FLUIDS IN STATIC EQUILIBRIUM WITH REFERENCE FRAMES If we move from the center to a face a distance ( dx/2) away, we see

istance ( dx/2) away, we see that In this section the fluid will be at rest relative to a reference frame that is
the pressure is linearly accelerating with a horizontal component ax and a vertical
Three situations, depicted in Fig. 1, involving fluid statics will be dx ∂ p dx component az.
investigated. These include fluids at rest, such as water pushing against
a dam, fluids contained in devices that undergo linear acceleration, and
(
p x+
2 )
, y , z = p (x , y , z )+
∂x 2 a
ρ(¿¿ z+ g) dz
fluids contained in rotating cylinders. In each of these three situations The pressures at all faces are expressed in this manner, as shown in
the fluid is in static equilibrium with respect to a reference frame Fig. 2.Newton’s second law is written in vector form for a constant-mass dp=−ρax dx−¿
attached to the boundary surrounding the fluid. In addition to the system as
examples shown for fluids at rest, we consider instruments called ΣF=ma Integrating between two arbitrary points 1 and 2 results in
manometers and investigate the forces of buoyancy. Finally, the stability This results in the three component equations, assuming z to be vertical
of floating bodies such as ships will also be presented. and using the mass as r dx dy dz,
−∂ p
dx dy dz=ρ a x dx dy dz
∂x
−∂ p
dx dy dz=ρ a y dx dy dz
∂y
a
(¿¿ z+ g)dx dy dz
FIGURE 1
−∂ p
dx dy dz=ρ ¿
A general equation is derived to predict the pressure variation of fluids at ∂z FIGURE 3
rest or fluids undergoing an acceleration while the relative position of where ax, ay, and az are the components of the acceleration of the
fluid elements to one another remains the same (this eliminates shear element. Division by the element’s volume dx dy dz yields a
stress). To determine the pressure variation in such fluids, consider the −∂ p
infinitesimal element displayed in Fig. 2, where the z-axis is in the =ρ a x ρ(¿ ¿ z + g)(z 2−z 1)
vertical direction. The pressure variation from one point to another will ∂x p2− p1=−ρa x (x 2−x 1 )−¿
be determined by applying Newton’s second law; that is, the sum of the −∂ p If points 1 and 2 lie on a constant-pressure line, such as the free surface
forces acting on the fluid element is equal to the mass times the
=ρ a y
∂y in Fig. 3, then p2 - p1 = 0 and we have
acceleration of the element. ax
a
α =¿
( ¿¿ z+ g) az + g
−∂ p z 1−z 2
=ρ ¿ =tan¿
∂z x 1−x 2
The pressure differential in any direction can now be determined from
where a is the angle that the constant-pressure line makes with the
a horizontal. In the solution of problems involving liquids, we must often
ρ (¿¿ z+ g)dz utilize the conservation of mass and equate the volumes before and
dp=−ρax dx−ρa y dy−¿ after the acceleration is applied. After the acceleration is initially applied,
where z is always vertical. Pressure differences between specified sloshing may occur. Our analysis will assume that sloshing is not
points can be found by integrating Eq. 2.3.6.This equation is useful in a present; either sufficient time passes to dampen out time-dependent
variety of problems, as will be demonstrated in the remaining sections of motions, or the acceleration is applied in such a way that such motions
this chapter. are minimal.
If we assume that a pressure p exists at the center of this element, the
pressures at each of the sides can be expressed by using the chain rule LINEARLY ACCELERATING CONTAINERS
from calculus with p(x, y, z): EXAMPLES:
∂p ∂p ∂p 1. The tank shown in Fig. 4 is accelerated to the right. Calculate
dp= dx+ dy+ dz
∂x ∂y ∂z the acceleration ax needed to cause the free surface, shown in
 Fig. 4, to touch point A. Also, find Pb and the total force acting
on the bottom of the tank if the tank width is 1 m.

