LLANES, JILLIAN V.

• Water Vapor
ST
REVIEWER 1 YEAR| 2 ND
SEM • Heat Flow
BUILDING TECHNOLOGY 1 | • Sound
REVIEWER for BUILDING AND SUBSTRUCTURE • Light/Vision
BUILDING • Air Movement
• Allow unimpeded human activity irrespective of Elements of Interior
the conditions of the natural environment to articulate, define, separate, or connect space or spaces
• BUILDING = Enclosure + Services within the enclosure while resisting any environmental
factors and/or forces acting upon them, and transmitting
ENCLOSURE
all such forces to means of support
Means of containment and articulation of
• Ceilings
habitable space, selected and assembled to
• Floors
resist and/or control effects of:
• Partitions
• Factors of environment external to such means
• Means of Circulation/Conveyance
of containment and/or factors of the
environment thus contained
SERVICES
• Forces acting upon and forces developing within
such means of containment While maintaining its Means of maintaining the environment internal to the
internal shape and integrity means of containment at:
under all possible combinations of such factors and forces. • Comfort and convenience levels acceptable to
the occupants
• Solar Radiation
• Safety levels required by the occupants
• Rain/Snow
• Air Conditioning
• Wind
• Power and Light
• Heat
• Water Supply
• Moisture
• Waste Disposal
• Gravity Loads
• Safety/Security
• Lateral Loads
• Communications
• Expansion/Contraction
• Services
ENCLOSURE = Means of Support +Envelope +
Elements of Interior Forces
Means of Support Gravity Loads
to maintain any enclosure in the shape intended while • Load transferred continuously
resisting all external and internal forces acting upon such • Point transfer of loads – simply supported
enclosure, and transmitting all such forces to the ground
• Point transfer of loads outward thrust at
supports
• Superimposed
• Continuous transfer of loads – outward thrust at
• Internal foundation
• Wind Loads • Wind/Seismic Loads
• Seismic Loads Wind Pressure (Positive and Negative)
• Expansion/Contraction Deflection/Displacement
• Expansion/Contraction
Envelope
Environmental Factors
to separate environment internal to the enclosure from
that external to it while acting as barrier and/or selective • Heat
filter to all external or internal environmental factors • Moisture
acting upon such envelope • Sound
• Solar Radiation • Fire
• Moisture: Rain/Snow Means of Support
Columns and Girders • Roofing Decking + Framing = Deck
• Solid Web: beams (structural steel, solid or Means of Support:
laminated wood, reinforced concrete) • girders and columns
• Open Web (trusses of various materials – • bearing walls
structural steel, wood)
Walls
BEARING WALLS – walls carrying superimposed gravity
Columns and Girders/Bearing Walls loads in addition to their own weight
Curved Girder • Roof Deck
• Rigid Frame (pitched or curved such as trusses • Floor Deck
with pitched or curved top chords supported on
• Interior Facing (maybe optional)
columns)
• Exterior Facing (maybe optional)
• Curved in different configurations, with the
girder and columns being combined in one • Foundation/Ground
element - arches) Walls
Curved Deck NONBEARING WALLS – walls not carrying superimposed
• Curved surface monolithic deck, structural gravity loads in addition to their own weight
membrane or shell • Roof Deck
• Curvature (barrel arches, domes, cones, • Floor Deck
hyperbolic paraboloids • Interior Facing (maybe optional)
Point Supported • Exterior Facing (maybe optional)
• Flat monolithic deck (two way slab – flat plate) • Foundation/Ground
• Flexible membranes (tensile: nonprestressed) Curtain – nonbearing walls secured to and supported by
Air Pressure the structural frame of an enclosure
• Air Supported: interior is pressurized to Grid Type: vertical and horizontal
counteract gravity load framing members supported by floor or roof assemblies
• Air Inflated: pressurized air entrapped in Wall Panel Type: prefabricated panels
membrane spanning between floor and roof or between floors
Envelope of an enclosure – a continuous air and • Roof Deck
watertight barrier to separate the contained environment • Optional Interior Facing
from that external to it • Floor Deck
Barrier/Envelope – roof assembly /wall assemblies • Wall Panels
• Roof and Walls Separate • Grid System: mullions, rails, infill panels
• Roof and Walls Combined • Foundation/Ground
Envelope may be: • Curtain – nonbearing walls secured to and
• Flexible fabric membrane functioning as a supported by the structural frame of an
complete structure enclosure
• Flexible roof assembly and rigid wall assemblies • Grid Type: vertical and horizontal framing
• Rigid roof and wall assemblies or components members supported by floor or roof assemblies
selected to resist/control environmental factors • Wall Panel Type: prefabricated panels spanning
• Roof and Walls Separate between floor and roof or between
• Roof and Walls Combined Faced Curtain
Roofs • Roof Deck
• Roofing Deck: decking and framing combined • Optional Interior Facing
Means of Support: • Floor Deck
 columns • Exterior Facing
 bearing walls • Back-up Wall
Roofs • Foundation/Ground
 ELEMENTS OF INTERIOR SPACE MEANS OF CIRCULATION
FLOORS – flat, horizontal surfaces • Ladders
Floor assemblies commonly include: • Stairs
• Flooring: resist the effects of traffic over the • Escalators
surface of the floor deck • Elevators
• Deck: framing + decking separate or • Dumbwaiters
framing/decking combined
• Conveyors
• Flooring
• Moving sidewalks
• Deck on Grade
SERVICES
FLOORS – flat, horizontal surfaces
AIR CONDITIONING
Floor assemblies commonly include:
• Waste Heat to Atmosphere (cooling tower)
• Flooring: resist the effects of traffic over the
• Exhaust
surface of the floor deck
• Distribution System (supply and return)
• Deck: framing + decking separate or
framing/decking combined • Heating/Cooling/Filtering Equipment

