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Twelve-tone technique
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Twelve-tone technique—also known as dodecaphony,

twelve-tone serialism, and (in British usage) twelve-note
composition—is a method of musical composition devised by
Austrian composer Arnold Schoenberg (1874–1951) and
associated with the "Second Viennese School" composers, who
were the primary users of the technique in the first decades of its
existence. The technique is a means of ensuring that all 12 notes of
the chromatic scale are sounded as often as one another in a piece
of music while preventing the emphasis of any one note[3] through
the use of tone rows, orderings of the 12 pitch classes. All 12 notes
are thus given more or less equal importance, and the music avoids
being in a key. Over time, the technique increased greatly in
popularity and eventually became widely influential on 20th Schoenberg, inventor of
century composers. Many important composers who had originally
twelve-tone technique
not subscribed to or even actively opposed the technique, such as
Aaron Copland and Igor Stravinsky,
eventually adopted it in their music.

Schoenberg himself described the system as a

"Method of composing with twelve tones
which are related only with one another".[4] It
is commonly considered a form of serialism.

Schoenberg's countryman and contemporary Josef Matthias Hauer's "athematic" dodecaphony in

Josef Matthias Hauer also developed a similar Nomos Op. 19[1]( Play )
system using unordered hexachords or
tropes—but with no connection to
Schoenberg's twelve-tone technique. Other composers have
created systematic use of the chromatic scale, but Schoenberg's
method is considered to be historically and aesthetically most Example of Hauer's tropes.[2]
significant. [5]
Play

Contents
1 History of use
2 Tone row
2.1 Example
2.2 Application in composition

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2.3 Properties of transformations

2.4 Derivation
2.4.1 Combinatoriality
2.4.2 Invariance
2.5 Cross partition
2.6 Other
3 Schoenberg's mature practice
4 See also
5 References
5.1 Notes
5.2 Sources
5.3 Further reading
6 External links

History of use
Invented by Austrian composer Arnold
Schoenberg in 1921 and first described
privately to his associates in 1923,[8]
the method was used during the next
twenty years almost exclusively by the
composers of the Second Viennese
School—Alban Berg, Anton Webern,
Hanns Eisler and Schoenberg himself. The "first 12-note work": Schoenberg's Op. 23, mov. 5, mm.
1-4[6] Play .
The twelve tone technique was
preceded by "freely" atonal pieces of
1908–23 which, though "free", often have as an "integrative element ... a minute intervallic cell"
which in addition to expansion may be transformed as with a tone row, and in which individual
notes may "function as pivotal elements, to permit overlapping statements of a basic cell or the
linking of two or more basic cells".[9] The twelve-tone technique was also preceded by
"nondodecaphonic serial composition" used independently in the works of Alexander Scriabin, Igor
Stravinsky, Béla Bartók, Carl Ruggles, and others.[10] Oliver Neighbour argues that Bartók was
"the first composer to use a group of twelve notes consciously for a structural purpose", in 1908
with the third of his fourteen bagatelles.[11] "Essentially, Schoenberg and Hauer systematized and
defined for their own dodecaphonic purposes a pervasive technical feature of 'modern' musical
practice, the ostinato".[10] Additionally, John Covach argues that the strict distinction between the
two, emphasized by authors including Perle, is overemphasized:

The distinction often made between Hauer and the Schoenberg school—that the former's
music is based on unordered hexachords while the latter's is based on an ordered

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series—is false: while he did write

pieces that could be thought of as
"trope pieces", much of Hauer's
twelve-tone music employs an
ordered series.[12]

The "strict ordering" of the Second Viennese

school, on the other hand, "was inevitably
tempered by practical considerations: they
worked on the basis of an interaction between
ordered and unordered pitch collections."[13]

Rudolph Reti, an early proponent, says: "To

replace one structural force (tonality) by
another (increased thematic oneness) is indeed
the fundamental idea behind the twelve-tone
technique," arguing it arose out of Schoenberg's
frustrations with free atonality,[14] providing a
"positive premise" for atonality.[3] In Hauer's
breakthrough piece Nomos, Op. 19 (1919) he
used twelve-tone sections to mark out large
formal divisions, such as with the opening five
statements of the same twelve-tone series,
stated in groups of five notes making twelve
five-note phrases.[13]
The principal forms, P1 and I6, of Schoenberg's
Piano Piece, op. 33a, tone row Play feature
hexachordal combinatoriality and contains three
perfect fifths each, which is the relation between P1
and I6 and a source of contrast between,
"accumulations of 5ths," and, "generally more
complex simultaneity".[7] For example group A
consists of B♭-C-F-B♮ while the, "more blended,"
group B consists of A-C♯-D♯-F♯.

Schoenberg's idea in developing the technique was for it to "replace those structural differentiations
provided formerly by tonal harmonies".[4] As such, twelve-tone music is usually atonal, and treats
each of the 12 semitones of the chromatic scale with equal importance, as opposed to earlier
classical music which had treated some notes as more important than others (particularly the tonic
and the dominant note).

The technique became widely used by the fifties, taken up by composers such as Milton Babbitt,
Luciano Berio, Pierre Boulez, Luigi Dallapiccola, Ernst Krenek, Riccardo Malipiero, and, after
Schoenberg's death, Igor Stravinsky. Some of these composers extended the technique to control
aspects other than the pitches of notes (such as duration, method of attack and so on), thus
producing serial music. Some even subjected all elements of music to the serial process.

Charles Wuorinen claimed in a 1962 interview that while "most of the Europeans say that they have
'gone beyond' and 'exhausted' the twelve-tone system," in America, "the twelve-tone system has
been carefully studied and generalized into an edifice more impressive than any hitherto
known."[15]

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Tone row
The basis of the twelve-tone technique is the tone
"Sehr langsam"
row, an ordered arrangement of the twelve notes of
0:00 MENU
the chromatic scale (the twelve equal tempered pitch
Sample of "Sehr langsam" from
classes). There are four postulates or preconditions String Trio Op. 20 by Anton
to the technique which apply to the row (also called Webern, an example of the
a set or series), on which a work or section is twelve-tone technique, a type of
based:[16] serialism.

1. The row is a specific ordering of all twelve Problems playing this file? See media help.
notes of the chromatic scale (without regard to
octave placement).
2. No note is repeated within the row.
3. The row may be subjected to interval-preserving transformations -—that is, it may appear in
inversion (denoted I), retrograde (R), or retrograde-inversion (RI), in addition to its
"original" or prime form (P).
4. The row in any of its four transformations may begin on any degree of the chromatic scale; in
other words it may be freely transposed. (Transposition being an interval-preserving
transformation, this is technically covered already by 3.) Transpositions are indicated by an
integer between 0 and 11 denoting the number of semitones: thus, if the original form of the
row is denoted P0, then P1 denotes its transposition upward by one semitone (similarly I1 is an
upward transposition of the inverted form, R1 of the retrograde form, and RI1 of the
retrograde-inverted form).

(In Hauer's system postulate 3 does not apply.[2])

A particular transformation (prime, inversion, retrograde, retrograde-inversion) together with a

choice of transpositional level is referred to as a set form or row form. Every row thus has up to 48
different row forms. (Some rows have fewer due to symmetry; see the sections on derived rows and
invariance below.)

Example

Suppose the prime form of the row is as follows:

Then the retrograde is the prime form in reverse order:

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The inversion is the prime form with the intervals inverted (so that a rising minor third becomes a
falling minor third, or equivalently, a rising major sixth):

And the retrograde inversion is the inverted row in retrograde:

P, R, I and RI can each be started on any of the twelve notes of the chromatic scale, meaning that 47
permutations of the initial tone row can be used, giving a maximum of 48 possible tone rows.
However, not all prime series will yield so many variations because transposed transformations
may be identical to each other. This is known as invariance. A simple case is the ascending
chromatic scale, the retrograde inversion of which is identical to the prime form, and the retrograde
of which is identical to the inversion (thus, only 24 forms of this tone row are available).

In the above example, as is typical, the

retrograde inversion contains three points
where the sequence of two pitches are
identical to the prime row. Thus the
generative power of even the most basic
transformations is both unpredictable and Prime, retrograde, inverted, and retrograde-inverted
inevitable. Motivic development can be forms of the ascending chromatic scale. P and RI are
driven by such internal consistency. the same (to within transposition), as are R and I.

Application in composition

Note that rules 1–4 above apply to the construction of the row itself, and not to the interpretation of
the row in the composition. (Thus, for example, postulate 2 does not mean, contrary to common
belief, that no note in a twelve-tone work can be repeated until all twelve have been sounded.)
While a row may be expressed literally on the surface as thematic material, it need not be, and may
instead govern the pitch structure of the work in more abstract ways. Even when the technique is
applied in the most literal manner, with a piece consisting of a sequence of statements of row
forms, these statements may appear consecutively, simultaneously, or may overlap, giving rise to
harmony.