3. Milk with a density of 1020 kg/m3 is transported on a level

FIGURE 4 FIGURE 5
road in a 9-m-long, 3-m-diameter cylindrical tanker. The tanker
2. A rectangular tank is moving horizontally in the direction of its After a relatively short time the liquid reaches static equilibrium with
is completely filled with milk (no air space), and it accelerates
length with a constant acceleration of 2.4 m/s2. The length, respect to the container and the rotating rz-reference frame. The
at 4 m/s2. If the minimum pressure in the tanker is 100 kPa,
width and depth of the tank are 6m, 2.5m and 2m respectively. horizontal rotation will not alter the pressure distribution in the vertical
determine the maximum pressure difference and the location
If the depth of water in the tank is 1 m and it is open at the top direction. There will be no variation of pressure with respect to the θ
of the maximum pressure.
then calculate coordinate. Applying Newton’s second law (Fr = mar) in the r-direction to
a. The angle of the water surface with respect to the the element shown, using sin dθ/2 ≅ dθ/2, yields
horizontal −∂ p ∂p dθ
d r r d θ dz−p r d θ dz− ( d r )2 d θ dz +2 p d r dz+ p r
b. The maximum and minimum intensities at the bottom of ∂r ∂r 2
the tank 2
where the acceleration is r ω toward the center of rotation. Simplify
c. The total force acting at each end of the tank
and divide by the volume rdθ dr dz; then
d. If the tank initially contains water to a depth of 1.5m. Find
∂p
the horizontal acceleration of the tank along its length if 4. A vessel 3 m in diameter containing 2.4m of water is being =ρ r ω 2
spilling of water from the tank is just on the verge of raised. ∂r
taking place a. Find the pressure at the bottom of the vessel in KPa where we have neglected the higher-order term that contains the
e. If the tank initially contains water to a depth of 1.5m. Find when the velocity is constant differential dr. The pressure differential then becomes
the horizontal acceleration of the tank along its length if b. Find the pressure at the bottom of the vessel in KPa ∂p ∂p 2
when it is accelerating 0.6m/s2 upwards dp= dr + dz=ρr ω dr− ρ gdz
the front end of the tank is just exposed ∂r ∂z
f. If the tank initially contains water to a depth of 1.5m. Find c.
where we have used the static pressure variation given by the equation
the horizontal acceleration of the tank along its length if ROTATING VESSELS/CONTAINERS
half of the bottom of the tank is exposed In this section we consider the situation of a liquid contained in a rotating a
g. If the tank initially contains water to a depth of 1.5m. Find container, such as that shown in Fig. 5. ( ¿¿ z+ g)
the volume of water spilt if the horizontal acceleration is −∂ p
7m/s2
=ρ ¿
∂z
PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE with az = 0. We can now integrate between any two points ( r1, z1) and (r2,
z2) to obtain
1. A 60-cm-high, 40-cm-diameter cylindrical water tank is being ρ ω2 2
transported on a level road. The highest acceleration p2− p1= ( r 2 −r 12 ) −ρg( z 2−z 1)
2
anticipated is 4 m/s2. Determine the allowable initial water
If the two points are on a constant-pressure surface, such as the free
height in the tank if no water is to spill out during acceleration.
surface, locating point 1 on the z-axis so that r = 0, there results
2. The tank shown in Figure below is accelerated to the right at 1

10 m/s2. Determine: ω2 r 2
=g (z 2−z 1)
a. PA 2
b. PB which is the equation of a parabola. Hence the free surface is a
paraboloid of revolution. The equations above can now, with the
c. PC
conservation of mass, be used to solve problems of interest.

EXAMPLE:
1. The cylinder shown in Fig. 6 is rotated about its centerline.
Calculate the rotational speed that is necessary for the water
to just touch the origin O. Also, find the pressures at A and B.
Majority of the discussion are taken from:
POTTER, M.C., D. WIGGERTand B. RAMADAN, 2012, Mechanics of Fluids, 4th
ed. Cengage Learning, USA.

FIGURE 6
2. An open cylindrical tank 3m in diameter and 6m high
contains water to a depth of 4.5m. It is rotated about its
own vertical axis with a constant angular speed ω.
a. If ω = 3 rad/s, what is the angle of inclination of the
water surface at the inner surface of the cylinder
b. If ω = 3 rad/s, what is the angle of inclination of the
water surface at a point which is 1m from the center
of the tank
c. If ω = 3 rad/s, what is the difference in elevation of
the water surface at a point which is 1m from the
center of the tank and the water surface at the
center of the tank
d. If ω = 3 rad/s, is there any liquid spilled? Justify your
answer analytically.
e. What is the maximum value of ω (in rpm) can be
imposed without spilling any liquid?
f. If ω = 8 rad/s, how much water is spilled out and to
what depth will the water stand when brought to
rest?
g. What angular speed ω (in rpm) will make the vertex
of the paraboloid just touch the bottom of the tank?
h. If ω = 100 rpm, how much area at the bottom of the
tank is uncovered?

Note: