Code:CV44

Subject: Concrete Technology

1.
a. Dry process of cement manufacturing------10M

b. Standard consistency test on cement---------10M

The standard consistency of a cement paste is defined as that consistency which
will permit the vicat plunger to penetrate to a point 5 to 7mm from the bottom of
the vicat mould.  Unless otherwise specified this test shall be conducted at a
temperature 27 + 20 C and the relative humidity of laboratory should be 65 + 5%.
 Prepare a paste of weighed quantity of cement (300gms) with weighed quantity
of potable or distilled water, taking care that the time of gauging is not less than
3minutes nor more than 5minutes and the gauging is completed before any sign of
setting occurs.  The gauging is counted from the time of adding water to the dry
cement until commencing to fill the mould.  Fill the vicat mould with this paste
resting upon a non-porous plate.  Smoothen the surface of the paste, making it
level with the top of the mould.  Slightly shake the mould to expel the air.  In
filling the mould operators hands and the blade of the gauging trowel shall only
be used. Immediately place the test block with the non-porous resting plate, under
the rod bearing the plunger.  Lower the plunger gently to touch the surface of the
test block and quickly release, allowing it sink into the paste.  Record the depth
 of penetration  Prepare trial pastes with varying percentages of water and test as
described above until the plunger is 5mm to 7mm from the bottom of the vicat
mould.
CALCULATIONS  Standard consistency (%) = - Weight of water added / x 100
Weight of cement
2.
a. Bogues Compound, their role and influence on the properties of concrete.
------10M
By the process of hydration, we know that each mineral constituent of cement, after
reaction with water, takes part in strengthening of concrete (a mixture of cement,
aggregate and water).Bogues through his calculations has explained that varying the
proportions of these ingredients can produce different properties and characteristics
of cement composite.

S.No. Chemical Name Chemical Formula Notation Percentage (%)

1 Tricalcium Silicate 3CaO, SiO2 C3S 30-50
2 Dicalcium Silicate 2CaO, SiO2 C2S 20-45
3 Tricalcium Aluminate 3CaO, Al2O3 C3A 8-12
Tetra-calcium Alumino-
4 ferrite 4CaO, Al2O3, Fe2O3 C4AF 6-10
Classification of Bogues Compounds
Following are the four Bogues compounds, these are also the four main ingredients of cement

1. Tri-calcium Silicate: C3S, 3CaO.SiO2,

2. Di-Calcium Silicate
3. Tri-Calcium Aluminate
4. Tetra-Calcium Alumino Ferite
b. Field and lab test on cement and initial setting time of cement. ------10M
1)Physical / Laboratory Testing Of Cement

The following tests of cement are usually conducted in the laboratory:

a) Fineness Test

b) Normal consistency test

c) Initial and final setting time test

d) Soundness test

e) compressive Strength Test

f) Heat of hydration test

g) Chemical composition test.

2)Field Test Of Cement

The Purity and quality of cement can be judged by applying the following rough and ready field
test of cement(field cement test):

⇰ The color of the cement should normally be greenish-grey.

⇰ When the hand is inserted into a bag of cement, It should feel cool and not warm.

⇰ Any lump found in the cement bag should be powdered by pressing between the thumb and
the fore finger.If it does not turn into powder form, the cement is considered to be spoiled by air
setting.

⇰ It should give smooth feeling when rubbed in between fingers.

⇰ A handful of cement thrown into a bucket of water should float for some time.

⇰ It should not feel oily when touched.

Initial and Final Setting Time Test
When cement is mixed with water is stiff and sticky paste is formed. This cement paste remains
plastic for a short period. As the time lapses, the plasticity gradually disappears and the paste
changes into a solid mass.

The phenomenon by virtue of which the cement paste changes from a plastic state to a solid state
is known as the setting of cement. The time to reach this stage is known as setting time.

The time is reckoned from the instant when water is added to the cement. The setting time is
divided into two parts namely initial setting time and final setting time.

