Diffraction

A sharp shadow of an opaque object implies rectilinear propagation of

light. But in 1665, Grimaldi observed that light bends into the geometrical
shadow when encounter an obstacle of the order of wavelength used. This
is bending of light is known as diffraction. Due to diffraction the edges of
the shadow are not sharp and intensity of shadow depends on the nature
of the obstacle.
It was in 1815, Fresnel using Huygen’s construction of secondary sources
explained this phenomenon satisfactorily. According to which, a part of
incident wavefront is obstructed while from each point of the exposed
wavefront secondary wavefront originates which interfere and results in
diffraction. Hence, interference is term broadly used for two wave
phenomenon while diffraction is interference of n waves.
Also it is diffraction that actually separates ray optics (rectilinear
propagation) to wave optics (departure from rectilinear propagation).
Classification
Diffraction phenomenon can be classified into two categories –
S.
Fresnel’s diffraction Fraunhofer’s diffraction
No.
Source or screen or both are
Source or screen or both are at
1. at finite distance from
infinite distance from obstacle.
obstacle.
2. No lens is used. Combination of lenses is used.
Incident wavefront is
3. generally spherical or Incident wavefront is plane.
cylindrical.
Diffraction pattern is a Diffraction pattern is an image of
4.
shadow of obstacle. obstacle.

1
 An Important Mathematical Analysis
This mathematical treatment is required in the formulation of intensity
variation relation in single slit which in turn help in analysis of double slit
and multiple slit (grating) diffraction. Also it gives a glimpse of how
mathematical relation having physical reality makes the understanding of
a system easy.

Here we consider waves having equal amplitude ‘a’ and having common
phase difference δ between successive waves i.e. phase is increasing in
A.P. To find the resultant amplitude ‘R’ and phase θ – a polygon is
constructed.
Resolving ‘a’ along and perpendicular to the first side, we get
R cos θ = a + a cos δ + a cos 2 δ + a cos 3 δ + …….. + a cos (n – 1) δ --- (1)
R sin θ = 0 + a sin δ + a sin 2 δ + a sin 3 δ + …….. + a sin (n – 1) δ --- (2)
Multiplying (1) by 2 sin δ/2 and using trigonometric identities we get,
R cos θ = [a sin (nδ/2) cos (n – 1) δ/2 ]/ sin δ/2
Similarly, R sin θ = [a sin (nδ/2) sin (n – 1) δ/2 ]/ sin δ/2
Hence, R = a sin (nδ/2)/ sin δ/2 (squaring and adding the above
equation)
And tan θ = tan (n -1) δ/2 i.e. θ = (n -1) δ/2
Let n δ = 2α, then R = a sin α / sin (α /n)
α /n is very small as n is infinitely large
Hence, R = a sin α / (α /n) = na sin α / α = A sin α / α
And θ = (n -1) δ/2≈ n δ/2 = α as n is very large then n ≈ n – 1

2
 Fraunhofer’s diffraction
Fraunhofer Diffraction due to a Narrow Single Slit:

In figure, ‘S’ is a slit source illuminated by monochromatic light of

wavelength of wave length ‘’. L1 is the collimating lens which makes the
light emitting from source ‘S’ parallel. The diffracted light is focused by
another lens L2. The diffraction pattern obtained on the screen consists of
a central bright band having alternate dark and bright bands of
decreasing intensity on both sides.
The rays diffracted along the direction of incident rays are focused at ‘C’
while those diffracted at an angle ‘’ are focused at ‘P’. Since all the
wavelets from ‘AB’ reach, ‘C’ in the same phase, hence, intensity at ‘C’ is
maximum.
Now we have to find the resultant intensity at ‘P’. Let ‘AK’ be the
perpendicular to ‘BK’. The path difference between the rays originating
from extreme points ‘A’ and ‘B’ is given by –
BK = AB Sin = c Sin -------------- (1)
Where ‘c’ – width of slit ‘AB’
The path of ray starting from ‘A’ is least while that starting from ‘B’ is
greatest. Hence the path difference for different rays starting from various
points will vary from 0 to c Sin.

3
Now, the phase difference between the rays originating from extreme
2π
points ‘A’ and ‘B’ is =  c Sinθ -------------- (2)
λ
Let the aperture ‘AB’ is divided into a large no. ‘n’ of equal parts, each part
being the source of secondary wavelets. The amplitude of vibrations at ‘P’
due to each part will be the same say a, but their phase will vary gradually
2π
from 0 to  c Sinθ . The phase difference between the waves from two
λ
1 2π
consecutive part is  c Sinθ  δ
n λ
where ‘n’ – no. of vibrations.
The resultant amplitude at ‘P’ is given by –
nδ  π c Sinθ 
Sin Sin  
 λ 
R a 2 a -------------- (3)
δ  π c Sinθ 
Sin Sin  
2  nλ 
π c Sinθ
Let us substitute α 
λ
Sin α
Therefore, R  a -------------- (4)
α
Sin  
n

Since α/n is very small therefore, Sin(α/n) = (α/n). so we have –

Sin α Sin α Sin α
R a  na  RA -------------- (5)
αn α α

where A = na is the amplitude of all the vibrations are in same phase.

