Bipolar Junction Transistor

November 16, 2017

Amplification-unilateral action at an ’electrical’ distance
v0 and vi has to be electrically isolated and the
amplification should be in one direction (unilateral
behaviour)
An electronic device that can do the following operation
needs to be designed

A A

vi vo vi vo=Avi

A
indeterminate vo
The transcondutance amplifier

One way of generating the voltage amplification is

By generating a current proportional to the input voltage vi
And then pushing the current into a high resistance

vi Rin gvi RL vo

Most amplifiers JFETs, MOSFETS, and BJTs operate on

this principle
PN junction diode- Forward Bias

Current in a diode is due to both holes and electrons

  V
Dp Dn D
I = qApn0 + qAnp0 (e VT − 1)
Lp Ln

Dp VD Dn VD
I = qApn0 (e VT − 1) + qAnp0 (e VT − 1)
Lp Ln
| {z } | {z }
=Ip =In

P N

VD
∆p(x)
∆n(x)
I=IP+IN
PN junction diode- Injection efficiency

The hole and electron currents in a forward biased pn

junction diode is given by

Dp VVD
Ip = qApn0 (e T − 1)
Lp

Dn VVD
In = qAnp0 (e T − 1)
Ln
To quantify the contribution of hole and electrons to the
total current, one can define electron and hole injection
efficiency. The hole injection effeciency (γp ) is defined as

Ip Ip
γp = =
Ip + In I
PN junction diode- Injection efficiency
PN junction diode- Injection efficiency
The hole injection efficiency is given by
Ip Ip 1
γp = = =
I Ip + In 1 + In /Ip
In np0 Dn Lp Nd Dn Lp
= =
Ip pn0 Dp Ln Na Dp Ln
The hole injection effeciency is given by
1
∴ γp =
Nd Dn Lp
1+
Na Dp Ln
Similarly one can define electron injection effeciency as
In In 1
γn = = =
I Ip + I n 1 + Ip /In
1
=
Na Dp Ln
1+
Nd Dn Lp
PN junction diode- Injection efficiency
P + N junction diode- Forward Bias

For a p+ n junction diode, since Na >> Nd → Ip >> In .

Hence
I ≈ Ip & γ p ≈ 1

P+ N

IP » IN
I=IP ∆n(x) ∆p(x)
The long diode and the narrow base diode
A long diode is one in which the active regions of the n and
p side is much greater than the diffusion length of the
minority carriers
A Narrow base diode is one in which the active region of
one side (n-side) is much smaller than the diffusion length
of the minority carriers

p+ n

VEB

WB>>Lp

WB<<Lp

p+ n
VEB
The long diode

When the width of the n-region is much larger than the

hole (minority carrier) diffusion length Lp , then all the holes
will recomibne in the n-region. The ground will then supply
for the ’lost’ electrons due to recombination
Hole current
e- current

p+ n
VEB

0 WB
WB>>Lp
The long diode
The long diode
The one dimensional Diffusion equation

In the absence of any carrier generation, and using the fact

that Rp = δp/τp Where τp is the hole (minority carrier) life
time
∂δp 1 ∂Jp (x) δp
=− −
∂t q ∂x τp
Assuming that there is no external applied electric field

∂δp ∂δp
Jp (x) = qpµp E(x) − qDp = −qDp
∂x ∂x
Substituting it in the above equation

∂δp ∂ 2 δp δp
= Dp −
∂t ∂x 2 τp
The one dimensional Diffusion equation

In the steady state ∂δp/∂t = 0

∂δp ∂ 2 δp δp
= Dp − =0
∂t ∂x 2 τp

∂ 2 (δp) δp δp
2
= = 2
∂x Dp τp Lp
wherepLp is called as the hole diffusion length given by
Lp = Dp τp
Similarly one can define an electron diffusion equation as

