ESc201, Lecture 3:

3: Power dissipation
Power Dissipation
p of Tolerances of Resistors:
Resistors: P(t) = v(t) i(t) The 4th Band is the
At ssteady
e dy sstatee P=VI V and d by OOhm’ss Law w tolerance band:
V=RI. Therefore P = RI.I = RI2. Violet - 0.1%,
Blue - 0.25%,
One only looks at time average of power dissipation.
t2 G
Green - 0.5%,
0 5%
W 1 Brown - 1%,
Pa v = =
( t 2  t1 ) ( t 2  t1 ) t 1  P (t)d t
Red - 2%,
Resistors have safe power ratings such as common
Gold - 5%,
values of : 1/8 W,, 1/4 W,, 1/2 W,, 1 W,, 2 W and 5W. Silver - 10%,
Resistors can have kWs of power rating also. None - 20%
Note that ideal capacitors and inductors at steady state should not have any
power dissipation
dissipation.. Note that at steady state d.c. there is zero current through the
capacitor although there is a voltage and there is zero voltage across an inductor
although there is a finite current through it
it.. In either case VI=
VI=00.
B t Non
But N -Ideal
Non- Id l Capacitors
C it & Inductors
I d t h
have inherent
i h t resistances
it andd therefore
th f
does dissipate power.
power. In a.c. conditions there could be other sources of dissipation
in these elements, which can also be represented by equivalent resistors.
resistors.
 ESc201, Lecture 3:
3: Sources and circuits
Independent Voltage Source:
So rce:
Vs Vs
Rs
VS: Rated
X Vo
IS I Voltage Ideal source
Vs S RL RS: Series Vo with RS = 0
R it
Resistance off Vs
X Source
VS RL: Connected
Is = Load Resistance Non-ideal source
Non-
R S +R L Vo: Output with finite RS and
RL supply
pp y Voltage
g decreasingg RL
VO =IISR L = VS
R S +R L 0 IS
0
For Vo = VS, RS must be zero --- Ideal Voltage Source => lossless
An important requirement for a good voltage source is to approach this ideality
ideality.. For well
designed sources, it may be less than 100 Ω.
For finite RS, Vo will drop
p with decreasingg RL , known as loadingg effect
ff . Practical voltage
effect. g
sources have series resistance of ~ few kΩ
kΩ..
Effect of loading becomes more pronounced as RL and RS start to become comparable
 ESc201, Lecture 3:
3: Sources and circuits
I d
Independent
d tCCurrentt S
Source: Is

X Vo
IS IL IS: Rated
R t d Ideal source
Is RL Current IL with RSh = ∞
Rsh ISh RSh: Shunt Is
X Resistance of
IL: Current delivered by source to load. the Source
ISh: Current lost in the internal RL: Connected Non-ideal source
Non-
resistance of source. Load Resistance with finite RSh and
ISh =IS -IL R Sh ISh =Vo =R L I L Vo: Output increasing RL
R Sh
IL = IS V =II R = R Sh R L I supply Voltage 0
R Sh +R L o L L
R Sh +R L
S IS
0
For IL = IS, RSh must be infinite - Required for a good current source, known as
Ideal Current Source => > lossless
– For finite RSh, IL will drop with increasing RL, known as loading effect.
– Practical current sources have shunt resistance ~ a few hundreds of kΩ
– For well designed sources,
sources it may even be >1 MΩ
MΩ
Effect of loading becomes more pronounced as RL and RSh start to become
comparable
 ESc201, Lecture 3:
3: Sources and circuits
Dependent
p ((or controlled)) Sources ((Four
Four pposibilites
posibilites):
)):
Very useful for the description of active devices
(a) VCVS (Voltage-
(Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source) + A 
+       
A V VX
Where V = AvVx, Av: voltage gain, VX: 
controlling voltage.

(b) VCCS (Voltage

(Voltage--Controlled Current Source) GmVX
Wh
Where I = GmVx, Gm: transconductance
t
transconductance.
d t .