Now Intensity at ‘P’ –
Sin 2 α
I  R 2  A2 -------------- (6)
α2

for intensity to be maximum or minimum –

dI d  2 Sin 2 α 
0  A 0
dα dα  α 2 

 α 2 2 Sin α cos α - Sin 2 α 2α   2 Sin α cosα 2 Sin 2 α 

 A 2    0  A 2   0
 α4   α2 α 3 

2 Sin α  cos α Sin α  2 Sin α  α cos α - Sin α 

 A2   2 0  A2  0
α  α α  α  α2 
4
 Sin α  α cos α - Sin α 
Now, either 0 OR  0
α  α2 

 Sin α  0 OR α cos α - Sin α  0

 (i) Sin α = 0 OR (ii) α = tan α

Sin α
Condition for Minimum Intensity: When  0 , then from equation (6)
α
Sin α
it is clear that I = 0. Thus for minimum intensity - 0
α
π c Sin θ
 Sin α = 0  α =  mπ  mπ
λ

 c Sin θ   mλ -------------- (7)

Equation (7) gives the position of 1st, 2nd, 3rd,… minima corresponding to
m = 1, 2, 3 and so on. Here m  0 because when m = 0 then c Sin θ  0
which is the condition of maximum intensity.
Condition for Maximum Intensity: For maximum intensity α = tan α.
This equation can be solved graphically by plotting the curves – y = α and
y = tan α

The abscissa of the points of intersection of these curves gives the

required value of ‘α’ for which intensity is maximum.
Sin α
For central maxima – α = 0 so 1
α

From equation (6) we have – I = A2 = I0 (Let)

(2m  1)λ
For secondary maxima – α   -------------- (8)
2
5
 π c Sin θ (2m  1)π (2m  1) λ
   c Sin θ   -------------- (9)
λ 2 2
if we put m = 1, 2, 3, …… we get the position of 1st, 2nd, 3rd …… secondary
maxima respectively.
3π 5π 7π
Now putting m =1, 2, 3….. in equation (8) we get – α  , , …..
2 2 2

Sin 2 (3 π /2) 4 4
Intensity of 1st secondary maxima – I1  A 2  A2  I 0 i.e. 4.5%
(3 π /2) 2
9π 2
9 π2

of I0
Sin 2 (5 π / 2) 4 4
Intensity of 2nd secondary maxima – I 2  A 2  A2  I 0 i.e.
(5π / 2) 2
25 π 2
25 π 2

1.5% of I0
Sin 2 (7 π / 2) 4 4
Intensity of 3rd secondary maxima – I 3  A 2
 A2  I0
(7 π / 2) 2
49 π 2
49 π 2

Thus the relative intensities of successive maxima are –

4 4 4
I 0 : I1 : I 2 : I 3 ....  1 : : : ……..
9 π 2 25 π 2 49 π 2

Thus, most of the light is concentrated in the central maxima and

intensity of secondary maxima goes on decreasing. In short we can say
that the diffraction pattern consists of a bright central maxima
surrounded alternately by minima of zero intensity and feeble secondary
maxima of rapidly decreasing intensities.

The intensity distribution curve is shown in figure.

6
Width (Spread) of Central Diffraction Maxima: The direction of 1st
minima is given by-
λ λ
c Sin θ   λ (m =1)  Sin θ    θ   Sin 1 -------------- (10)
c c

where ‘θ’ is the angular half width of the central maxima because central
λ
maxima extends between θ   Sin 1 . However, if the lens L2 is very near to
c

the slit AB or the screen is far away from the lens L2 then from fig. 1
y
Sin θ   -------------- (11)
f

where ‘y’ is the linear half width of the central maxima (i.e. liner
separation between 1st minima on either side and central maxima of
diffraction patter) and ‘f’ is the focal length of lens L2.
y λ λ
Comparing equation (10) and (11) –   y f
f c c

Thus width of central maxima = 2y = 2λf/c

Discussion:
(1) As y  λ and we know that λr > λv therefore, width of central maxima
with red light is more than with violet light.
(2) As y  1/c, hence width of central maxima will be greater for narrower
slits. (where ‘c’ – width of slit)
(3) For c = λ, the direction of 1st minima is given by –
c π
Sin θ     1  θ
c 2
π
i.e. the central maxima extends between θ   .
2

7
Fraunhofer Diffraction due to Double Slit: Let AB and GH be the two
parallel slits of equal width ‘c’ and separated by an opaque distance ‘d’. Let
a plane wavefront is incident normally upon the slits. The light diffracted
from these slits is focused by lens L2 on the screen XY.

The diffraction at double slit is a case of diffraction as well as

interference. The pattern obtained on the screen consists of equally
spaced interference fringes in the region normally occupied by the central
maxima in the single slit diffraction while in the region of secondary
maxima of single slit diffraction the diffraction fringes of low intensity are
observed.
Explanation: When the plane wavefront is incident normally on the slits,
all points within the slits act as a source of secondary wave. All the
secondary wave traveling in the direction of incident light comes to focus
at C. All the secondary waves traveling in a direction ‘θ’ with the direction
of incident light comes to focus at P.
According to theory of diffraction at a single slit, the resultant amplitude R
due to all the secondary waves diffracted from each slit in the direction ‘θ’
is given by –
Sin α
RA -------------- (1)
α

where ‘A’ is the resultant amplitude due to each single slit in the direction
π c Sinθ
θ = 0o and α  .
λ

The phase difference between the secondary waves starting from extreme
2π c Sinθ
points of a slit is –  2α
λ

8
 GN GN
In ∆ AGN - sin θ  
AG c  d

OR Path difference GN = (c+d) sinθ -------------- (2)

2π
And Phase difference Φ  (c  d)sin θ -------------- (3)
λ

From the ∆ of amplitudes, we have –

Φ Φ
R 2  R 2  R 2  2 R R cos Φ  2R 2 (1  cos Φ)  2R 2 (2 cos 2 )  4R 2 cos 2 -------------- (4)
2 2

Putting value of R and Φ in equation (4) –

sin 2 α
R 2  4 A 2 cos 2 β -------------- (5)
α 2

Φ π
where β   (c  d) sin θ
2 λ

as the intensity is proportional to the square of the amplitude, the

sin 2 α
intensity at point ‘P’ is given by - I  4 A 2 cos 2 β -------------- (6)
α 2

Thus the resultant intensity at any point depends on two variable factors –
sin 2 α
(i) The factor A 2 which represents the intensity distribution in
α2

diffraction pattern due to any individual slit – diffraction term.

