FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOW
time period.
FLUID DYNAMICS – the study of the motion of fluids.
HYDRAULICS – The subcategory of hydrodynamics which deals with
liquid flows in pipes and open channels
I. FLOW DESCRIPTIONS:
LANGRANGIAN DESCRIPTION
The Lagrangian description requires us to track the position and velocity
of each individual fluid parcel, which we refer to as a fluid particle, and
take to be a parcel of fixed identity.
As you can imagine, this method of describing motion is much more
difficult for fluids than for billiard balls! First of all we cannot easily define
and identify fluid particles as they move around. Secondly, a fluid is a
continuum (from a macroscopic point of view), so interactions between
fluid particles are not as easy to describe as are interactions between
distinct objects like billiard balls or air hockey pucks. Furthermore, the fluid
particles continually deform as they move in the flow
EULERIAN DESCRIPTION
In the Eulerian description of fluid flow, a finite volume called a flow
domain or control volume is defined, through which fluid flows in and out.
Instead of tracking individual fluid particles, we define field variables,
functions of space and time, within the control volume. The field variable
at a particular location at a particular time is the value of the variable for
whichever fluid particle happens to occupy that location at that time.
II. FLOW PATTERNS AND FLOW VISUALIZATION
A streamline is a curve that is everywhere tangent to the instantaneous
local velocity vector.
A pathline is the actual path traveled by an individual fluid particle over some
A streakline is the locus of fluid particles that have passed sequentially
through a prescribed point in the flow.
A streamtube consists of a bundle of streamlines, much like a
communications cable consists of a bundle of fiber-optic cables. Since
streamlines are everywhere parallel to the local velocity, fluid cannot cross
a streamline by definition
III. LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOWS
LAMINAR FLOW - the fluid flows with no significant mixing of
neighboring fluid particles. If dye were injected into the flow, it would not
mix with the neighboring fluid except by molecular activity; it would retain
its identity for a relatively long period of time.Viscous shear stresses
always influence a laminar flow
Laminar flow is encountered when highly viscous fluids such as oils flow
in small pipes or narrow passages.
TURBULENT FLOWS
is characterized by velocity fluctuations and highly disordered motion.
IV. OTHER FLOW DESCRIPTIONS
STEADY FLOW - If the quantities of interest do not depend on time, that
is, V = V(x, y, z), the flow is said to be a steady flow
UNIFORM FLOW - the velocity, and other fluid properties, are
constant over the area
V. REYNOLDS NUMBER
Whether a flow is laminar or turbulent depends on three physical
parameters describing the flow conditions. The first parameter is a length
scale of the flow field, such as the thickness of a boundary layer or the
diameter of a pipe. If this length scale is sufficiently large, a flow may be
turbulent. The second parameter is a velocity scale such as a spatial
average of the velocity; for a large enough velocity the flow may be
turbulent. The third parameter is the kinematic viscosity; for a small
enough viscosity the flow may be turbulent.
𝑉𝐿
𝑅𝑒 =
𝑣
where L and V are a characteristic length and velocity, respectively, and
n is the kinematic viscosity; for example, in a pipe flow L would be the
pipe diameter and V would be the average velocity. If the Reynolds
number is relatively small, the flow is laminar and if it is large, the flow is
turbulent. This is more precisely stated by defining a critical Reynolds
number, Recrit, so that the flow is laminar if Re ≤ Recrit. For example, in
a flow inside a roughwalled pipe it is found that Recrit 2000. This is the
minimum critical Reynolds number and is used for most engineering
applications.

VI. DISCHARGE, MASS FLOW RATE, WEIGHT FLOW

RATE
Discharge/Volumetric flow rate - Is the volume of fluid passing through
a cross section per unit time
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣
Mass flow rate – is the mass of fluid passing through a cross section
per unit time
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝐴𝑣
Mass flow rate – is the weight of fluid passing through a cross section
per unit time
𝑚̇ = 𝛾𝐴𝑣
By law of conservation of mass (continuous flow)
𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 = 𝐴3 𝑣3 = 𝐴𝑛 𝑣𝑛
𝜌𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝜌𝐴2 𝑣2 = 𝜌𝐴3 𝑣3 = 𝜌𝐴𝑛 𝑣𝑛
𝛾𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝛾𝐴2 𝑣2 = 𝛾𝐴3 𝑣3 = 𝛾𝐴𝑛 𝑣𝑛