∂ 2 (δn) δn
2
= 2
∂x Ln
where√Ln is called as the electron diffusion length given by
Ln = Dn τn
Solutions of one dimensional Diffusion equation
The hole diffusion equation is a second order differential
equation
∂ 2 (δp) δp
= 2
∂x 2 Lp
The solution to this equation is a linear combination of
exponential functions
x x
−
δp(x) = C e Lp + C e Lp
1 2

Similarly the solution to the electron diffusion equation

∂ 2 (δn) δn
= 2
∂x 2 Ln
can be expressed as
x x
−
L L
δn(x) = C1 e n + C2 e n
C1 and C2 can be found from the boundary conditions
Steady state injection of minority carrier into a majority
carrier system

Consider a majortiy carrier system. A heavily doped n-type

material which is infinitely long. A stream of holes (minority
carriers) are injected at x = 0 as shown in the figure.
(δp(0) = ∆P) Find the steady state hole concentration in
the n-type material
excess hole steady state concentration

excess holes

n-type

x=0 x x=œ
Steady state injection of minority carrier into a majority
carrier system
The excess hole distribution is given by
x x
−
δp(x) = C e Lp + C e Lp
1 2

From the system it can be seen that the material begins at

x = 0 and the excess carrier distrution at x = ∞ tends to
zero since all the holes would have recombined with the
electrons in the n-type material. This condition ensures
that C2 = 0 as a finite C2 implies that the hole
concentration increases with x, which is not possible
x
−
δp(x) = C e p L
1

Also since δp(0) = ∆p we have C1 = ∆p Thus

x
−
δp(x) = ∆p·e Lp
Minority carrier diffusion current density at the
boundary

The hole concentration as a function of x is given by

x
−
L
δp(x) = ∆p·e p

The hole diffusion current is given by

x
dδp(x) Dp − Lp
Jp (x) = −qDp = q∆p e
dx Lp

Thus at the boundaries x = 0 and x = ∞

Dp
Jp (0) = q∆p
Lp

and Jp (∞) = 0
Minority carrier diffusion current density at the
boundary
Minority carrier diffusion current density at the
boundary
Recombination Current

The holes injected into the n-region create a net positive

charge and hence will lead to drift of electrons in the n-type
material towards x = 0. If the n-region is connected to
ground, then the electrons will be supplied by the ground.
The current injecting into the ground will be electron
recombination current
This is exactly what happens in a pn junction diode
excess holes IR
e-
n-type
Recombination Current
Recombination Current
The hole current entering the n-region is Ip (0) and the hole
current leaving the n-region is Ip (WB ). The current due to
the electrons injected from the ground is
In (WB ) = Ip (0) − Ip (WB )
The electron current injected by the ground to compensate
for the recombined electrons in the n-region is called as
reconbination current IR .
∴ IR = In (WB ) = Ip (0) − Ip (WB ) = Ip (0) (∵ Ip (WB ) = 0)

excess holes Ip(0) IR

e-
n-type

0 WB
WB>>Lp
Narrow base diode

What would happen when the width of the n-region is

comparable or smaller than the hole (minority carrier)
diffusion length Lp ?
What will be the recombination current in that case
excess holes Ip(0)
IR=?
n-type

0 WB
WB<=Lp
Narrow base diode
Narrow base diode-Qualitative analysis

The holes will not completely recombine as in the case of

the long base diode, some of them will not recombine and
would come out of the n-region
The electrons supplied by the ground will now be lesser in
number and hence the reombination current will decrease.
The electron current or recombination current is given by