(ii) The factor cos 2 β which gives the interference pattern due to waves
starting from two parallel slits – interference term.
Thus the resultant intensity at any point is given by the product of these
two factors and will be zero either of these factors is zero.

9
Direction of Maxima and Minima: We can calculate the direction of
maxima and minima due to these two terms separately –
sin 2 α
(i) Maxima and Minima due to diffraction term A 2 :
α2
Central maxima at α = 0 having alternate minima and
secondary maxima
Minima at α = , 2, 3….
3π 5π 7π
Secondary maxima is given by - α  
,  ,  .......
2 2 2
(ii) Maxima and Minima due to interference term cos 2 β :
cos 2 β = 1 maxima i.e.  =  n  i.e. (c  d) sin θ   nλ

when n = 0,  = 0 i.e. central maxima

λ
cos 2 β = 0 minima i.e.  =  (2n – 1) /2 i.e. (c  d) sin θ  (2n  1)
2

10
Now, if ‘c’ is kept constant and ‘d’ (hence c+d) is varied, position of maxima
and minima due to diffraction remain unchanged while those due to
interference undergo change.
Condition for Absent Spectra or Missing Spectra in a Grating
Spectrum:
The direction of principal maxima is given by
(c  d) Sin θ n  n λ (interference maxima) --------------- (1)
where n – order of principal maxima
The direction of diffraction minima is given by
c Sin θ =  m  (diffraction minima) --------------- (2)
If the values of ‘c’ and ‘d’ are such that both the equations (1) and (2) are
satisfied for same values of ‘θ’, then the position of certain interference
maxima corresponds to diffraction minima.
Dividing equation (1) by equation (2) we get –
cd n cd
  n  m --------------- (3)
c m  c 

Equation (3) represents the condition for nth order spectrum to be absent
from grating spectra.
Case – 1: When d = c, then n = 2m
If m =1, 2, 3….. then n = 2, 4, 6…...
Thus the 2nd, 4th, 6th ……. order will be absent.
Case – 2: When d = 2c, then n = 3m
If m =1, 2, 3….. then n = 3, 6, 9.....
Thus the 3rd, 6th, 9th …… order will be absent.

11
Fraunhofer Diffraction due to N Slits OR Plane Diffraction Grating:
An arrangement consisting of large no. of parallel slits of equal width and
separated from each other by equal opaque spaces is called a ‘diffraction
grating’.
A grating is made by ruling a large no. of fine equidistant and parallel
lines with a diamond point on an optically plane glass plate – true grating.
The ruled widths are opaque to the light, while the spaces between any
two lines are transparent. Such a grating is called ‘transmission grating’.
There are about 15,000 lines per inch in such a gating. In practice, the
replicas of original gratings – workable grating are produced by pouring
collodian solution on a true grating and allowed to harden and removing
the film and fixing it between glass plate.
Theory: Let a wave front of monochromatic light is incident on ‘N’ parallel
slits each of width ‘c’ and separated by opaque space ‘d’.

The light diffracted through ‘N’ Slits is focused by lens ‘L’ on the screen XY
placed in the focal plane of Lens ‘L’. When the wavefront reaches the plane
of the slits, each point in the slit sends out secondary wavelets in al
directions. From Fraunhofer diffraction at single slit all the secondary
waves proceeding from slits in a direction ‘θ’ are equivalent to a single
A Sinα π c Sin θ
wave of amplitude - R  where α  .
α λ

Path difference between two successive waves = (c  d) Sinθ

12
 2π
And the corresponding phase difference = (c  d) Sinθ
λ

As we pass from one vibration to another, the phase goes on increasing by

the same amount 2 π (c  d) Sinθ . Thus in order to find the amplitude in a
λ

direction ‘θ’ we have to find the resultant amplitude of ‘N’ waves each
2π
having amplitude ‘R’ and common phase difference (c  d) Sinθ .
λ

Using the standard result, the resultant amplitude in a direction ‘θ’ is

given by –
Sin N β Sin α Sin N β
R'  R A
Sin β α Sin β

The resultant intensity at point ‘P’ is given by –

A 2 Sin 2 α Sin 2 N β
I  R' 2  -------------- (1)
α2 Sin 2 β

A 2 Sin 2 α
The factor gives the intensity distribution in the diffraction pattern
α2

Sin 2 N β
due to a single slit while the factor gives the distribution of
Sin 2 β

intensity due to interference due to waves from all the slits.

Direction of Principal Maxima and Minima: The direction of principal
maxima are given by –
Sin β = 0  β = nπ
π
 (c  d) Sinθ   n π  (c  d) Sinθ  n λ --------------- (2)
λ

When n=0 then θ=0. This gives the direction of 0th order principal maxima
or central maxima. If we put n=1, 2, 3… we get 1st, 2nd, 3rd … order
maxima respectively.
The resultant intensity of principal maxima is given by –
Sin 2 α 2
I  A2 N --------------- (3)
α2
Sin Nβ
where lim N
β   nπ Sin β

13
Hence if we increase the no. of slits, the intensity of principal maxima
increases.
The direction of minima is given by –
Sin Nβ = 0  Nβ = m
π
 N (c  d) Sin θ   m π  N (c  d) Sin θ   m λ --------------- (4)
λ

