PS112: Modern and Contemporary Political Theory

Instructor: Fritz Krieg Allawey

APPARATUS FOR MORAL DECISION: TO REFUTE HUME’S
TREATISES OF HUMAN NATURE

Apparatus for moral decision is a manner of thinking. It is deemed to optimize a level of perception in
order to attain a logical reasoning into moral subject.
Book I: “Of the Understanding”
IDEAS

Microscope Fork Razor

Matter of Facts
Relations of Ideas
Book I of Hume’s Treatises of Human Nature deals with Epistemology, a branch of philosophy that deals
with knowledge. He had laid two arguments on how things are formed. First, simple ideas are formed on the
basis of impression through senses. And second, Complex Ideas, there are ideas forms from simple ideas. He
used 3 tools on how to gain ideas. First, the microscope is breaking down ideas into simpler ideas. Second, the
razor is anything that cannot be broken into simple ideas but ready for analysis is meaningless. Third, the fork is
truth can be divided into relations of ideas and matter of facts. Relations of ideas are ideas which denial is
inconceivable or self-contradictory-they are necessary truth e.g. triangles have 3 sides. Matter of facts is
knowledge through senses wherein they needs evidence.
On the Understanding and Knowing:
IDEAS & KNOWLEDGE

Microscope Telescope Fork Spoon

Matter of Facts Acceptance of the Unknowable

Relations of Idea in itself

Ideas
While it is true that ideas can be broken down into pieces (Microscope), we must also be aware that
there are things that we do not need to break down. First, not all ideas are made of simple ideas i.e. pizza
(complex) must be made of dough (simple) with bacon (simple). Second, when breaking an idea, we are
reducing the essence of the thing and deny the existence of being i.e. if pizza is made of dough and bacon,
then the essence of the pizza which is its being a pizza would be meaningless. If otherwise, we are agreeing the
fact that the only possible knowledge we can get is the simple ideas which is the essence of the dough and
the essence of the bacon and not the complex ideas which is the pizza and its essence. If this is the case we
could agree that complex ideas do not exist because we can break it down into pieces, right? And thus, the
telescope suggests that there are ideas that do not need to break down. Telescope deals with the smaller
concept, e.g. pizza; in order to understand the concept of pizza, we must accept the concept of pizza not its
ingredients. While microscope deals with the larger concept, e.g. universe; in order to know universe, we must
break the idea of universe and let cosmology and science do its job, that’s to be precise and logical.
Since the fork deals with how we know- through senses and through self-contradictory things, it is not
much necessary to make an anti-thesis about it. The Razor which Hume regards as an idea which cannot be
broken down is meaningless is controversial. Reflecting upon the razor, we can say that anything that is
abstracted by the mind does not exist since the only knowledge we have is through senses and through self-
contradictory ideas. However if these ideas have foundation in reality regardless if this is through senses or not,
there is no sense of saying that it is meaningless (Acceptance of the unknowable). The acceptance of the
unknowable is something that which the mind can perceive but cannot defines i.e. space, time and God.
There is no assurance that this is meaningless and thus it is more acceptable to accept it than to deny it. If we
try to deny it, we are limiting knowledge to the things that only the mind can perceive and thus, we are limiting
ourselves to transcend and make moral judgment. It is harder to deny space, time and God than to accept
things like those. While it is unknowable, the idea which does not reveal by human mind can be called “ideas in
itself”. Ideas in itself must have something in itself because it is abstracted by the mind. So to speak, the mind
cannot perceive what does not exist and if the mind can perceive something that exist then it must be
Prepared by: Jamiah O. Hulipas & Roland Mark M. Gatchalian
Bachelors of Arts in Political Science
PS112: Modern and Contemporary Political Theory
Instructor: Fritz Krieg Allawey
perceivable and not meaningless. And so we removed razor as a tool for ideas and replaced it with spoon.
Razor has blade while spoon serves as a receptacle to the food we eat-which towards our mouth.
This paper also suggests that it is not enough and not satisfying as humans to understand ideas but we
should also know and gain knowledge about the world. Knowledge as transcendental is essential to human
decision. To know the world is in a way transcending it; to know oneself is likewise to transcend one’s self and
thus, knowledge is not limited. The creative roles of our minds include approximation of the truth and
discovering the significance of life. Knowledge is now becoming a necessary stage to make a moral judgment.
Thus if we limit knowledge like a context of a book, we limit our mind to the context of the book. It will make us
weak in making moral judgment. Facts will gives as a sense of data which will help us to make moral judgment
less bias and conforms more to what is good. And wisdom that helps us see the things beneath the fact. Yet, all
forms of knowledge must have practical meaning and value. Thus, this is a subject-object activity.
Book II: “Of the Passion”
Passion

Primary Impression Secondary Impression

Direct Passion

Indirect Passion
Hume’s believes that there are original impression and secondary impression. Original impressions are
impression through senses internal in the form of physical pleasure or pain. Secondary impressions are always
preceded by original impression. In secondary impression, passion resides. Passions are our emotions. Passions
have categories, direct passion and indirect passion. Direct passions are caused by direct sensation of
pain/pleasure e.g. aversion, grief, joy, hope, and fear. While the indirect passions are caused by indirectly by
sensation of pain/pleasure in conjunction with some other idea or impression e.g. pride, humility, love, and
hatred. Passion can also be a motivation which he defines that reasoning regarding supposedly connected
objects is not what makes us act. Instead, pleasure and pain give rise to passion which motivates us.
“Of Passion and Reason”
Passion & Reason Conformity of Standard