• Flooring WATER/WASTEWATER SYSTEMS

• Deck on Grade • Storm Drainage

CEILINGS – nonstructural components of an enclosure, • Potable Water Supply (to plumbing fixtures,
depending on their support on floor or roof assemblies equipment, sprinklers)

• Visual screens and/or functional separation • Wastewater Disposal

between an inhabited space and the underside of POWER/LIGHTING/COMMUNICATIONS
a floor or roof assembly above • Lighting System
• Integral components of floor or roof assemblies • Communication System
PARTITIONS • Electric Power Service and Distribution System
• Fixed SAFETY/SECURITY SYSTEMS
• Relocatable • Fire Detection
• Operable • Fire Extinguishing
• Supported on • Forced Entry Detection
• Suspended from floor or roof assemblies • Surveillance
FOUNDATIONS – Substructure
Soils & Foundations
Evaluating the Bearing Capacity of Soil
Subsurface investigation done by borings typical boring rig - tripod or frame with a pulley and a small winch
test pits
Boring Rig/Test Pits
boring rig: (tripod or frame with pulley, small winch)
Evaluating the Bearing Capacity of Soil
A hammer is raised by the winch and allowed to fall free, driving a pipe casing into the ground. The number of
blows necessary to drive the spoon 1 ft. gives important information as to the compactness of the soil
 Many codes as well as good engineering practice dictate boring locations about 50 ft. (15 m) on center
within the building outline.
Abnormal ground conditions may require closer spacing.
Depth of borings are typically 15 to 20 ft. (4.5 to 6m) below foundation level, with one or more borings deeper to
look for weak lower levels
 Test pits give an immediate idea of the soil
conditions [limited to a depth of about 10 ft. (3 m)]
 Dug with a backhoe, they give a method of economical and visually evident evaluation.
Where rock is near the surface, a rock profile is obtained.
Once the type and degree of compactness of soil has been established, its supporting ability must be evaluated.
Selecting a Foundation Type
 Spread footings and Wall footings - most common types of footings; used where the soil bearing capacity
is adequate for the applied loads
 Wall Footings
 Spread Footings: for uniform bearing on the soil; good bearing material occurs directly under the building
excavation
 Variations of spread footings:
Eccentric Footings: center of the superimposed load does not line up with the resultant center of the soil bearing
pressure
Combined Footings: two or more columns must share one footing
Matt Footings: the required superimposed loads require most of the building’s footprint to transfer the
accumulated loads to relatively weak soil bearing capacity.
 Pile Foundations : required where poor surface and near surface soils are weak and column like shafts
must be used to penetrate the weak soil and reach acceptable supporting stratum and greater depths
below grade.
 Piles are tied together with pile caps upon which the building’s columns or walls are supported.
 When large column load exist, caissons are used as extensions to columns.
Caissons typically are larger in diameter and longer. They rely on end bearing directly on earth with very
high bearing capacity.
 Retaining Walls: used where a grade change occurs and the upper levels must be stabilized behind a wall.
The wall portion of the foundation extends vertically cantilevered from a substantial and carefully
designed footing.
The choice between walls and footings, piers and grade beams, or piles and grade beams is determined by soil
conditions, by the requirements of the building’s structural system, and cost. The requirement of many codes –
that a pile be at least 10 ft. (3 m) long in order to provide adequate lateral stability – often determines the change
over depth between piers and short piles.
Mats can distribute loads to large areas, permitting light soil bearing loads on weak material. Hydraulic mats
resist upward water pressure. Because of the various possible arrangements and loads, each mat becomes a
specialized custom design.
Foundations to Rock
Rock, having the highest bearing capacity, is often the only acceptable foundation available for heavy loads.
Piers carry the loads directly to rock. On hard rock, piers require no footing, as the capacity of the rock is almost