Here ‘m’ can take all integral values except m=0, N, 2N, 3N… because
these values give Sin β=0 which gives the position of principal maxima.
The  sign indicates that the minima of a given order lie symmetrically on
both sides of the central maxima. It is also clear from equation (4) that
m=0 gives principal maxima of 0th order. m=1, 2, 3…(N-1) gives minima
and m=N gives principal maxima of 1st order.
Direction of Secondary Maxima: The direction of secondary maxima is
dI
given by – 0
dβ

Sin 2 α  Sin N β  N Cos N β Sin β - Sin Nβ Cos β

 A2 2   0
α2  Sin β  Sin 2 β

 N Cos N β Sin β  Sin N β Cos β

 N tan β  tan Nβ  tan N β  N tan β --------------- (5)

In order to find the intensity of secondary maxima, let us consider fig. 2,
from which we have – N tan β
Sin Nβ 
1  N 2 tan 2 β

 

Sin 2 Nβ N 2 tan 2 β 1  N 2 tan 2 β

 N2

N2
Sin 2 β Sin 2 β Cos 2 β (1  N 2 tan 2 β) Cos 2 β  N 2 Sin 2 β)

N2 N2
 
1 - Sin 2 β  N 2 Sin 2 β 1  (N 2 - 1) Sin 2 β

Thus the intensity of secondary maxima is given by –

Sin 2 α N2
I  A2 --------------- (6)
α 2 1  (N 2  1) Sin 2 β

From equation (3) and (6) –

Intensity of secondary maxima 1
 --------------- (7)
Intensity of principal maxima 1  (N  1) Sin 2 β
2

14
Hence, as ‘N’ increases, the intensity of secondary maxima decreases.
When ‘N’ is very large as in case of diffraction grating, the secondary
maxima are not visible in the spectrum. In such cases there is uniform
darkness between any two consecutive principal maxima.
Width of Principal Maxima: The angular width of principal maxima of
any order is defined as the angular separation between the first two
minima lying on its either side.
The direction of nth order principal maxima is given by –
(c  d) Sin θ n  n λ --------------- (8)
If (θn+dθn) and (θn-dθn) represent the direction of 1st outer and inner sided
minima adjacent to the nth maxima, then dθn will be the angular half
width of nth principal maxima.
The direction of minima are given by –
N (c  d) Sin θ  m λ --------------- (9)

15
As the first outer and inner sided minima are adjacent to nth order
principal maxima, these are obtained in the direction θndθn. This
corresponds to m = nN1. Hence from equation (9), we have –
N (c  d) Sin (θ n  dθ n )  (nN  1) λ --------------- (10)
For small values of dθn , Cos dθn = 1 and Sin dθn = dθn, so equation (10)
becomes –
N (c  d) Sin θ n  N (c  d) Cos θ n dθ n  n N λ  λ --------------- (11)
From equation (8) we have –
N (c  d) Sin θ n  N n λ --------------- (12)
From equation (11) and (12) –
n N λ  N (c  d) Cos θ n dθ n  n N λ  λ

λ
 dθ n  --------------- (13)
N (c  d) Cos θ n

Thus the angular half width is inversely proportional to ‘N’. If ‘N’ is

sufficiently large, the angular half width will be small and hence the
principal maxima will be sharp.
2λ
The width of nth order principal maxima is = 2 dθn = ----- (14)
N (c  d) Cos θ n

Formation of Spectrum with Grating: In case of diffraction grating, the

direction of principal maxima is given by –
(c  d) Sin θ n  n λ ---------------- (1)
where –
‘c’ – width of transparent portion, ‘d’ – width of opaque portion, (c+d) –
grating element
Equation (1) shows that –
1. For a particular value of ‘’, the directions of principal maxima of
different order are different.
2. For a given value of ‘n’, the angle of diffraction ‘θn’ varies with the
wavelength. The angle of diffraction increases with increase in ‘’. As
R > v , therefore, θn(R) > θn(v). Hence if white light is incident normally

16
 on a grating each order will contain principal maxima of different
wavelengths in different directions as shown in fig. 1.

From equation (1) it is clear that for n=0 we have θ=0 for all values of ‘’
i.e. 0th order principal maxima for all wavelengths lie in the same
direction. Thus the 0th order principal maxima will be white. The 1st order
principal maxima of all the wavelengths form the 1st order spectrum.
Similarly the 2nd order principal maxima of all the wavelengths form the
2nd order spectrum and so on. Most of the light is concentrated in the
principal maxima of 0th order.
Thus the spectrum consists of white maxima of 0th order having on either
side of it the 1st order spectra, the 2nd order spectra and so on. The spectra
of each order consist of colours from violet to red.
Condition for Absent Spectra or Missing Spectra in a Grating
Spectrum: The direction of principal maxima obtained with a grating is
given by -
(c  d) Sin θ n  n λ --------------- (1)
where n – order of principal maxima
The direction of diffraction minima is given by –
c Sin θ = m  --------------- (2)
If the values of ‘c’ and ‘d’ are such that both the equations (1) and (2) are
satisfied for same values of ‘θ’, then the position of certain interference
maxima corresponds to diffraction minima.

17
Dividing equation (1) by equation (2) we get –
cd n cd
  n  m --------------- (3)
c m  c 

Equation (3) represents the condition for nth order spectrum to be absent
from grating spectra.
Case – 1: When d = c, then n = 2m
If m =1, 2, 3….. then n = 2, 4, 6…...
Thus the 2nd, 4th, 6th ……. order will be absent.
Case – 2: When d = 2c, then n = 3m
If m =1, 2, 3….. then n = 3, 6, 9.....
Thus the 3rd, 6th, 9th …… order will be absent.
Overlapping of Spectral Lines: The direction of nth order principal
maxima is given by-
(c  d) Sin θ n  n λ --------------- (1)
Thus when the incident light has a large no. of wavelengths 1, 2, 3
……..n in decreasing order, the spectral lines having same angle of
diffraction will overlap if –
(c  d) Sin θ  1 λ 1  2λ 2  3λ 3 .......  nλ n --------------- (2)

where 1, 2, 3 …….. n are wavelengths in 1st order, 2nd order, 3rd
order……. nth order respectively.
The red light of wavelength 7000 Å in 3rd order, green light of wavelength
5200 Å and violet light of wavelength 4200 Å in 5th order will coincide
because –
(c  d) Sin θ  3  7000  4  5250  5  4200 Å

For visible region of the spectrum, there is no overlapping of spectral lines.

The visible region extends from 4000 Å to 7800 Å, consequently the 1st
and 2nd order spectra can not overlap.

18
Angular Dispersive Power of Diffraction Grating: The angular dispersive
power of a diffraction grating is defined as the rate of change of angle of
diffraction with the wavelength of light. it is denoted by dθ/d.
For a plane transmission grating –
(c  d) Sin θ n  n λ --------------- (1)
differentiating (1) w.r.t. ‘’, we get –
dθ
(c  d) Cos θ n
dλ

therefore, angular dispersive power –

dθ n
 --------------- (2)
dλ (c  d) Cos θ

here d is the angular separation between two lines having wavelength

difference d. Equation (2) shows that –
1. The dispersive power is directly proportional to order of spectrum ‘n’.
Thus higher the spectrum, greater is the dispersive power. For this
reason, the angular separation of two spectral lines is double in 2nd
order spectrum in comparison to 1st order.
2. The dispersive power is inversely proportional to grating element (c+d).
This means that directly proportional to no. of lines/cm. Thus the
angular dispersive power of two given lines is greater with a grating
having larger no. of lines/cm.
3. The dispersive power is inversely proportional to Cos . For =00, Cos
=1 and hence angular dispersion is minimum.
4. For small values of , Cos ≈ 1and hence influence of Cos  may be
neglected. Then for a given order d  d i.e. angular dispersion of two
spectral lines in a particular order is directly proportional to the
difference between two spectral lines. Such a spectrum is called a
‘normal spectrum’

19
Linear Dispersive Power: If ‘dx’ is the linear separation of two spectral
lines differing in wavelength by ‘d’ in the focal plane of a lens of focal
length ‘f’, then – dx  f dθ
dx dθ fn
Therefore, linear dispersive power = f 
dλ dλ (c  d) Cos θ

Determination of Wavelength of Light with a Plane Transmission

Grating: The equation of nth order principal maxima is given by –
(c  d) Sin θ n  n λ --------------- (1)
From equation (1) it is evident that if the grating element (a+b), angle of
diffraction n for order ‘n’ are determined, the wavelength of light can be
calculated.

1. Determination of Grating Element (c+d): On a grating the no. of

rulings/inch is given by the manufacturer. If ‘N’ is the no. of
rulings/inch then -
N(c+d) = 1 = 2.54 cm.  (c+d) = 2.54/N cm.

2. Determination of Angle of Diffraction: The angle of diffraction n is

measured by a spectrometer. Before using the spectrometer following
adjustment are made –
(i) The eye – piece of the telescope is focused on the cross – wire.
(ii) The collimator and telescope are adjusted for parallel rays by
Schuster’s method.
(iii) The grating is adjusted on the prism table normal to the collimator.
This adjustment is very important and is obtained in following
manner–

20
 (a) The telescope and collimator are arranged in a line so that the direct
image of the slit falls on vertical cross – wire. The position of the
telescope is noted.
(b) The telescope is rotated through 900 and then clamped. Now the axis
of the telescope is perpendicular to that of collimator.
(c) Now the grating is mounted on the prism table and prism table is
rotated so that the image of the slit obtained by reflection from the
surface of the grating is formed on the vertical cross – wire. The
leveling screws are adjusted till the image lies equally above and
below the point of intersection of the cross – wire.
(d) The prism table is rotated from this point through 450 or 1350 so that
the ruled surface faces the incident light. In this position the grating
is normal to the incident light.
(iv) The rulings are adjusted parallel to the slit. To do this the slit is
rotated in its own plane till the diffracted images (i.e. spectral lines)
become very sharp.
Now the telescope is rotated to the left of the direct image and is adjusted
so that the spectral line whose wavelength is to be determined falls on the
vertical cross – wire for 1st order and the readings of both the vernier are
taken. Similar procedure is adopted for right of the direct image. The
difference between these two readings give ‘2’ from which ‘’ can be
obtained.

21
Difference between Prism and Grating Spectra: Following differences
between prism and grating spectra are worth noting –
1. The prism spectrum is produced by dispersion while grating spectrum
is produced by diffraction.
2. A prism gives only one spectrum but a grating gives a no. of spectra of
different order on both sides of central maxima.
3. The prism spectrum is brighter than grating spectrum.
4. In case of prism, the deviation is least for red and greatest for violet
colour while in case of grating, the deviation is least for violet and
greatest for red. Thus the order of colours in two spectra is opposite.
dθ n
5. The dispersive power of a grating is –  which is constant
dλ (c  d) Cos θ

for a given order. Thus the spectral lines are evenly distributed. Hence
the spectrum obtained with a grating is said to be ‘rational’.
dμ
The dispersive power of a prism is – which has a higher value in
μ 1

the violet region than in the red region of spectrum. Hence spreading of
lines increases as we moves from red end to violet end i.e. spectral lines
are not evenly distributed. Hence the spectrum obtained with a prism is
said to be ‘irrational’.
6. The resolving power of diffraction grating is much greater than that of a
prism. Hence the same two nearby spectral lines appears better
resolved with a grating than with a prism.
7. The prism spectrum depends upon the material of the prism while
grating spectrum is independent of material.