(c) CCCS (Current-

(Current-Controlled Current Source) AiVX
Where I = AiIx, Ai: current gain, IX: controlling
current.

(d) CCVS (Current-

(Current-Controlled Voltage Source) +       
RmIX
WhereV
Wh V = RmIx, Rm: transresistance
t
transresistance.
it . 
 ESc201, Lecture 3:3: Sources and circuits
Network:: Connection of elements through Nodes
Electrical Network
to form a closed path through which current flows.
flows.
Nodes : The connection point of two or more components in a network
Branch: Any portion of a circuit with two terminals (Nodes)
connected to it. Mayy contain one or more circuit elements.
Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL)
KCL, states that the “total
current or charge entering a
junction or node is exactly equal
t the
to th charge
h l i the
leaving th node
d as it
has no other place to go except to
leave, as no charge is lost within
node”. In other words the
the node”.
algebraic sum of ALL the
I1 + I2 + I3 – I4 – I5 = 0
currents entering and leaving a
node must be equal to zero.
zero. I1 + I2 + I3 = I4 + I5
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law:
– Net voltage around a closed circuit must be zero
– Origin: Law of energy conservation:
– Total energy generated in a circuit must equal total energy
dissipated in the circuit V 2
V1 1
(V2 – V1) + (V5 – V2) + Component 2 2 Component 5 3 V3
(V6 – V5) + (V1 –V6) = 0
+ -

ponent 4

ponent 7
Branch:

ponent 1
Similarly: + +
(V2 – V1) + (V3 – V2) +
(V4 – V3) + (V5 –V4) + --

Comp

Comp
Comp
-
(V6 – V5) + (V1 –V6) = 0 +
Quite easyy to show above that
Q Component 3 5 Component 6 4
the Vi’s cross out to give zero. V6 V5 V4
Then how does a circuit work?
Take care of the polarities of the potentials while applying this law
Arbitrary direction of voltage drop can be taken to start with.
with. However, if any
of the assumptions of the voltage drop was incorrect, the the value will turn out
after
ft analysis
l i to
t be
b negative.
negative
ti . One
O definitely
d fi it l needs
d to
t be
b consistent
i t t in
i assigning
i i
the sign of the voltage.
voltage. i.e. If a generator of power is there then its polarity
would be opposite from that of a resistor for the same current flow direction
direction..
 ESc201, Lecture 3: 3: Sources and circuits
Planar vs.
vs Non-planar
Non planar
A circuit is planar if it can be drawn on a flat surface without
crossing wires. The schematic below on the left is planar.
planar. For
planar circuits, the Mesh Current Method is good and equations
are based on meshes
meshes.. This always works for planar circuits.
A non
non--planar circuit is shown below on the right. It has to be
drawn with at least one crossing wire, meaning it cannot be drawn
fl t Since
flat. Si there
th is
i no way tot redraw
d the
th circuit
i it tot avoid
id a crossing
i
wire, the circuit on the right is non-
non-planar.
When faced with a
non--planar circuit,
non
one must use the
Loop Current
Method

Planar Non-planar
 Introduction to Electronics (Esc
(Esc 201A)
201A)-- 2019
2019--20
20--I.
ESc201, Lecture 3:
3: Sources and circuits
Techniques: (1) Node Voltage Method, (2) Mesh Current Method
((3)) Superposition
p p p , ((4)) Thevenin Equivalent,
Principle, q , ((5)) Norton
Equivalent
To solve a circuit the voltage and current for each element need to be
known.. This means need twice as many independent equations are
known
needed as there are elements in the circuit.
circuit.
These eqequations
ations come from three places:
• Half of the equations come from the element laws for each
component.
• Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) : N−1 where N is the number
of nodes.
• Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) : E−(N−1) independent
equations, where E is the number of elements.
Putting these together
together, one ends up with the right nono. of equations
equations.
 ESc201, Lecture 3:
3: Sources and circuits
Node Voltage
g Method
Method::
– By far, the simplest and the most widely used.
used.
– Consider a circuit having NonNon--trivial nodes
nodes..
Out of nodes 1- 6,
1, 3, 4, and 6 are trivial nodes,
as the same current flows through all the
components connected to these nodes.
nodes.
– Pick a reference node,, and define all other node voltages g
with respect to this reference node.
node.
– Apply Ohm’s Law between any two adjacent nodes, and
write the current equations
equations..
– Thus, we arrive at a set of (N – 1) equations
equations..
– Rearrange the in terms of node voltages V1 to VN-1
– [G][V] = [C] or [V] = [G]-1[C]
– Note that the final set of equations
q does not contain anyy
current variable
variable..
– Solve them to find the node voltages and currents
currents..
 Loop: Closed connection of branches
– Different loops in the same circuit may include some of the
same elements or branches Loops 1, 2
• Mesh: A loop that does not contain other loops and 3 are
meshes,
4 Component 8
but Loops
3 4 and 5
V2 are not
V1 1 V
Component 2 2 Component 5 3 3 meshes,
since 4
nt 4