The time at which the cement paste loses its plasticity is termed the initial setting time. The time
is taken to reach the stage when the paste becomes a hard mass is known as the final setting
time.

The initial and final setting time test of cement is performed with the help of Vicat apparatus.
The initial setting time of cement shall be the time from the period elapsing between the time
when the water is added to the cement and the time at which the needle (1 mm square or 1.13
mm in dia and 40 to 50 mm in length) penetrate to a point 5 mm from the bottom of the Vicat
mould.
To perform this test about 400 gm sieved cement is taken and water is added to it @ 0.85 P by
weight of cement. Where P is the percentage of water required for normal consistency paste.

At the instant of adding water, the stopwatch is started. Water is mixed thoroughly for about 3
minutes. The paste is then filled into the Vicat mould, making it level with the top of the mould.

The filled up mould is placed centrally below the movable rod fitted with a needle. The bottom
surface of the needle is brought in contact with the surface of the cement paste and the reading of
the scale is taken. The rod is then quickly released and the penetration is noted.

The procedure is repeated until the needle fails to penetrate the flock for about 5
mm measured from the bottom of the mould. The time from the stopwatch is recorded which
gives the initial setting time.

The cement shall be considered it finally set while applying final setting time needle gently, only
an impression is marked on the top surface.

3.
a. List Workability test and explain one method of testing workability------10M
Workability of concrete mixture is measured by:

a) Vee-bee consistometer test

b) Compaction factor test

c) Slump test
d) Flow Test
e) Kelly Ball Test
Slump test:
1. Place the slump mould on a smooth flat and non-absorbent surface.
2. Mix the dry ingredients of the concrete thoroughly till a uniform colour is obtained and then
add the required quantity of water in it.
3. Place the mixed concrete in the mould to about one-fourth of its height.
4. Compact the concrete 25 times with the help of a tamping rod uniformly all over the area.
5. Place the mixed concrete in the mould to about half of its height and compact it again.
6. Similarly, place the concrete upto its three-fourth height and then up to its top. Compact each
layer 25 times with the help of tamping rod uniformly. For the second and subsequent layers,
the tamping rod should penetrate into underlying layer.
7. Strike off the top surface of mould with a trowel or tamping rod so that the mould is filled to
its top.
8. Remove the mould immediately, ensuring its movement in vertical direction.
9. When the settlement of concrete stops, measure the subsidence of the concrete in
millimeters which is the required slump of the concrete.
 b. List the procedure for manufacture of concrete, mixing and transporting of
concrete------10M
The various stages of manufacture of concrete are: (a ) Batching (b) Mixing (c )
Transporting (d ) Placing (e) Compacting (f ) Curing (g) Finishing.
There are two methods adopted for mixing concrete: (i ) Hand mixing (ii )Machine
mixing
Mixing: Machine Mixing  In normal concrete work, it is the batch mixers that are
used. Batch mixer may be of pan type or drum type.  The drum type may be
further classified as tilting, non-tilting, reversing or forced action type.  As per
I.S. 1791–1985, concrete mixers are designated by a number representing its
nominal mixed batch capacity in litres. The following are the standardized sizes of
three types:  a. Tilting: 85 T, 100 T, 140 T, 200 T  b. Non-Tilting: 200 NT, 280 NT,
375 NT, 500 NT, 1000 NT  c. Reversing: 200 R, 280 R, 375 R, 500 R and 1000 R

Methods of transporting and placing concrete which are used widely, are:

a. Discharge directly into forms through short chute

b. By barrows:
i. Wheel burrows and handcarts.
ii. Power barrows or power buggies
c. Dumpers and trucks (agitating or non agitation)
d. Monorail system
e. Elevating towers and hoists
f. Skips operated by cranes or overhead cable ways
g. Belt conveyers and boom conveyers, it can use on small location
h. Tremie
i. Concrete pumps and pneumatic placers