that of concrete. Typical column and grade beam construction is employed.
When rock occurs more than 10 to 15 ft. (3 to 4.5 m) below the grade beam soffits, piers become too costly.
Clusters of piles driven to rock and encased in a pile cap can support substantial loads. For heavier loads, caissons
are used. Caissons are big holes drilled through the weak soil strata down to rock. The drilled voids are then filled
with concrete. Piles or caissons may vary in length from 15 to over 100 ft. (4.5 to over 30 m).
Piles
Piles carry loads to strata below the ground surface either by end bearing, which are called bearing piles, or by
surface friction along their sides by which are called friction piles. The soft material through which the pile is driven
provides lateral stability, but for structures over water the piles must be designed as columns.
Test load or driving resistance generally establishes pile capacity. Load tests are used to establish capacity.
Driving resistance measurements are used to ensure that all piles are driven as hard as the test piles. Piles are
generally grouped in clusters connected by pile caps.
Borings are essential for proper pile evaluation. Individual piles may test to a capacity greater than their
contribution to the capacity of a cluster. A soft stratum underlying a hard one may not be able to support the total
load delivered from the hard stratum even though the resistance of the hard stratum may indicate satisfactory pile
support.
 Types I and II are cast-in-place concrete piles. A light-gage steel shell, driven on a mandrel, which is then
withdrawn, is inspected and filled with concrete. Care must be taken to avoid collapsing of the shell with
an adjacent pile is driven.
1. Centering 8. Measuring depth
2. Starting drilling 9. Setting up iron-reinforcement cage
3. Inserting stand pipe 10. Inserting tremie tube
4. Feeding bentonite 11. Cleaning slime by an air-lift
5. Drilling till the specified depth 12. Concreting
6. Inserting belling bucket 13. .Completing cast-in-place concrete pile with
7. Reaming bore hole bottom belling bottom.
Type III is similar to Types I and II except that the shell gage is heavier and no mandrel is required.
Type IV is an open-end steel pipe. It is excavated, often by air jet, as it is advanced, and then filled with
concrete after refusal has been reached. In lieu of reaching refusal, driving may stop while a concrete plug is
placed and then redriving will seat it. The advantage is fewer disturbances to adjacent structures.
Type V is a closed-end pipe. After driving, it is filled with concrete. Often it is used inside buildings with low
headroom. Shorter lengths are simply spliced with steel collars.
Type VI is a precast concrete pile. It is good in marine structures but requires heavy handling equipment and
accurate estimation of tip elevation and it is difficult to cut off in the field.
Type VII is a wood pile – the least expensive. Where the pile is partially exposed permanently above water level, it
must be treated with a wood preservative.
Type VIII, a composite wood and concrete pile, is seldom used. The timber is kept below groundwater and a
greater over-all length is achieved. A closed-end pipe may be used in place of the timber section.
Type IX is a rolled steel H section. It is the cheapest of the higher-capacity piles. Protection must be provided
when driving through cinder fill or other rust-producing material.
Type X is a drilled-in caisson. A 24-in. (60 cm) round pipe is driven to rock and cleaned, a steel H-section core is
set, and the shell is filled with concrete. This is good for very heavy loads.
Piles almost always are installed in groups of three or more. For heavier column loads the architect is referred to
a structural engineer for analysis of specific foundation requirements of the building(s) under consideration.
Pipes are located with a low degree of precision. They can easily be 6 inches or more from their desired location.
If building columns, which are located with much greater precision, were to be located on single piles, the
centerlines would rarely coincide. The resulting eccentric loads in both the column and the pile would generate
unwanted moments in both members. A similar condition could exist around one axis for a column supported by a
two-pile foundation.