nt 7
nt 1

mponen includes

mponen
mponen

2 Loops 1
1
andd 3, and
d
Com

Com
Com

Loop 5
includes
Component
C t3 5 Component
C t6 4 Loops 1
V6 V5 V4 5 and 2.
 Mesh Current Method:
• Known as the complement
p of node voltage
g method
– Branch currents are taken to be independent variables.
variables.
– Find the min
min.. number of independent meshes in the network
– Using KVL, write the mesh equations in terms of the voltage
drop across each element
element..
– Repeat for all the meshes
– Number of equations would equal the number of independent
meshes.. (becomes quite involved for networks for > 3
meshes
independent
p meshes).
meshes)). Therefore not much used as few nodes
may have many meshes.
meshes.
[ ]mesh = [[B]] or [[I]]mesh = [[Z]]-1[[B]]
[[Z]] [I]
– Once the mesh currents are known, all the node voltages can be
evaluated..
evaluated
– The unknown mesh currents, by convention, are considered to
be positive in the clockwise direction
direction.. But need not be so.
so.
 ESc201, Lecture 3:
3: Sources and circuits
Node Voltage Method Example:
I1 I2
Here A and C are trivial nodes. 6 B 15
15 
D can be considered as a  A C
reference node.
90
90  2.4A 20
20 
As only one current source powers the
circuit it is very easy for nodal analysis.
I1+I2-2.4=0 or I1+I2 = 2.4 D
So VB=96xI1=VB=35xI2 I1/I2=35/96, and I1/I2+1=2.4/I2
-1
VA=90x0.641 V, VB=96x0.641 V, Which gives I2=(0.5686) =1.759A
VC=35x1.759 V O I1=2.4-1.759=0.641
Or 2 4 1 759 0 641

Now consider
co s de thee current
cu e source
sou ce iss replaced
ep ced wwith a 10V
0V b
battery,
e y,
with VB= 10 V. Even easier for this small circuit.
Then I1= 10/96 = 0.104 A, and I2= 10/35 = 0.286 A.
VA=90x 0.104 = 9.36 V, and VC=20x 0.286 = 5.72 V
 ESc201, Lecture 3:
3: Sources and circuits
M h currentt method:
Mesh th d
8 B 4 C
D can easily be made the datum node
node.. A
I30
In mesh I , 8 II +30(
+30(III–III) – 300 = 0 II
300V + III 20
30
38II –30
30IIII= 300 
In mesh II , D
((4+20)) III + 30(I
( II –II) = 0 As voltage at B has to be higher
than that of D. I30 = II – III .
OR (4+20+30) III = 30(300/38 ) I30 = 11.409 – 4.451 = 6.958 A
+ (30/38)
(30/38) III
VA = 300 V,
or [54 – (30/38)]I
30/38)]III = 236.8 VB = 300 V –11.409 x 8
III = 236.8/53.2 = 4.451 A = 208.7
208 7 V,
V
VC = 208.7 – 11.409 x 4
I20 = III = 4.451 A = 163.1
163 1 V
I8 = II = (300/38)+(30/38)I
(300/38)+(30/38)III = 11.409A