4.
a. Admixture, distinguish btn mineral and chemical admixture ------10M
Concrete Admixture (Chemical and Mineral Admixtures) ... Admixtures are
material other than cement, aggregates & water that are added to concrete either
before or during mixing to alter its properties & performance in fresh (workability,
setting time etc) and hardened state (strength, durability etc.)
Chemical Admixture — These admixtures have formulated chemical composition
and these are used for certain proportions of concrete. They are mainly used to
reduce the cost of concrete construction. Chemical compounds are added to
concrete in very small amounts for purposes such as entertainment of air,
plasticization of fresh concrete mixtures, or comic.' of setting time Certain
admixtures, such as pigments, pumping aids and expansive agents are used
only in extremely small quantity and are usually batched by hand it,'
premeasured containers. Chemical admixtures are used in the construction
industry for building durable. strong and water-proof structure. Mineral Admixture
— Mineral admixtures are usually added to concrete in large quantity. They can
improve the resistance of concrete to thermal cracking alkali-akorgate expansion,
 and sulfate attack. Natural pozzolanic material and industrial byproducts, such.
fly ash and slag are commonly used mineral admixtures. These admixtures do
not have any binding property by themselves but these are reacted with calcium
hydroxide liberated on the hydration of cement to produce cementing compound
with good binding properties. These are added in a large amount to improve the
performance of the concrete and reduce the cost of construction.
b. Segregation and bleeding of concrete------10M
Segregation

1. Segregation can be defined as the separation of the constituent materials of

concrete, in which particulate solids tend to segregate by virtue of differences in the
size, density, shape and other properties of particles of which they are composed.

2. Causes of segregation :

· Transporting concrete mixes for long distance

· Badly proportioned mix where sufficient matrix is not there to bind the aggregates

· Dropping concrete from height places.

· Vibrating concrete for long time.

3. Problems due to segregation in Concrete

· A segregated concrete is very weak in strength.

· Due to segregation after placing, the concrete in the lower part of a pour of any
significant depth can be stronger than that in the upper part.

· Segregated concrete does not give a homogeneous mass throughout the structure

· Due to segregation excess mortar comes to the top of the surface, which causes
plastic shrinkage cracks.

· A segregated concrete is difficult to compact properly.

4. Segregation remedies

· correctly proportioning the mix,

· by proper handling, transporting, placing, compacting and finishing,

· using air entraining admixture and pozzolanic materials,

· choosing coarse and fine aggregate with approach specific gravity.

Bleeding
 1. Bleeding is a form of segregation in which water present in the concrete mix is
pushed upwards due to the settlement of cement and aggregate. The specific gravity
of water is low, due to this water tends to move upwards.

2. Causes of Bleeding

· Segregation is the cause of bleeding in the concrete mix.

· higher water cement ratio which obviously leads to excessive amounts of water

· Lower amounts of fines which provides lesser surface area for water to be utilized
while mixing.

3. Problems due to Concrete Bleeding

· It can delay in finishing.

· Bleeding of concrete can cause high water-cement ratio at the top.

· It will result in poor bond between two layers.

· It can result in poor pump ability.

· Concrete loses its homogeneity.

· Responsible for causing permeability in concrete.

· The accumulation of water creates a water voids

4. Bleeding Remedies

· Use of finer cement

· Using air entraining admixtures is very effective

· Reduce water content.