IR = Ip (0) − Ip (WB )

excess holes Ip(0) IR=Ip(0)-Ip(WB)

e-
n-type

0 WB Ip(WB)
WB>>Lp
Steady state injection of minority carrier into a
confined majority carrier system
Consider a majortiy carrier system. A heavily doped n-type
material whose length is smaller than the diffusion length
of the minority carrier. A stream of holes (minority carriers)
are injected at x = 0 as shown in the figure. (δp(0) = ∆P
and the material ends at x = WB . So δp(WB ) = 0) Find the
steady state hole concentration in the n-type material
excess hole steady state concentration

excess holes

n-type

x
x=0 x=WB
Steady state injection of minority carrier into a
confined majority carrier system
Steady state injection of minority carrier into a
confined majority carrier system
Steady state injection of minority carrier into a
confined majority carrier system
The excess hole distribution is given by
x x
−
δp(x) = C1 e Lp + C2 e Lp

Using the boundary conditions at x = 0 and x = WB one

can obtain
C1 + C2 = ∆p
WB WB
−
C e Lp + C e Lp = 0
1 2

Solving the above two equations for C1 and C2 , we get

∆peWB /Lp
C1 =
eWB /Lp − e−WB /Lp
∆pe−WB /Lp
C2 = −
eWB /Lp − e−WB /Lp
Minority carrier diffusion current density at the
boundary
The hole concentration as a function of x is given by
x x
−
δp(x) = C1 ·e Lp + C2 e Lp

The hole diffusion current is given by

dδp(x) Dp
Jp (x) = −qDp = q (C1 e−x/Lp − C2 ex/Lp )
dx Lp

Thus at the boundaries x = 0 and x = WB

Dp
Jp (0) = q (C1 − C2 )
Lp

and
Dp
Jp (WB ) = q (C1 e−WB /Lp − C2 eWB /Lp )
Lp
Minority carrier diffusion current density at the
boundary

Substituting the value of C1 and C2 we get

Dp Dp ∆p(eWB /Lp + e−WB /Lp )

Jp (0) = q (C1 − C2 ) = q
Lp Lp eWB /Lp − e−WB /Lp

Dp W
=q ∆p· coth( B )
Lp Lp
Similarly

Dp
Jp (WB ) = q (C1 e−WB /Lp − C2 eWB /Lp )
Lp

Dp 2∆p Dp W
=q W /L /L
= q ∆p·csch( B )
Lp e B p −e −W B p Lp Lp
Minority carrier diffusion current density at the
boundary

The difference between the two current densities is

Dp W W
Jp (0) − Jp (WB ) = q ∆p(coth( B ) − csch( B ))
Lp Lp Lp

Dp WB
=q ∆p tanh( )
Lp 2Lp
Current in a narrow base diode
Extending the analysis of the minority carrier diffusion in a
confined system, one can readily derive the current
expression for a narrow base diode.
Assuming it is a p+ n junction diode. The current in the
diode is simply the hole current itself
 
Dp WB
∴ I = Ip (0) = qA coth ∆p
Lp Lp
 
Dp WB
= qA coth pn0 (eV /VT − 1)
Lp Lp
For WB << Lp , coth(x) ≈ 1/x
Dp Lp Dp
∴ I ≈ qA = qA pn0 (eV /VT − 1)
Lp WB WB
since WB << Lp the diode current can be significantly
higher than a normal diode for the same forward bias
voltage
The Long Diode under forward bias

A P+N junction diode current is dominated by the hole

current. The holes diffuse in the n-region and hence the
width of the n-region plays an important role in determining
the current of the diode.
The expression for the diode current is given by(electron
current is neglected since it is a p+n diode)

Dp
I = qA ∆p
Lp

∆p is the excess hole injected from the p+ side to the

n-side of the diode ∆p = pn0 (eVEB /VT − 1)
Thus
Dp
I = qA pn0 (eVEB /VT − 1)
Lp
The Narrow base Diode under forward bias

In some cases the width of the n-region is chosen to be

much smaller than the hole diffusion length WB << Lp .
In that case the hole current entering the n-region is almost
equal to the hole current exiting the n-region.
The expression for the diode current is given by (electron
current is neglected since it is a p+n diode)