22
 Resolving Power
The performance of image forming instruments and spectroscopic
instruments is directly governed by Fraunhofer diffraction where a tiny
segment of a very large wavefront is allowed to propagate further to cause
diffraction (interference of n waves).
The ability of an optical instrument to just resolve the images of two
nearby point sources/objects is called its resolving power (spatial
resolution). But in case of instruments like prism or grating, it is the
ability to just resolve two close spectral lines (chromatic resolution).
An optical instrument is said to have resolved the two point
sources/spectral lines when their corresponding diffraction pattern are
sufficiently separated from each other so that the two images can be
distinguished from each other.

Figure – (c)
In Figure (a), the central maxima corresponding to wavelength  and +d
are very close. As the angle of diffraction for first minima of ‘A’ is greater
than the angle of diffraction for central maxima of ‘B’, the two lines
overlaps and they can not be distinguished as separate images. In this
case, the two spectral lines are not resolved.

Figure – (b) Figure – (a)

23
In Figure (b), the position of central maxima of ‘A’ coincides with the
position of first minima of ‘B’. Similarly, the position of central maxima of
‘B’ coincides with the position of first minima of ‘A’. Further, the resultant
intensity curve shows a dip at ‘C’ i.e. in the middle of ‘A’ and ‘B’. The
intensity at ‘C’ is approximately 20% less than at ‘A’ and ‘B’. The spectral
lines can be distinguished from one another and are said to be just
resolved.
In Figure (c), ‘A’ and ‘B’ are the central maxima of the diffraction patterns
of two spectral lines of wavelength  and +d. The difference in the angle
of diffraction is large and the two images can be seen as separate ones.
Hence, the two spectral lines will appear well resolved.

Rayleigh’s Criterion for Resolution: According to Lord Rayleigh, the two

point sources or two spectral lines of equal intensity are just resolved by
an optical instrument when the central maxima of diffraction pattern due
to one fall on the first minimum of the diffraction pattern of the other. The
two curves then intersect each other, just at the mid point (as intensity is
equal) between the two principal maxima.
All types of optical instruments have single aperture hence expression for
intensity variation due to diffraction with single slit I = A2 sin2α/α2 with α =
 for the first minima on either side of central maxima but here we take α
=  on one side.
Further, at the point of intersection that lies at the mid point we have, α =
π
sin 2  
 2  4A
2
/2 hence, I 1 = I2 = A 2 
π
2
π2
 
2

Thus the resultant intensity at the mid point is due to the contribution of
intensity of each object and also we know intensity adds like scalars
hence, Imid = I1 +I2 = 8A2/2. But Imax = A2 = I0.

24
Hence, finally Imid/Imax = 8/2 = 0.81 i.e. the two spectral lines/ two images
are said to be just resolved when the intensity at the dip in the middle is
81% of the intensity at the either maxima.
If resultant intensity – more than 81% of either maxima – not
resolved
If resultant intensity – equal to 81% of either maxima – just resolved
If resultant intensity – less than 81% of either maxima – fully
resolved

Resolving Power of Plane Transmission Grating:

Let a beam have λ and λ + d λ (as in sodium light we have two wavelength
5890 and 5896 A and here λ = 5890 A with d λ = 6 A) and we have to
form the expression for the resolving power of the diffraction grating that
is to say finding the limiting value of d λ out of λ. For this purpose, we put
the Rayleigh’s criterion and for that matter have to discuss positions of
principal maxima and first minima adjacent to principal maxima.

We have, direction of (say) nth principal maxima given by –

(c+d) sin θ = n λ
And the direction of minima given by –
N (c+d) sin θ = m λ
where m can take any integer value except at m = 0, N, 2N, 3N…nN (for nth
order mixima)

25
Then the first minima adjacent to this nth principal maxima in θ
increasing direction i.e. θ + dθ (mind it that on the other side, minima be
at θ – dθ) with m = nN +1 will be obtained by
N (c+d) sin (θ + dθ) = (nN +1) λ ------------ (1)
Rayleigh’s criterion suggests that spectral lines λ and λ + d λ are just
resolved when nth order maxima of λ + d λ (say) falls on (or overlap with)
the first minima of λ (mind it – adjacent to its nth order maxima). In other
words for just resolution of spectral lines λ and λ + d λ, nth maxima of λ +
d λ and first minima of λ (adjacent to its nth maxima) should be formed in
same direction (condition of overlapping) i.e. θ + dθ.
Further, we have for nth order maxima of λ + d λ in θ + dθ direction given
by,
(c+d) sin (θ + dθ) = n (λ + d λ)
or, N(c+d) sin (θ + dθ) = N n (λ + d λ) ------------ (2)
Now, applying Rayleigh’s criterion implies nth order maxima of λ + d λ by
(2) and first minima of λ by (1) should overlap i.e. mathematically both (1)
and (2) must hold simultaneously i.e.
We get,
(nN + 1) λ = N n (λ + d λ)
or, λ/d λ = n N = N (c+d) sin θ /λ
Further, we have dispersive power given by,
dθ/d λ = n / (c+d) cos θ
Hence, λ/d λ = n N = N (c+d) cos θ dθ/d λ = A dθ/d λ
i.e. Resolving Power (R. P) = Aperture  Dispersive Power (D. P)
Finally, a distinction between R. P and D. P is that D. P – angular
separation of two spectral lines while R. P – closeness of two spectral lines
that can be distinguished.