· Use chemical admixtures

Design the concrete mix properly

5.
a. Factors affecting strength of concrete------10M
 Factors that Affect the Strength of Concrete
01. Water/Cement Ratio
The ratio of the weight of water to the weight of cement is called Water/Cement ratio. It is
the most important factor for gaining the strength of concrete. The lower w/c ratio leads the
higher strength of concrete. Generally, the water/cement ratio of 0.45 to 0.60 is used. Too
much water leads to segregation and voids in concrete. Water/Cement ratio is inversely
proportional to the strength of concrete. As shown in the chart below when the w/c ratio is
increased the strength of concrete gets decreased and when w/c ratio is decreased then
the strength of concrete increases.
Also Read: Importance of Water-Cement Ratio in Concrete – Mystery Revealed
02. Compaction of Concrete
Compaction of concrete increases the density of the concrete because it is the process in
which air voids are removed from freshly placed concrete which makes the concrete
compact and dense. The presence of air voids in concrete greatly reduces its
strength .Approximately 5 % of air voids can reduce the strength by 30 to 40 %. As we can
see in the above chart, even at the same water/cement ratio strength is different with
different compaction accuracies. In the fully compacted concrete, strength is higher than
the insufficiently compacted concrete.

Compaction of Concrete
Courtesy - dailycivil
Also Read: What is Compaction of Concrete?
03. Ingredients of Concrete
The main ingredients of concrete are cement, sand, aggregate and Water. Quality of each
material affects the strength of the concrete. All materials, therefore, should fulfil the
standard criteria for use in concrete like,

Ingredients of Concrete
Courtesy - happho, aboutcivil, theconstructor, withonehope
(a) Type and Quantity of Cement
The quantity of cement greatly affects concrete strength. The higher cement content
increases the tendency of shrinkage cracks when the concrete is getting cured and
hardened. Types of cement also have a great impact on the properties of hardened
concrete. According to IS 456 2000, the minimum cement content specified ranges from
300 to 360 kg per cubic meter of concrete for various exposure conditions and for various
grades of concrete. Maximum cement content in concrete is also limited to 450 kg per
cubic meter of concrete. The grade of cement – i.e. 33 grade, 43 grade, 53 grade will also
affect the strength of concrete. The higher the grade, the higher strength particularly high
early strength.
Also Read: 11 Must-Know Points to Check on a Cement Bag Before Buying It
(b) Types and Quantity of Aggregate
The strength of concrete depends upon the strength of aggregates. Low quality of
aggregate reduces the strength of concrete. The quantity of aggregate also affects the
properties of hardened concrete. At constant cement content, the higher amount of
aggregate reduces the concrete strength. The shape and grading of aggregate play a major
role as far as strength of concrete is concern.
(c) Quality of Water
Quality of water plays a significant role in the setting and hardening process of concrete.
Acidic, oily, silty, and seawater should not be used in concrete mix. Impurities of water give
an adverse effect on the strength of concrete. Therefore,potable water is always used in
concrete mix.Particularly the impure water may lead to corrosion, carbonation or acid
attack, therefore, reduces the life of concrete.
04. Curing of Concrete
Curing of concrete is the most essential to prevent plastic shrinkage, temperature control,
strength development and durability. Curing provides the desired moisture and temperature
at the depth and near the surface after placing and finishing of concrete for development of
strength. In other words, curing provides sufficient water to concrete for completing the
hydration process without interruption which is important for strength development.
Commonly 7-day curing corresponds to 70 % of compressive strength. Curing
period depends on the types of cement and the nature of work. Generally, it’s about 7 to 14
days for Ordinary Portland Cement. There are many methods of curing like Ponding and
immersion, Spraying and fogging saturated wet coverings etc.

Courtesy - theconstructor
Hence please remember, use as less water as possible during concrete mixing and use as
more as possible after concreting.
Also Read: Different Methods of Curing Concrete: Know Before Curing
05. The Shape of Aggregate
There are many shapes of aggregate like angular, cubical, elongated, elongated and flaky,
flaky, irregular androunded.

Courtesy - Science Direct, civilblog

Angular aggregates are rough textured, and rounded aggregates are smooth textured. Thus,
the rounded aggregates, create the problem of lack of bonding between cement paste and
aggregate. Angular aggregates exhibit a better interlocking effect in concrete, but the
angular aggregate contains a larger amount of voids. For this, you needed well-graded
aggregate. The shape of aggregates becomes more important in case of high strength and
high-performance concrete where very low w/c ratio is used. In such cases, cubical shape
aggregates with uniform grading are required for better workability.
Also Read: Shape Wise Classification of Aggregates
06. Maximum Size of Aggregates
Larger size aggregates give a lower strength because they have a lower surface area for
development of gel bond which is responsible for strength. Larger size aggregate makes
concrete heterogeneous. It will not distribute loading uniformly when stressed. Due to
internal bleeding, the problem of development of the microcracks in concrete happens
when larger size aggregates are used in concrete.

Also Read: Classification of Aggregates Based on Size

07. Grading of Aggregate
Grading of aggregates determines the particle size distribution of aggregates. It’s the most
important factor for concrete mix. There are three types of graded aggregate Gap Graded
Aggregate, Poorly graded aggregate and Well-graded aggregate.
 Types of Grading of Aggregate
Courtesy - concretecountertopinstitute
Well-graded aggregate contains all size of particles of aggregate. So that, they have a less
amount of voids. The use of well-graded aggregates gives higher strength to the concrete.

Courtesy - theconstructioncivil
08. Weather Condition
Weather condition also affects the strength of concrete due to different reasons. In cold
climate, exterior concrete is subjected to repeated freezing and thawing action due to the
sudden change in weather. It produces deterioration in concrete. With the change in
moisture content, materials expand and contract. It produced cracks in concrete.
09. Temperature
With the certain degree of temperature increase, the rate of hydration process increases in
it which, it gains strength rapidly. Sudden temperature changes create a thermal gradient,
which causes cracking and spalling of concrete. So that, the final strength of concrete is
lower at the very high temperature.
10. The Rate of Loading
The strength of concrete increase with the increase in the rate of loading because at the
high rates of loading, there is less time for creep. Creep produces permanent deformation in
the structure at constant loading. So that, the failure occurs at limiting values of strain
rather than the stress. In rapid loading, the load resistance is better than the slow loading.
11. Age of Concrete
With increase in age of concrete, the degree of hydration would be more. Hydration process
is the chemical reaction of water and cement. Hydration produces the gel which plays a
significant role in the bonding of particles of the concrete ingredients. Therefore, the
strength of concrete increases with its age. Normally, concrete strength gets doubled after
11 years provided there are no adverse factors.

The knowledge about factors which affect the concrete strength is helpful in many ways
particularly during designing the structure, choosing material for concrete, observing
precaution for different weather conditions, choosing different methods for concreting,
aiming better life of building structures, for low maintenance of building after construction,
longer durability and better serviceability etc.

b. Gel space ratio, cement=60gm, w/c=0.5 complete and partial hydration

=60%------10M
Gel space ratio is the ratio of volume of hydrated solids in pores to the total volume
of pores available before hydration.

It's given by

X = (volume of gel) / (volume of gel + volume of pores)

where Gel is solid hydrated product

𝐺𝑒� /𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖� = 𝑉��𝑢𝑚𝑒 �� 𝑔𝑒� 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝐴𝑣𝑎𝑖�𝑎𝑏�𝑒 = 0.657� 0.319� + 𝑊� 

Calculation of gel/space ratio for partial hydration 𝐺𝑒� /𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖� = 𝑉��𝑢𝑚𝑒 �� 𝑔𝑒�
𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝐴𝑣𝑎𝑖�𝑎𝑏�𝑒 = 0.657�α 0.319�α + 𝑊
 6.
a. Relationship btn modulus of elasticity,poisons ratio and modulus of rupture.
------10M
Modulus of rupture is a measure of the tensile strength of concrete
beams or slabs. Flexural strength identifies the amount of stress and
force an unreinforced concrete slab, beam or other structure can
withstand such that it resists any bending failures. Modulus of rupture is
also known as flexural strength,bend strength or fracture strength.
Modulus of Elasticity

Young's modulus ( E ) describes tensile elasticity, or the tendency of an object to deform

along an axis when opposing forces are applied along that axis; it is defined as the ratio
of tensile stress to tensile strain. It is often referred to simply as the elastic modulus.