Dp W
I = qA ∆p coth( B )
Lp Lp

∆p is the excess hole injected from the p+ side to the

n-side of the diode ∆p = pn0 (eVEB /VT − 1)
Thus
Dp W
I≈qA pn0 coth( B )(eVEB /VT − 1)
Lp Lp
Currents in a narrow base and long P+N diode
Figure showing the different currents in long and narrow
base diodes (electron currents shown in red and hole
currents in blue)

IP(0) IP(WB)=0 I =I (0)

R p

p+ n-type

VEB
e-

IP(0) IP(WB)

p+ n

VEB IR=Ip(0)-Ip(WB)
e-
The Narrow base Diode vs the long diode currents

Long Diode
The hole current entering the n-region is
Dp
I(0) = qA pn0 (eVEB /VT − 1)
Lp
The hole current leaving the n-region is I(WB ) = 0
The recombination current IR = I(0)
Narrow base Diode
The current entering the n-region is
Dp WB
I(0) = qA pn0 coth( )(eVEB /VT − 1)
Lp Lp
The current leaving the n-region is
Dp WB
I(WB ) = qA pn0 · csch( )(eVEB /VT − 1)
Lp Lp
The recombination current
Dp WB
IR = I(0) − I(WB ) = qA ∆p tanh( )
Lp 2Lp
The Narrow base Diode vs the long diode

The narrow base diode produces more current for the

same diode cross sectional area, bias and doping levels
The ratio of the two currents is given by

Dp WB
qA pn0 coth( )(eVEB /VT − 1)
INB Lp Lp
=
IL Dp
qA pn0 (eVEB /VT − 1)
Lp

WB Lp WB
= coth( )≈ (∵ << 1)
Lp WB Lp
Electron current in the Diode under forward bias

So far we have neglected the electron current in the p+

region. The electron current can be found using a similar
appraoch for holes

Dn
In = qA np0 (eVEB /VT − 1)
Ln
The n-region ’loses’ some electrons due to diffusion of
electrons to the p-region which causes the electron current
in the diode. Additionally as discussed earlier the n-region
also loses electrons due to recombination of injected holes
in the n-region.
The ground has to supply for both these ’lost’ electtons. In
the previous analysis the electon diffusion current was
ignored and hence the electron current injected from the
ground was entirely the recombination current
Electron current in the Long Diode under forward bias
Electron current in the Long Diode under forward bias
Electron current in the Long Diode under forward bias
The electron current supplied by the ground has two
components. 1) The recombination current IR to replenish
the lost electrons due to recombination and 2) The electron
diffusion current to supply the electrons lost due to
diffusion of electrons to the p-side. Let IG be the total
current flowing into the ground due to the supply of
electrons
IGn = In (0) + IR = In + Ip = I

Hole diffusion current

Ip(0) IR=Ip(0)
e-
p+
n

VEB

WB In(0)
In(0) 0
e- diffusion current WB>>Lp
Electron current in the Long Diode under forward bias
Building an amplifier-The first Field Effect Device

One of the earliest, Field effect devices. The idea was a

conceptual one and did not see any development for nearly
three decades

++++++++++++ +
−
- - - - - - - -

+
−
Building an amplifier-The Point contact Transistor

The point contact device invented in Bell Labs by Bardeen

and Bratain.
I1
|V2I2| > |V1I1| I2

V1 -V2
Building an amplifier-Schockley’s pnp Transistor

Schockley invented the Bipolar Junction transistor inspired

by the point contact transistor. He repleced the metals with
semicondcutors and it turned to the famous trijucntion
P N P
Building an amplifier

Consider the circuit shown below

If the current in the p-n junction can be transferred to a
resistor R, then we have v0 = di·R = gm Rvi
If R is chosen such that gm R >> 1, then we have built an
amplifier with a gain A = gm R

v0 = gm Rvi = Avi

Electrical Isolator
I+dI I+dI
P+ N

R vo=gmRvi
VBE+vi
Building an amplifier

The block needs to do two things,

transfer the injection of carriers from the forward bias pn
junction to the other side without any loss
offer electrical isolation between the two points
The carrier(hole) transfer to the resistor can be
accomplished by a reverse biased pn diode as shown
below
Reverse bias pn junction
Electrical Isolator