26
 Problems on Diffraction
1. Define diffraction and classify it. Discuss the most accepted theory of diffraction.

2. Derive an expression for intensity variation in diffraction due to single slit and show
that intensity of first secondary maxima is about 4.5% of that of principal maxima.

3. A single slit is illuminated by light composed of 1 and 2. One observes that due to
Fraunhofer diffraction, the first minima obtained for 1 coincides with second
diffraction minima of 2. Show that 1 = 22.

4. Calculate the angles at which the first dark band and the next bright band are
formed in the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern of a slit 0.3 mm wide. (Given:
 = 5890 Å).
λ
Solution: For 1st dark band n = 1. So, a sin θ  λ  sinθ   0.00196  θ  0.112 0
a
λ 3λ
If  be the angle of diffraction for 1st maxima then - a sinθ  (2n  1)   1.5λ
2 2
1.5λ
sinθ   1.5  0.00196  0.00294  θ  0.168 0
a

5.  = 5500 Å falls normally on a slit of width 0.022 mm. Calculate the angular
position of the first two minima either side of the central maximum. If another
slit of same width and parallel to the first is introduced with an opaque gap of
width 0.044 mm., how will it affect the previous fringe pattern.

6. What is diffraction grating? How it is constructed? Derive an expression for

intensity variation in diffraction grating.

7. Discuss how there are (N–1) equi-spaced minima between two consecutive principal
maxima. And show that the width of principal maxima in diffraction grating is 2/N n
cot . And also discuss about origin of spectra.
Solution:
Direction of Principal Maxima and Minima: The direction of principal maxima are given by –
Sin β = 0  β = nπ
π
 (c  d) Sinθ   n π  (c  d) Sinθ  n λ --------------- (2)
λ
When n=0 then θ=0. This gives the direction of 0th order principal maxima or central maxima. If
we put n=1, 2, 3… we get 1st, 2nd, 3rd … order maxima respectively.
The resultant intensity of principal maxima is given by –
Sin 2 α 2
I  A2 N --------------- (3)
α2

27
 Sin Nβ
where lim N
β   nπ Sin β

Hence if we increase the no. of slits, the intensity of principal maxima increases.
The direction of minima is given by – Sin Nβ = 0  Nβ = m
π
 N (c  d) Sin θ   m π  N (c  d) Sin θ   m λ --------------- (4)
λ
Here ‘m’ can take all integral values except m=0, N, 2N, 3N… because these values give Sin β=0
which gives the position of principal maxima. The  sign indicates that the minima of a given
order lie symmetrically on both sides of the central maxima. It is also clear from equation (4) that
m=0 gives principal maxima of 0th order. m=1, 2, 3…(N-1) gives minima and m=N gives
principal maxima of 1st order.

8. Two spectral lines having wavelengths  and +d respectively. Show that if
d<<, their angular separation dθ in a grating spectrometer is given by
dλ
dθ  where symbols have their usual meaning.
a  b
2

  λ
2

 n 
λ
9. A diffraction grating has a resolving power R   Nm . Show that the
dλ
c
corresponding frequency range d  that can just be resolved is given by, dυ 
Nmλ
where N is the total no. of lines on the grating, m is the order of spectrum  is the
frequency corresponding to wavelength  and c is velocity of light.

10. A diffraction grating used at normal incidence gives a green line ( = 5400Å) in
a certain order, superimpose on the violet line ( = 4050Å) of next higher order.
If angle of diffraction is 30, how many lines per cm. are there in the grating?
Solution: The direction of principle maxima, for normal incidence are given by
(a  b) sinθ  nλ
Let nth order maximum of λ1 coincide with (n+1)th order of maximum of λ2 ,then -
λ2 4050
(a  b) sinθ  nλ1  (n  1)λ 2  n  3
(λ1  λ 2 ) 1350
Now using grating equation - (a  b) sin300  3  5400 108 cm
3  5400  10 8
So, (a  b)   3.24  10  4 cm .
0.5
1 1
Therefore the no. of lines per cm =   3086
(a  b) 3.24  10 4

11. In a grating spectrum which spectral line in 4th order will overlap with 3rd order
line of 5460 Å?
Solution: The grating equation is - (a  b) sinθ  nλ
If the nth order of wavelength 1 coincides with the (n+1)th order of 2, then –

28
 (a  b) sinθ  nλ1  (n  1)λ 2
Given – n = 3, 1 = 5460Å and (n+1) = 4
nλ1 3  5460
So, λ 2    4096 Å
(n  1) 4

12. The light is incident normally on a grating 2 cm wide having 4500 lines.
Calculate dispersive power of grating for sodium D-lines. Can these be seen
distinctly?  for D1 = 5890 Å and  for D2 = 5896 Å. Also find out angle of
diffraction for maxima in 2nd order.

Solution: Let ‘w’ be the width of grating contain ‘N’ no. of lines then the grating element (a + b)
w 2
is – N(a  b)  w  (a  b)    4.44  10 4 cm
N 4500
Average value of wavelength = 5893 Å
The grating equation is – (a  b) sinθ  nλ
nλ 2  5893  10 8
sin θ    0.2651  θ  150 22
(c  d) 4.44  10 4
dθ n n
Dispersive power of grating is –  
dλ (c  d) Cos θ (c  d) 1  sin 2 θ
dθ 2
  4667
dλ 4.44  10 4  1  (0.2651) 2
Now, Actual (Practical) resolving power of grating in 2nd order = nN  2  4500  9000
λ 5893
Theoretical resolving power of grating =   982
dλ 6
Since Actual resolving power > Theoretical resolving power, so grating can resolve sodium D –
lines in 2nd order.