The modulus of elasticity of concrete is a function of the modulus of elasticity of the

aggregates and the cement matrix and their relative proportions. The modulus of
elasticity of concrete is relatively constant at low stress levels but starts decreasing at
higher stress levels as matrix cracking develops. The elastic modulus of the hardened
paste may be in the order of 10-30 GPa and aggregates about 45 to 85 GPa. The
concrete composite is then in the range of 30 to 50 GPa.

Poisson's Ratio: The three stresses and strains do not operate

independently. Stresses produce strains in lateral directions as the solid tries
to retain its original volume. Poisson's ratio is a measure of how successful
this is.

When an axial force is applied along the longitudinal axis of a bar, the length
of a bar will increase but at the same time its lateral dimension (width) will be
decreased so, it is called as Poisson' ratio.
Value of Poisson's ratio is same in tension and compression

Under uniaxial loading0≤ μ ≤ 0.5μ = 0 for corkμ = 0.5 For perfectly plastic
body(Rubber)μ = 0.25 to 0.42 for elastic metalsμ = 0.1 to 0.2 for concreteμ
= 0.286 mild steelμ is greater for ductile metals than for brittle
metals. Volumetric Strain

It is defined as the ratio of change in volume to the initial volume.

Mathematically

Volumetric strain,

Volumetric Strain Due to Single Direct Stress

The ratio of change in volume to original volume is called volumetric strain.

ev = e1 + e2 + e3
Volumetric strain:

For the circular bar of diameter d:

Volumetric Strain due to Three

Mutually Perpendicular Stress System: When a body is subjected
to identical pressure in three mutually perpendicular direction, then the body
undergoes uniform changes in three directions without undergoing distortion
of shape.
or

Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity

Modulus of rigidity :

* At principal planes, shear stress is always zero.

* Planes of maximum shear stress also contains normal stress.

Relationship between E, G, K and μ :

Modulus of rigidity:
Bulk modulus:

Analysis of Stress and Strain

We will derive some mathematical expressions for plains stresses and will
study their graphical significance in 2D and 3D

Stress on Inclined Section PQ due to Uniaxial Stress

Consider a rectangular cross-section and we have to calculate the stress on

an inclined section as shown in figure.

Normal stress :

Stress on an inclined section

Tangential stress
Resultant stress

Stress Induced by State Simple Shear

Induced stress is divided into two components which are given as

Normal stress:

Tangential stress:

Stress Induced by Axial Stress and Simple Shear

Normal stress
Tangential stress

Principal Stresses and Principal Planes

The plane carrying the maximum normal stress is called the major principal
plane and normal stress is called major principal stress. The plane carrying
the minimum normal stress is known as minor principal stress.

Major principal stress :

Minor principal stress :

Across maximum normal stresses acting in plane shear stresses are zero.

Computation of Principal Stress from Principal Strain

The three stresses normal to shear principal planes are called principal stress,
while a plane at which shear strain is zero is called principal strain.

For two dimensional stress system, σ3 = 0

Maximum Shear Stress

The maximum shear stress or maximum principal stress is equal of one half
the difference between the largest and smallest principal stresses and acts on
the plane that bisects the angle between the directions of the largest and
smallest principal stress, i.e., the plane of the maximum shear stress is
oriented 45° from the principal stress planes.

Principal Strain

For two dimensional strain system,

Where, e1 = Strain in x-direction

e2 = Strain in y-direction

φ = Shearing strain relative to OX and OY

Maximum Shear Strain:

The maximum shear strain also contains normal strain which is given as

45° Strain Rosette or Rectangular Strain Rosette

Rectangular strains Rosette are inclined 45° to each other

Principal strains:

b. Creep and factors influencing ------10M

Concrete creep is defined as: deformation of structure under sustained
load. Basically, long term pressure or stress on concrete can make it change
shape. This deformation usually occurs in the direction the force is being
applied. Like a concrete column getting more compressed, or a beam
bending. Creep does not necessarily cause concrete to fail or break apart.
When a load is applied to concrete, it experiences an instantaneous elastic
strain which develops into creep strain if the load is sustained.