I+dI I+dI
P+ N N P

R V0+vo=gmRvi
VBE+vi
carrier injection onto a reverse bias PN junction
Holes injected on the n-side will undergo diffusion and then
reach the space charge region
If W >> Lp , then most of the holes will recombine with the
electrons and none will reach the p-side
IfW << Lp , then most of the holes injected on the n-side
witl be swept across the space charge region by the
electric field and reach the p-side

N P W>>Lp

W<<Lp
N P
Building an amplifier
Since the two diodes share a common n-region, it can be
merged to form a new device as shown below(with biasing
conditions)
The width of the common n-region should be much smaller
than the diffusion length of the holes injected from p-side
I+dI
P++ N+ P

R V0+vo=IR+gmRvi
VBE+vi VBC

incremental model

vi gmvi RL vo
Rin
The p-n-p transistor

The emitter emits the holes into the n-region or base

The base transports the holes into the depletion region of
the np junction
The collector collects the holes arriving from the emitter via
base
E C
P++ N+ P

B
The p-n-p transistor doping concentrations
The emitter base junction is forward biased and hence
holes are injected from the emitter to base and vice versa
To ensure that maximum of the emitter current is
transferred to the base, the emitter is heavily doped
compared to the base
The base width is kept very small compared to the hole
diffusion length
The collector doping concentration is made to be smaller
than the base so that changes in the collector base voltage
doesnot affect the base region and hence the current
transfered from the emitter to collector
E C
P++ N+ P

B
The p-n-p transistor terminal current relations

The emitter current is the sum of hole and electron

currents IE = IEp + IEn
Ideally all of the emitter current should be due to holes.
Since it is not practical, we define a parameter called as
emitter injection efficiency γ

IEp
γ=
IEp + IEn

IEp = γIE
where ideally γ = 1
The injected holes from the emitter reaches the base, In
the base regions they are minority carriers and hence
recombine with the electrons in the base region
The p-n-p transistor terminal current relations

In the base region ideally it is preferred that no holes are

recombined so that the transfer of holes is 100% (which
again is not practical)
A parameter called base transport factor B is defined to
quantify the recombination taking place in the base region
Thus in the base region the emitter-hole current IEp enters
the base from the emitter side and the current reaching the
collector is IC
IC = BIEp
Thus the total current transferred from emitter to collector is

IC = BIEp = BγIE = αIE

where α is called as the current transfer ratio

The p-n-p transistor terminal current relations

The base current IB is the current that flows from the base
to emitter region as the electron current of the forward
biased emitter-base junction.
Also the base current accounts for the recombination of the
electrons and holes in the base region. The current that is
lost due to the recombination process is simply given by

IR = IEp − BIEp = (1 − B)IEp

Thus

IB = IEn + IR = IEn + (1 − B)IEp = IE − IC

1−α
= (1 − α)IE = I
α C
The p-n-p transistor terminal current relations

The collector current can be expressed in terms of base

current as
α
IC = IB = βIB
1−α
where β is called as the collector to base current gain
factor or common emitter current gain defined as

α β
β= &α=
1−α 1+β

The emitter current can also be expressed in terms of the

current gain factor

1+β
IE = IC + IB = (1 + β)IB = I
β C
The p-n-p transistor

The p-n-p transistor in active region (Emitter base region is

forward biased and collector base region is reverse biased)

E C
IE IC
++
P N+ P+

IB
B

VEB VCB
p-n-p transistor current gain factors
Emitter injection efficiency
IEp
γ=
IE
Base transport factor (B)
IC
B=
IEp
current transfer ratio (α)
IC BIEp
α= = = Bγ
IE IE
collector to base current gain or common emitter current
gain β
I
β= C
IB
α β
β= &α=
1−α 1+β
The p-n-p transistor internal current relations

