angles. The
glass transition is fast and reversible: the force resumes on heating.
Vulcanization of rubber creates di- and polysulfide bonds between chains, which limits the degrees
of freedom and results in chains that tighten more quickly for a given strain, thereby increasing the
elastic force constant and making the rubber harder and less extensible.
Raw rubber storage depots and rubber processing can produce malodour that is serious enough
to become a source of complaints and protest to those living in the vicinity. [16]
Microbial impurities originate during the processing of block rubber. These impurities break down
during storage or thermal degradation and produce volatile organic compounds. Examination of
these compounds using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) and gas
chromatography (GC) indicates that they contain sulphur, ammonia, alkenes, ketones, esters,
hydrogen sulphite, nitrogen, and low molecular weight fatty acids (C2-C5).[17][18]
When latex concentrate is produced from rubber, sulphuric acid is used for coagulation. This
produces malodourous hydrogen sulphide.[18]
The industry can mitigate these bad odours with scrubber systems.
Uses:
Uncured rubber is used for cements;[33] for adhesive, insulating, and friction tapes; and for crepe
rubber used in insulating blankets and footwear. Vulcanized rubber has many more applications.
Resistance to abrasion makes softer kinds of rubber valuable for the treads of vehicle tires and
conveyor belts, and makes hard rubber valuable for pump housings and piping used in the
handling of abrasive sludge.
The flexibility of rubber is appealing in hoses, tires and rollers for devices ranging from domestic
clothes wringers to printing presses; its elasticity makes it suitable for various kinds of shock
absorbers and for specialized machinery mountings designed to reduce vibration. Its relative gas
impermeability makes it useful in the manufacture of articles such as air hoses, balloons, balls and
cushions. The resistance of rubber to water and to the action of most fluid chemicals has led to its
use in rainwear, diving gear, and chemical and medicinal tubing, and as a lining for storage tanks,
processing equipment and railroad tank cars. Because of their electrical resistance, soft rubber
goods are used as insulation and for protective gloves, shoes and blankets; hard rubber is used
for articles such as telephone housings, parts for radio sets, meters and other electrical
instruments. The coefficient of friction of rubber, which is high on dry surfaces and low on wet
surfaces, leads to its use for power-transmission belting and for water-lubricated bearings in deep-
well pumps. Indian rubber balls or lacrosse balls are made of rubber.
Synthetic Polymers:
LDPE:

Structure:
LDPE has more branching (on about 2% of the carbon atoms) than HDPE, so its intermolecular
forces (instantaneous-dipole induced-dipole attraction) are weaker, its tensile strength is lower,
and its resilience is higher. Also, because its molecules are less tightly packed and less crystalline
due to the side branches, its density is lower. It is quite flexible and tough.
Properties:
LDPE is defined by a density range of 0.917–0.930 g/cm3.[4] It is not reactive at room
temperatures, except by strong oxidizing agents, and some solvents cause swelling. It can
withstand temperatures of 80 °C continuously and 90 °C (194 °F) for a short time.When exposed
to ambient solar radiation the plastic produces two greenhouse gases, methane and ethylene. Due
to its low density properties (branching) it breaks down more easily over time, leading to higher
surface areas. The production of these trace gases from virgin LDPE increase with surface
area/time, with rates at the end of a 212-day incubation of 5.8 nmol g-1 d-1 of methane, 14.5 nmol
g-1 d-1 of ethylene, 3.9 nmol g-1 d-1 of ethane and 9.7 nmol g-1 d-1 of propylene. When
incubated in air, LDPE emits gases at rates ~2 times and ~76 times higher in comparison to water
for methane and ethylene, respectively.
Uses:
LDPE is widely used for manufacturing various containers, dispensing bottles, wash bottles,
tubing, plastic bags for computer components, and various molded laboratory equipment. Its most
common use is in plastic bags. Other products made from it include:

 Trays and general purpose containers

 Corrosion-resistant work surfaces
 Parts that need to be weldable and machinable
 Parts that require flexibility, for which it serves very well
 Very soft and pliable parts such as snap-on lids
 Six pack rings
 Juice and milk cartons are made of liquid packaging board, a laminate of paperboard and
LDPE (as the waterproof inner and outer layer), and often with of a layer of aluminum foil (thus
becoming aseptic packaging).[7][8]
 Packaging for computer hardware, such as hard disk drives, screen cards, and optical disc
drives
 Playground slides
 Plastic wraps

Polypropylene:

Structure:
The term tacticity describes for polypropylene how the methyl group is oriented in the polymer
chain. Commercial polypropylene is usually isotactic. This article therefore always refers to
isotactic polypropylene, unless stated otherwise. The tacticity is usually indicated in percent, using
the isotactic index (according to DIN 16774). The index is measured by determining the fraction of
the polymer insoluble in boiling heptane. Commercially available polypropylenes usually have an
isotactic index between 85 and 95%. The tacticity effects the polymers physical properties. As
the methyl group is in isotactic propylene consistently located at the same side, it forces the
macromolecule in a helical shape, as also found in starch. An isotactic structure leads to a semi-
crystalline polymer. The higher the isotacticity (the isotactic fraction), the greater the crystallinity,
and thus also the softening point, rigidity, e-modulus and hardness.[11]:22
Atactic polypropylene, on the other hand, lacks any regularity which makes it unable to crystallize
and amorphous.
It can be found in different crystalline and amorphous forms:
Crystal structure of polypropylene
Isotactic polypropylene (iPP)
Syndiotactic polypropylene (sPP)
Atactic polypropylene (aPP)
Characteristics:
Polypropylene is in many aspects similar to polyethylene, especially in solution behaviour and
electrical properties. The methyl group improves mechanical properties and thermal resistance,
although the chemical resistance decreases. The properties of polypropylene depend on the
molecular weight and molecular weight distribution, crystallinity, type and proportion of
comonomer (if used) and the isotacticity. In isotactic polypropylene, for example, the methyl
groups are oriented on one side of the carbon backbone. This arrangement creates a greater
degree of crystallinity and results in a stiffer material that is more resistant to creep than both
atactic polypropylene and polyethylene
Mechanical properties
The density of (PP) is between 0.895 and 0.92 g/cm³. Therefore, PP is the commodity plastic with
the lowest density. With lower density, moldings parts with lower weight and more parts of a
certain mass of plastic can be produced. Unlike polyethylene, crystalline and amorphous regions
differ only slightly in their density. However, the density of polyethylene can significantly change
with fillers.[6]:24
The Young's modulus of PP is between 1300 and 1800 N/mm².
Polypropylene is normally tough and flexible, especially when copolymerized with ethylene. This
allows polypropylene to be used as an engineering plastic, competing with materials such
as acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS). Polypropylene is reasonably economical.[citation needed]
Polypropylene has good resistance to fatigue.[8]:3070
Thermal properties
The melting point of polypropylene occurs in a range, so the melting point is determined by finding
the highest temperature of a differential scanning calorimetry chart. Perfectly isotactic PP has a
melting point of 171 °C (340 °F). Commercial isotactic PP has a melting point that ranges from 160
to 166 °C (320 to 331 °F), depending on atactic material and crystallinity. Syndiotactic PP with a
crystallinity of 30% has a melting point of 130 °C (266 °F).[8] Below 0 °C, PP becomes brittle.[9]