1. Aggregate
2. Mix Proportions
3. Age of concrete

In reinforced concrete beams, creep increases the deflection with time

and may be a critical consideration in design.

In eccentrically loaded columns, creep increases the deflection and can

load to buckling.

In case of statically indeterminate structures and column and beam

junctions creep may relieve the stress concentration induced by
shrinkage, temperatures changes or movement of support. Creep
property of concrete will be useful in all concrete structures to reduce
the internal stresses due to non-uniform load or restrained shrinkage.
 In mass concrete structures such as dams, on account of differential
temperature conditions at the interior and surface, creep is harmful
and by itself may be a cause of cracking in the interior of dams.
Therefore, all precautions and steps must be taken to see that increase
in temperature does not take place in the interior of mass concrete
structure.

Loss of prestress due to creep of concrete in prestressed

concrete structure.

Because of rapid construction techniques, concrete members will

experience loads that can be as large as the design loads at very early
age; these can cause deflections due to cracking and early age low
elastic modulus. So, creep has a significant effect on both the
structural integrity and the economic impact that it will produce if
predicted wrong.

7.
a. Factors influencing mix design------10M

b. Steps to determine mix design------10M

8. Mix design M30 grade of concrete ------10M

9.
a. Durability of concrete and its control------10M
Factors affecting durability of concrete

Durability of Concrete depends upon the following factors

Cement content

Mix must be designed to ensure cohesion and prevent segregation and bleeding. If
cement is reduced, then at fixed w/c ratio the workability will be reduced leading to
inadequate compaction. However, if water is added to improve workability, water /
cement ratio increases and resulting in highly permeable material.

Compaction

The concrete as a whole contain voids can be caused by inadequate compaction.

Usually it is being governed by the compaction equipments used, type of formworks,
and density of the steelwork
 Curing

It is very important to permit proper strength development aid moisture retention and to
ensure hydration process occur completely

Cover

Thickness of concrete cover must follow the limits set in codes

Permeability

It is considered the most important factor for durability. It can be noticed that higher
permeability is usually caused by higher porosity. Therefore, a proper curing, sufficient
cement, proper compaction and suitable concrete cover could provide a low
permeability concrete

Concrete will remain durable if:

 The cement paste structure is dense and of low permeability

 Under extreme condition, it has entrained air to resist freeze-thaw
cycle.
 It is made with graded aggregate that are strong and inert
 The ingredients in the mix contain minimum impurities such as alkalis, Chlorides,
sulphates and silt.

b. Tests on hardened concrete and explain any two tests------10M

10. Cube test

11. Tensile Strength Test

12. Concrete core test
a.

Tests performed on hardened concrete are:

 Compressive strength test (most common) – DT.
 Modulus of Elasticity – NDT.
 Split-tension test – DT.
 Flexural strength test – DT.
 Rebound hammer test – NDT.
 Penetration resistance test – NDT.
 Ultrasonic pulse velocity test – NDT.
 Maturity test – NDT.
 Concrete Characteristics is determined by characteristics compressive cube
strength test of concrete.For cube test two types of specimens either cubes of 15cm
X 15cm X 15cm or 10cm X 10cm x 10cm depending upon the size of aggregate
are used. For most of the works cubical moulds of size 15cm x 15cm x 15cm are
commonly used.

 These specimens are tested by compression testing machine after 7 days curing or
28 days curing. Load should be applied gradually at the rate of 140 kg/cm2 per
minute till the Specimens fails. Read More:Cube Test on Concrete

13.
a. NDT testing of concrete to know the compressive strength of concrete------10M

Non-Destructive Tests on Concrete

The main non-destructive tests for strength on hardened concrete areas follows.