Primary Impression Secondary Impression

Direct Passion

Indirect Passion
Controlled Passion
We agree with Hume’s belief of Passion, that there are original impression and secondary impression,
that there are direct passion and indirect passion. However, we disagree to his statement that “reason is slave
of passion”. If we accept his notion, then anything that we are doing is demand of our emotions only. What is
the use now of mind, knowledge and understanding? Hume is really skeptical. He believes that the human
nature of man is rational but he contradicts it that reason is a slave of passion. His skepticism does not really
cover the loophole of his argument and thus, we raise our proposition.
We have said in Book I “On Knowing” that it is a subjective-objective activity, thus, passion (subjective)
should work hand on hand with reason (objective). We feel passion or emotion because we are “embodied”.
The body is the access towards the world. Our bodies and our emotions are connected. This is the direct
passion for Hume, but he failed to discuss that passion or emotion can be trained too, we can learn to be more
sensitive to certain situations, like learning to control our anger. We believe that direct sensation and indirect
sensation falls short for it only explains direct and indirect pain and pleasure and so, we suggest that direct and
indirect passions have also a middle point, which we call it as “controlled passion”. Controlled passions are
emotions that we can control e.g. anger, faith, satisfaction, and love. The word “controlled” does necessarily
mean to manage and so, man can manage his emotions. There is “controlled passion” because we are also a
rational being. And we will not let this passion to dictate us. If reason is the slave of passion, then there is no
Prepared by: Jamiah O. Hulipas & Roland Mark M. Gatchalian
Bachelors of Arts in Political Science
PS112: Modern and Contemporary Political Theory
Instructor: Fritz Krieg Allawey
point on making things justifiable. But because we can know and understand then we can reason out and
examine passion. If we act without any reason and examination then we act carelessly, if we act carelessly
and we might end up hurting others. Reason will make our passion logically correct. We suggest that reason will
limit itself to the conformity of standards. Conformity of standards is a correct act e.g. I will advise you because
you did a bad thing. Moreover, it will help us to avoid fallacy i.e. ad hominem, ad baculum etc...
Therefore, passion should work with reason in order to come up with more logical and more correct
moral judgment.
Book III: “Of Morals”
On Morals Moral Decision

Moral Decision affects action

Vice Virtue
Decision of reason does not affect
Natural action
Morality must be based on Reason
Artificial
The Book III deals with morals. The first part he makes a distinction of vice and virtue. Vice is associated
with pain while virtue is associated with pleasure. Under Virtue, there are natural virtue and artificial virtue.
Natural virtues are originated from nature. Artificial virtues are virtues defined according to society. Second part
deals with moral impression are caused by human actions. The third part, on the other hand, deals with moral
impression as social point and as caused by sympathy. The last part of his “Of morals” deals with moral decision
and reason. First, he believes that moral decision affects actions. Second, that decision of reason does not. And
lastly, that morality must not be based on reason. He suggests that we examine ourselves with regard to any
supposed moral misdeed. Example: If we reason out and examine murder, we can claim that murder is not an
act of morality or immorality. However, we can discover that we have a strong dislike for murder. Thus, morality
is supported by passion.
Book III: “On Morals and Moral Judgment”
On Morals Moral Decision

Evil Virtue Act Intent Circumstances

Mala in se Natural

Mala
Artificial
prohibita
Morals are an act done in accordance with mostly accepted and deemed good values in any society.
While Morals have notions by which a society would consider it as good values. These notions we suggest are
Virtue and Evil. Clearly, these two are not totally opposite. We did not replace virtue with goodness because
there is no such thing as artificial goodness. These two shared in common feature that is they have defined by
the nature and society. Under virtue is the natural and artificial virtue. Natural Virtue by which Hume has
defined is virtue originated from nature e.g. generosity is universal virtue while the artificial virtue is defined
according to society e.g. chastity e.g. pre-marital sex in the Philippines looks bad but good in U.S. On the other
hand, we added evil because evil can be also defined in the society. Under evil is mala in se and mala
prohibita. Mala in se is evil in nature by which everyone accepts it as evil e.g. killing while mala prohibita is evil
because the law prohibits it e.g. Jaywalking is evil because the law prohibits it. If we take these two into
consideration, we would derive a better action towards society by which the society accepts it as good values.
Moral decision must also be based on the act, on the intent, and on the circumstances. We disagreed
to Hume’s argument that if we reason out murder we would come to conclusion that murder is neither bad nor
good but by strong feeling of dislike that makes act of murder becomes bad. Hume limits his reasoning only to
the subjective and avoids the objective. Well, we suggest that moral decision is an examination of act (Is
generosity good?), on the intent (should I give?) and on the circumstances (does it help other people?). If we
let our passion and reason to work on these things, there is an assurance that moral decision will conforms to
the norms of ethics.

Prepared by: Jamiah O. Hulipas & Roland Mark M. Gatchalian

Bachelors of Arts in Political Science