The emitter region currents

IEp = γIE IEn = (1 − γ)IE

Base region currents

IB = IR + IEn

IR = (1 − B)IEp = (1 − B)γIE
COllector region current

IC = BIEp = BγIE
The p-n-p transistor terminal current relations

The emitter and collector currents in terms of base current

1
IE = IC + IB = (1 + β)IB = IB
1−α
α
IC = βIB = IB
1−α
Emitter and collector current dependence on each other

β
IC = αIE = IE
1+β
The n-p-n transistor

Current in the pnp transistor is mainly due to the diffusion

of holes in the base region

C IE = IEp+IEn
Emitter
IEn=γIE IE
IE = IC+IB

IB = IR+IEp P++ IB

B N+
Base
P
IC
IC = BIEn=αIE Collector
E
The n-p-n transistor
Current in the npn transistor is mainly due to the diffusion
of electrons in the base region
All results of pnp transistor applies to npn transistor with
the polarity of currents reversed.

C
IC = BIEn=αIE Collector
IC

N IB
IB = IR+IEp

B P+
Base
N++
IE
IE = IEp+IEn IE = IC+IB

E IEn=γIE Emitter
The n-p-n transistor

Since the current in a npn transistor is due to electron

diffusion, the npn transistors are faster than pnp transistors
and are the most commonly used Bipolar transistors in
practice
The diffusion coefficent of electrons is larger compared to
the diffusion coefficient of holes since
D kT kT kT
= =⇒ Dn = µn Dp = µp
µ q q q

Since µn > µp , Dn > Dp

Bipolar transistors are used mostly in very high frequency
applications and most of them are npn. The advancement
of MOSFET has practically exterminated the Bipolar
transistors
Surprise quiz question

The hole current entering the base region from the emitter
in a pnp transistor is 0.99 mA(IEp ). The hole current
collected by the collecter terminal is IC = 0.98 mA It is
further given that the electron current entering the emitter
region from base is 0.01 mA (IEn ).
Find the current transfer ratio (α) between the emitter to
collector. Also find the current gain factor from collector to
base β
p-n-p transistor current gain factors
Emitter injection efficiency
IEp
γ=
IE
Base transport factor (B)
IC
B=
IEp
current transfer ratio (α)
IC BIEp
α= = = Bγ
IEp + IEn IE
collector to base current gain or common emitter current
gain β
I
β= C
IB
α β
β= &α=
1−α 1+β
Q.1-Darlington current amplifier

A design engineer is given with two transistors. One npn

transitor with a current gain of 20 and another pnp
transistor with a current gain of 25. The engineer’s task is
to design a circuit that can give a current gain of atleast
400. Design a device structure or circuit that can give the
desired current gain using only the above transistors
Q.1-Darlington current amplifier
The transistors can be used in cascade to obtain the high
gain. The collector current of one transistor can be fed as
the base current of another transistor. The circuit is shown
with some biasing arrangement
This is popularly called as the darlington transistor pair

βnIb
Iin
Iout
vo
Q.1-Darlington current amplifier
The circuit shown with the current flow indicating the
current gain in the circuit. The total output current is

Iout = βn βp Iin =⇒ βtot = βn βp = 20 ∗ 25 = 500

βnIb
Iin=Ib

Iout=βpβnIb
Q.1-Darlington current amplifier

All possible darlington pair combinations shown below

βnIb
Iin=Ib Iin=Ib
2
Iout=βn Ib
βnIb
Iout=βpβnIb

Iin=Ib
Iin=Ib Iout=βpβnIb
βpIb
βpIb

Iout=βp2Ib
The p-n-p transistor

The p-n-p transistor in active region (Emitter base region is

forward biased and collector base region is reverse biased)

E C
IE IC
++
P N+ P+

IB
B

VEB VCB