VII. BERNOULLIS PRINCIPLE

ASSUMPTIONS
A. Steady flow
B. Incompressible flow
C. Frictionless flow
D. Flow along a single streamline VIII. GENERAL ENERGY EQUATION
Resulting equation: When all assumptions for Bernoulli’s equation cannot be met then use the
𝑃1 𝑣1 2 𝑃2 𝑣2 2 following equation
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝒗𝟏 𝟐 𝒑 𝟏 𝒗𝟐 𝟐 𝒑 𝟐
𝑯𝒑 + 𝜶𝟏 + + 𝒛𝟏 = 𝑯𝑻 + 𝜶𝟐 + + 𝒛𝟐 + 𝒉𝑳
𝟐𝒈 𝜸 𝟐𝒈 𝜸

∫ 𝒗𝟑 𝒅𝑨
𝜶=
̅𝟑 𝑨
𝒗
EXAMPLES:
1. Water flows at a uniform velocity of 3 m/s into a
nozzle that reduces the diameter from m to 2 cm.
Calculate the water’s velocity leaving the nozzle
and the flow rate.
2. We want to determine the rate at which the water
level rises in an open container if the water coming
in through a 0.10-m2 pipe has a velocity of 0.5 m/s
and the flow rate going out is 0.2 m3/s. The
container has circular cross section with a
diameter of 0.5 m.
5.
3. A garden hose attached with a nozzle is used to fill
a 10-gal bucket. The inner diameter of the hose is
2 cm, and it reduces to 0.8 cm at the nozzle exit. If
it takes 50 s to fill the bucket with water, determine
(a) the volume and mass flow rates of water
through the hose,
(b) the average velocity of water at the nozzle
exit.
6.
4. The water in a large lake is to be used to generate
electricity by the installation of a hydraulic turbine–
generator. The elevation difference between the
free surfaces upstream and downstream of the
dam is 50 m. Water is to be supplied at a rate of
5000 kg/s. If the electric power generated is
measured to be 1862 kW and the generator
efficiency is 95 percent, determine (a) the overall
efficiency of the turbine–generator (b) the
mechanical efficiency of the turbine, (c) the shaft
power supplied by the turbine to the generator.
7.
Water is flowing from a garden hose. A child
places his thumb to cover most of the hose outlet,
causing a thin jet of high-speed water to emerge.
The pressure in the hose just upstream of his
thumb is 400 kPa. If the hose is held upward, what
is the maximum height that the jet could achieve?
A large tank open to the atmosphere is filled with
water to a height of 5 m from the outlet tap. A tap
near the bottom of the tank is now opened, and
water flows out from the smooth and rounded
outlet. Determine the maximum water velocity at 8. In a hydroelectric power plant, 100 m3/s of water
the outlet. flows from an elevation of to a turbine, where
electric power is generated. The total irreversible
head loss in the piping system from point 1 to point
2 (excluding the turbine unit) is determined to be
35 m. If the overall efficiency of the turbine–
generator is 80 percent, estimate the electric
power output.
During a trip to the beach (Patm = 1 atm = 101.3
kPa), a car runs out of gasoline, and it becomes
necessary to siphon gas out of the car of a Good
Samaritan. The siphon is a small-diameter hose,
and to start the siphon it is necessary to insert one
siphon end in the full gas tank, fill the hose with
gasoline via suction, and then place the other end 9. For the system shown below the average velocity
in a gas can below the level of the gas tank. The in the pipe is 10 m/s. The total head loss from
difference in pressure between point 1 (at the free reservoir to point A is 1.5 times the velocity head,
surface of the gasoline in the tank) and point 2 (at and 6.2 times velocity head from B to C. If the
the outlet of the tube) causes the liquid to flow from pump is 80% efficient, pC = 200 kPa, find pA , pB and
the higher to the lower elevation. Point 2 is located the power required by the pump.
0.75 m below point 1 in this case, and point 3 is
located 2 m above point 1. The siphon diameter is
5 mm, and frictional losses in the siphon are to be
disregarded. Determine (a) the minimum time to
withdraw 4 L of gasoline from the tank to the can
and (b) the pressure at point 3. The density of
gasoline is 750 kg/m3.
10. In figure below, neglect all losses and predict the
value of H and p if:
a. h = 15cm
b. h = 20cm