The thermal expansion of polypropylene is very large, but somewhat less than that of
polyethylene.
Chemical properties
Polypropylene at room temperature is resistant to fats and almost all organic solvents, apart from
strong oxidants. Non-oxidizing acids and bases can be stored in containers made of PP. At
elevated temperature, PP can be dissolved in nonpolar solvents such
as xylene, tetralin and decalin. Due to the tertiary carbon atom PP is chemically less resistant than
PE (see Markovnikov rule).[10]
Most commercial polypropylene is isotactic and has an intermediate level of crystallinity between
that of low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and high-density polyethylene (HDPE). Isotactic & atactic
polypropylene is soluble in P-xylene at 140 °C. Isotactic precipitates when the solution is cooled to
25 °C and atactic portion remains soluble in P-xylene.
The melt flow rate (MFR) or melt flow index (MFI) is a measure of molecular weight of
polypropylene. The measure helps to determine how easily the molten raw material will flow during
processing. Polypropylene with higher MFR will fill the plastic mold more easily during the injection
or blow-molding production process. As the melt flow increases, however, some physical
properties, like impact strength, will decrease.
There are three general types of polypropylene: homopolymer, random copolymer, and block
copolymer. The comonomer is typically used with ethylene. Ethylene-propylene rubber
or EPDM added to polypropylene homopolymer increases its low temperature impact strength.
Randomly polymerized ethylene monomer added to polypropylene homopolymer decreases the
polymer crystallinity, lowers the melting point and makes the polymer more transparent.
Uses:
As polypropylene is resistant to fatigue, most plastic living hinges, such as those on flip-top
bottles, are made from this material. However, it is important to ensure that chain molecules are
oriented across the hinge to maximise strength.
Polypropylene is used in the manufacturing piping systems; both ones concerned with high-purity
and ones designed for strength and rigidity (e.g. those intended for use in potable
plumbing, hydronic heating and cooling, and reclaimed water).[41] This material is often chosen for
its resistance to corrosion and chemical leaching, its resilience against most forms of physical
damage, including impact and freezing, its environmental benefits, and its ability to be joined
by heat fusion rather than gluing.Many plastic items for medical or laboratory use can be made
from polypropylene because it can withstand the heat in an autoclave. Its heat resistance also
enables it to be used as the manufacturing material of consumer-grade kettles[citation needed]. Food
containers made from it will not melt in the dishwasher, and do not melt during industrial hot filling
processes. For this reason, most plastic tubs for dairy products are polypropylene sealed with
aluminum foil.
A common application for polypropylene is as biaxially oriented polypropylene (BOPP). These
BOPP sheets are used to make a wide variety of materials including clear bags. When
polypropylene is biaxially oriented, it becomes crystal clear and serves as an excellent packaging
material for artistic and retail products.
Polypropylene, highly colorfast, is widely used in manufacturing carpets, rugs and mats to be used
at home.[46]
Polypropylene is widely used in ropes, distinctive because they are light enough to float in
water.[47] For equal mass and construction, polypropylene rope is similar in strength to polyester
rope. Polypropylene costs less than most other synthetic fibers.
Polypropylene fibres are used as a concrete additive to increase strength and reduce cracking
and spalling. In some areas susceptible to earthquake, e.g. California, PP fibers are added with
soils to improve the soils strength and damping when constructing the foundation of structures
such as buildings, bridges, etc.
Poly Vinyl Chloride(PVC):

Structure:
The polymers are linear and are strong. The monomers are mainly arranged head-to-tail, meaning
that there are chlorides on alternating carbon centres. PVC has mainly an atactic stereochemistry,
which means that the relative stereochemistry of the chloride centres are random. Some degree
of syndiotacticity of the chain gives a few percent crystallinity that is influential on the properties of
the material. About 57% of the mass of PVC is chlorine. The presence of chloride groups gives the
polymer very different properties from the structurally related material polyethylene.[13] The density
is also higher than these structurally related plastics.
Characteristics:
PVC is a thermoplastic polymer. Its properties are usually categorized based on rigid and flexible PVCs.
 Property Rigid PVC Flexible PVC

Density [g/cm3] 1.3–1.45 1.1–1.35

Thermal conductivity [W/(m·K)] 0.14–0.28 0.14–0.17

4,500–8,700 psi (31– 1,450–3,600 psi (10.0–

Yield strength
60 MPa) 24.8 MPa)

Young's modulus 490,000 psi (3.4 GPa)

Flexural strength (yield) 10,500 psi (72 MPa)

Compression strength [psi] 9,500 psi (66 MPa)

Coefficient of thermal expansion (linear)

5×10−5
[mm/(mm °C)]

Vicat B [°C][21] 65–100 Not recommended

Resistivity [Ω m][23][24] 1016 1012–1015

Surface resistivity [Ω][23][24] 1013–1014 1011–1012

Mechanical
PVC has high hardness and mechanical properties. The mechanical properties enhance with the
molecular weight increasing but decrease with the temperature increasing. The mechanical
properties of rigid PVC (uPVC) are very good; the elastic modulus can reach 1500-3,000 MPa.
The soft PVC (flexible PVC) elastic limit is 1.5–15 MPa.
Thermal and fire
The heat stability of raw PVC is very poor, so the addition of a heat stabilizer during the process is
necessary in order to ensure the product's properties. Traditional product PVC has a maximum
operating temperature around 140°F (60°C) when heat distortion begins to occur. [25] Melting
temperatures range from 212°F to 500°F (100°C to 260°C) depending upon manufacture additives
to the PVC. The linear expansion coefficient of rigid PVC is small and has good flame retardancy,
the limiting oxygen index (LOI) being up to 45 or more. The LOI is the minimum concentration of
oxygen, expressed as a percentage, that will support combustion of a polymer and noting that air
has 20% content of oxygen.
Electrical
PVC is a polymer with good insulation properties, but because of its higher polar nature the
electrical insulating property is inferior to non polar polymers such
as polyethylene and polypropylene.
Since the dielectric constant, dielectric loss tangent value, and volume resistivity are high, the
corona resistance is not very good, and it is generally suitable for medium or low voltage and low
frequency insulation materials.
Chemical
PVC is chemically resistant to acids, salts, bases, fats, and alcohols, making it resistant to the
corrosive effects of sewage, which is why it is so extensively utilized in sewer piping systems. It is
also resistant to some solvents, this, however, is reserved mainly for uPVC (unplasticized PVC).
Plasticized PVC, also known as PVC-P, is in some cases less resistant to solvents.
Uses:
Pipes
Roughly half of the world's polyvinyl chloride resin manufactured annually is used for producing
pipes for municipal and industrial applications.[26] In the water distribution market, it accounts for
66% of the market in the U.S., and in sanitary sewer pipe applications, it accounts for 75%. Its
light weight, low cost, and low maintenance make it attractive. However, it must be carefully
installed and bedded to ensure longitudinal cracking and overbelling does not occur. Additionally,
PVC pipes can be fused together using various solvent cements, or heat-fused (butt-fusion
process, similar to joining high-density polyethylene (HDPE) pipe), creating permanent joints that
are virtually impervious to leakage.
Electric Cables:
PVC is commonly used as the insulation on electrical cables such as teck; PVC used for this
purpose needs to be plasticized. Flexible PVC coated wire and cable for electrical use has
traditionally been stabilised with lead, but these are being replaced with calcium-based systems.
Construction:
PVC is a common, strong but lightweight plastic used in construction. It is made softer and more
flexible by the addition of plasticizers. If no plasticizers are added, it is known as uPVC
(unplasticized polyvinyl chloride) or rigid PVC.
Nylon:

Structure:
Nylon is a synthetic polymer, a plastic, invented on February 28, 1935 by Wallace Carothers at
the E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Company of Wilmington, Delaware, USA. The material was
announced in 1938 and the first nylon products; a nylon bristle toothbrush made with nylon yarn
(went on sale on February 24, 1938) and more famously, women's stockings (went on sale on May
15, 1940). Nylon fibres are now used to make many synthetic fabrics, and solid nylon is used as
an engineering material.
Chemically, nylon is a condensation polymer made of repeating units with amide linkages between
them: hence it is frequently referred to as a polyamide. It was the first synthetic fibre to be made
entirely from inorganic ingredients: coal, water and air. These are formed into two intermediate
chemicals, most commonly hexamethylene diamine and adipic acid (a dicarboxylic acid), which
are then mixed to polymerise. The most common variant is nylon 6,6, also called nylon 66, which
refers to the fact that both the diamine and the diacid have 6 carbon backbones. The diacid and
diamine units alternate in the polymer chain. Therefore, unlike natural polyamides like proteins, the
direction of the amide bond reverses at each bond.
Characteristics:
The characteristic features of nylon 6,6 include:

 Pleats and creases can be heat-set at higher temperatures

 More compact molecular structure
 Better weathering properties; better sunlight resistance
 Softer "Hand"
 High melting point (256 °C/492.8 °F)
 Superior colorfastness
 Excellent abrasion resistance

Uses:
Nylon Fibres
Nylon 6 and 66 fibers are used in carpet manufacture.
Nylon is one kind of fibers used in tire cord.
Molds and resins
Food packaging
FilamentsUses
Polytetrafluoroethylene(Teflon):

Structure:
PTFE is produced by free-radical polymerization of tetrafluoroethylene.[19] The net equation is
n F2C=CF2 → −(F2C−CF2)n−
Because tetrafluoroethylene can explosively decompose to tetrafluoromethane and carbon,
special apparatus is required for the polymerization to prevent hot spots that might initiate this
dangerous side reaction. The process is typically initiated with persulfate, which homolyzes to
generate sulfate radicals:
[O3SO−OSO3]2− ⇌ 2 SO4•−
The resulting polymer is terminated with sulfate ester groups, which can be hydrolyzed to
give OH end-groups.
Because PTFE is poorly soluble in almost all solvents, the polymerization is conducted as
an emulsion in water. This process gives a suspension of polymer particles. Alternatively, the
polymerization is conducted using a surfactant such as PFOS.
Characteristics:
PTFE is a thermoplastic polymer, which is a white solid at room temperature, with a density of
about 2200 kg/m3. According to Chemours, its melting point is 600 K (327 °C; 620 °F).[21] It
maintains high strength, toughness and self-lubrication at low temperatures down to 5 K
(−268.15 °C; −450.67 °F), and good flexibility at temperatures above 194 K (−79 °C;
−110 °F).[22] PTFE gains its properties from the aggregate effect of carbon-fluorine bonds, as do all
fluorocarbons. The only chemicals known to affect these carbon-fluorine bonds are highly reactive
metals like the alkali metals, and at higher temperatures also such metals as aluminium and
magnesium, and fluorinating agents such as xenon difluoride and cobalt(III) fluoride.

Property Value

Density 2200 kg/m3

Melting point 326.85 °C (620.33 °F; 600.00 K)

Young's modulus 0.5 GPa

Yield strength 23 MPa

Bulk resistivity 1018 Ω·cm[27]

Coefficient of friction 0.05–0.10

Dielectric constant ε = 2.1, tan(δ) < 5×10−4

Dielectric constant (60 Hz) ε = 2.1, tan(δ) < 2×10−4

Uses:
The major application of PTFE, consuming about 50% of production, is for wiring in aerospace and
computer applications (e.g. hookup wire, coaxial cables). This application exploits the fact that
PTFE has excellent dielectric properties,[38] especially at high radio frequencies,[38] making it
suitable for use as an excellent insulator in connectorassemblies and cables, and in printed circuit
boards used at microwave frequencies. Combined with its high melting temperature, this makes it
the material of choice as a high-performance substitute for the weaker and lower-melting-
point polyethylene commonly used in low-cost applications. PTFE is used in some aerosol
lubricant sprays, including in micronized and polarized form. It is notable for its extremely low
coefficient of friction, its hydrophobia (which serves to inhibit rust), and for the dry film it forms after
application, which allows it to resist collecting particles that might otherwise form an abrasive
paste.PTFE (Teflon) is best known for its use in coating non-stick frying pans and other cookware,
as it is hydrophobic and possesses fairly high heat resistance.The sole plates of some clothes
irons are coated with PTFE (Teflon).