13. A light consisting of two wavelengths 5500 Å and 3700 Å is incident normally
on a grating surface. If there are 15000 lines/inch, calculate the separation of
two lines in cm in first order spectrum. Given that a lens of focal length 120 cm
is used to observe the spectrum on screen.
Solution: Given - 1 = 5500 Å, 2 = 3700 Å, f = 120 cm., n = 1, N = 15,000 lines/inch
2.54 2.54
Grating element – (a  b)    1.69  10  4
N 15,000
From grating equation – (a  b) sinθ1  nλ1
nλ1 1 5500  108
So, sinθ1    0.3254  θ1  18.90
(a  b) 1.69  10 4
nλ 2 1  3700  10 8
Similarly, sinθ 2    0.2189  θ 2  12.640
(a  b) 1.69  10  4
x1 x
But, tanθ1  and tanθ 2  2
f f
So, linear separation – (x1  x 2 )  f (tanθ1  tanθ 2 )  120(0.3423  0.2242)  14.18 cm.

29
14. Monochromatic light of wavelength 6.56 x 10–5 cm falls normally on a grating 2
cm wide. The first order spectrum is produced at an angle of 18 024 from the
normal. What is the total no. of lines on the grating?
Solution: Given:  = 6.56 x 10–5 cm, n = 1,  = 18024
From grating equation – (a  b) sinθ  nλ
1 sin θ sin (180 24) 0.3129
No. of lines per cm of grating =   5

(a  b) n λ 1  6.56  10 6.56  10 5
0.3129
No. of lines on 2 cm width of grating = 2   9539
6.56  10 5

15. Define resolving power of an optical instrument. Further, discuss Rayleigh’s

criterion of resolution.
λ N (a  b) sin θ
16. Show that resolving power for diffraction grating is  .
dλ λ

17. A diffraction grating is just able to resolve two lines 1 = 5140.34 Å and 2 =
5140.85 Å in the first order. Will it be able to resolve the lines 1 = 8037.20 Å
and 2 = 8037.50 Å in second order?
λ 1  λ 2 5140.24  5140.85
Solution: For 1st order λ    5140.59 Å
2 2
And dλ  λ 2 ~ λ1  5140.85  5140.34  0.51 Å
Putting these values in expression for resolving power of grating which is
λ 1  λ  1  5140 .59 
 nN  N        10080
dλ n  dλ  1  0.51 
Hence the resolving power of grating in 2nd order should be - nN  2  10080  20160
λ   λ 2 8037.20  8037.50
For 2nd order λ  1   8037.35 Å
2 2
And dλ  λ 2 ~ λ1  8037.50  8037.20  0.30 Å
λ 8037.35
Required resolving power for 2nd order =   26791.16
dλ 0.30
Since required R.P. > actual R.P so the grating will not be able to resolve the two lines in 2nd order.

18. Find the minimum no. lines in a diffraction grating required to just resolve the
sodium doublet (5890 Å & 5896 Å) in the (i) first order (ii) second order.
λ 1  λ 2 5890  5896
Solution: For 1st order – λ    5893 Å
2 2
And dλ  λ 2 ~ λ1  5896  5890  6 Å
Putting these values in expression for resolving power of grating which is
λ 1  λ  1  5893 
 nN  N      982
dλ n  dλ  1  6 
1  λ  1  5893 
For 2nd order – N      491
n  dλ  2  6 

30
19. A plane transmission grating has 40,000 lines in all with grating element
12.5 x 10–5 cm. Calculate the maximum resolving power for which it can be used
in range of  = 5000 Å.
Solution: Given N = 40,000 lines, (a+b) = 12.5 x 10-5 cm, λ = 5000x10-8 cm and sinθ = 1(for
maximum resolution).
λ N(a  b) sin θ 40,000  12.5  10 5  1
The resolving power of grating,  nN    10 5
dλ λ 5000  10 8

20. Examine the validity of a claim by some one that he saw a man 50 m away
wearing a shirt with strips about 1 cm wide. Human eye is most sensitive for
5500 Å and has a pupil diameter of 2 mm.
1.22 λ
Solution: The smallest angular width that can be resolved by human eye is - dθ  , where
a
‘a’ is the diameter of pupil.
Given:  = 5500 Å = 5.5 x 10–5 cm, a = 2 mm = 0.2 cm, l = 50 m = 5000 cm
1.22 λ 1.22  5.5  10 5
So, dθ    3.35  10 4 radian
a 0.2
Minimum linear width ‘x’ that can be resolved by human eye at a distance ‘l’ is given as -
x  dθ  l  3.35  10 4  5000  1.675 cm
Since the actual limit of resolution is greater than the claimed one so, the claim is FALSE.

21. A wire grating is made of 200 wires per centimeter placed at equal distances
apart. The diameter of each wire is 0.025 mm. Calculate the angle of diffraction
for the 3rd order spectrum and also find the absent spectra, if any.
(Given:  = 6000 Å).
1
Solution: Given -  200 , n = 3,  = 6000 x 10–8 cm
(a  b)
Width ‘b’ of the opaque part of grating is nothing but the diameter of wire itself.
So, b = 0.025 mm = 0.0025 cm
1
Now, a  (a  b)  b   0.0025  0.005  0.0025  0.0025 cm
200
From grating equation – (a  b) sinθ  nλ
nλ
sin θ   200  3  6000  10 8  0.0360  θ  20 4
(a  b)
ab n n 0.0025  0.0025
The condition of absent spectra is    2
a m m 0.0025
So, n  2m . Thus, when m = 1, 2, 3… then n = 2, 4, 6…..
So, 2nd, 4th, 6th ….. and so on order of interference maxima will absent corresponding to 1st, 2nd,
3rd….. order minima of diffraction.

31