1. Rebound Hammer (Hardness Test)

2. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test

3. Pull Out Test

4. Penetration Resistance

5. Other non-destructive tests

It is a non-destructive test performed on hardened concrete. A spring-loaded mass

hits the concrete’s surface and scale measures how far the mass rebounds. The
higher the rebound, the harder the concrete’s surface, and the greater the concrete’s
strength.Use a calibration chart graphs supplied to related the rebound to
strength. 10 to 12 reading are performed per specimen. The test is used to test
the uniformity of the concrete.

b. Chloride and sulphate attack on concrete and its prevention------10M

14. Chloride Attack on Concrete Structures is one of the most important phenomena
we consider when we deal with the durability of concrete.
 15. Among all sources of failure of concrete structures, the chloride attack accounts
40% contribution. The main effect of chloride attack is the corrosion of
reinforcement that induces the strength of the structure drastically.

Causes of Chloride Attack on

Concrete Structures
16. The attack of chloride on concrete structures can be happened either from inside of
the concrete or through the ingress of chloride from outside to the inside of
concrete structures.

Several methods are available in order to prevent the effect of chlorides on concrete
structures. Some of them are:

17. Increasing the cover over the reinforcement bar. This is the simplest way to prevent
chloride attack. Studies have shown that an increase in cover by one inch can increase the
life period of the structure by double.

18. The rate of deterioration of the reinforcement under extreme conditions of chlorides can
be prevented by having a rebar coated by epoxy, having cathodic protection or by use of
stainless steel-clad rebar.

19. Another important way is to decrease the chloride ion ingress into the concrete by
decreasing the permeability of the concrete. This will decrease the durability and the
time, cost of expensive repairs.
20. Sulfate attack on concrete
21. Sulfate compounds (such as calcium sulfate, sodium sulfate, and magnesium sulfate)
which exist in seawater, ground water, sewers, soil or even in the concrete materials
themselves can attack and significantly damage the concrete. There are two types of
sulfate attack, namely: chemical (involving chemical interaction between sulfates and
concrete compounds) and physical (sulfate salt crystallize inside the concrete pores to
cause internal pressure on concrete). In this article, only the chemical sulfate attack will
be covered. Regarding, the physical one will be covered in a following article. From now
on, the term “sulfate attack” would refer to the chemical type.

22. As mentioned before, sulfates react with hydrated compounds in the hardened cement
paste. These reactions might induce sufficient internal pressure resulting in expansion,
spalling of surface layers, loss of strength and ultimately total disintegration of concrete.

23. Mechanism of Sulfate Attack

 24. Sulfate ions attack calcium hydroxide and the hydration products of C A, forming gypsum
3

and ettringite in expansive reactions. Depending on the cations involved with SO4 such
as Mg and Na, sulfate attack can be more or less aggressive. For instance, magnesium
sulfate attacks concrete in a way similar to sodium sulfate but in addition, it forms brucite
(magnesium hydroxide). Brucite forms mainly on the surface of concrete; it consumes
calcium hydroxide, lowers the pH of the pore solution, and then decomposes the calcium
silicate hydrates (C-S-H). In general, magnesium sulfate attack is the most aggressive
and calcium sulfate is the least aggressive.

Methods to Control Sulfate Attack

1. Using sulfate-resistant cement with Types II or V, depending on the sulfate exposure
class as defined by the code. For instance, ACI 318 defines 4 exposure classes, S0 to
S3, for concrete, depending on the sulfate content in the soil or groundwater (S3 is the
most severe).
2. Limit the ability of the sulfates to enter the concrete by reducing the permeability of the
concrete (minimizing the water-to-cementitious materials ratio and providing good
curing).
3. In very severe sulfate exposures, a waterproof barrier protecting the concrete can be
beneficial.