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Schoenberg's annotated opening of his Wind Quintet Op. 26 shows the distribution of
the pitches of the row among the voices and the balance between the hexachords, 1–6
and 7–12, in the principal voice and accompaniment[17]

Needless to say, durations, dynamics and other aspects of music other than the pitch can be freely
chosen by the composer, and there are also no general rules about which tone rows should be used
at which time (beyond their all being derived from the prime series, as already explained).
However, individual composers have constructed more detailed systems in which matters such as
these are also governed by systematic rules (see serialism).

Properties of transformations

The tone row chosen as the basis of the piece is called the prime series (P). Untransposed, it is
notated as P0. Given the twelve pitch classes of the chromatic scale, there are (12![18]) (factorial,
i.e. 479,001,600[13]) tone rows, although this is far higher than the number of unique tone rows
(after taking transformations into account). There are 9,985,920 classes of twelve-tone rows up to
equivalence (where two rows are equivalent if one is a transformation of the other).[19]

Appearances of P can be transformed from the original in three basic ways:

transposition up or down, giving Pχ.

reversal in time, giving the retrograde (R)
reversal in pitch, giving the inversion (I).

The various transformations can be combined. These give rise to a set-complex of forty-eight forms
of the set, 12 transpositions of the four basic forms: P, R, I, RI. The combination of the retrograde
and inversion transformations is known as the retrograde inversion (RI).

RI is: RI of P, R of I, and I of R.
R is: R of P, RI of I, and I of RI.
I is: I of P, RI of R, and R of RI.
P is: R of R, I of I, and RI of RI.

thus, each cell in the following table lists the result of the transformations, a four-group, in its row
and column headers:

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P: RI: R: I:
RI: P I R
R: I P RI
I: R RI P

However, there are only a few numbers by which one may multiply a row and still end up with
twelve tones. (Multiplication is in any case not interval-preserving.)

Derivation

Derivation is transforming segments of the full chromatic, fewer than 12 pitch classes, to yield a
complete set, most commonly using trichords, tetrachords, and hexachords. A derived set can be
generated by choosing appropriate transformations of any trichord except 0,3,6, the diminished
triad. A derived set can also be generated from any tetrachord that excludes the interval class 4, a
major third, between any two elements. The opposite, partitioning, uses methods to create
segments from sets, most often through registral difference.

Combinatoriality

Combinatoriality is a side-effect of derived rows where combining different segments or sets such
that the pitch class content of the result fulfills certain criteria, usually the combination of
hexachords which complete the full chromatic.

Invariance

Invariant formations are also the side effect

of derived rows where a segment of a set
remains similar or the same under
transformation. These may be used as
"pivots" between set forms, sometimes used Hexachord invariance in Schoenberg's Concerto for
by Anton Webern and Arnold Schoenberg.[21] Violin.[20] Play The last hexachord of P0 (C–C♯–
G–A♭–D–F) contains the same pitches as the first
Invariance is defined as the "properties of a
set that are preserved under [any given] hexachord of I5 (D–C♯–A♭–C–G–F).
operation, as well as those relationships
between a set and the so-operationally transformed set that inhere in the operation",[22] a definition
very close to that of mathematical invariance. George Perle describes their use as "pivots" or
non-tonal ways of emphasizing certain pitches. Invariant rows are also combinatorial and derived.

Cross partition

A cross partition is an often monophonic or homophonic technique which, "arranges the pitch

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classes of an aggregate (or a row) into a rectangular design," in

which the vertical columns (harmonies) of the rectangle are
derived from the adjacent segments of the row and the
horizontal columns (melodies) are not (and thus may contain
non-adjacencies).[24]

For example, the layout of all possible 'even' cross partitions is

as follows:[25]

62 43 34 26 Aggregates spanning several

** *** **** ******
** *** **** ******
local set forms in Schoenberg's
** *** **** Von Heute auf Morgen.[23]
** ***
**
**

One possible realization out of many for the order numbers of the 34 cross partition, and one
variation of that, are:[25]

0 3 6 9 0 5 6 e
1 4 7 t 2 3 7 t
2 5 8 e 1 4 8 9

Thus if one's tone row was 0 e 7 4 2 9 3 8 t 1 5 6, one's cross partitions from above would be:

0 4 3 1 0 9 3 6
e 2 8 5 7 4 8 5
7 9 t 6 e 2 t 1

Cross partitions are used in Schoenberg's Op. 33a Klavierstück and also by Berg but Dallapicolla
used them more than any other composer.[26]

Other

In practice, the "rules" of twelve-tone technique have been bent and broken many times, not least
by Schoenberg himself. For instance, in some pieces two or more tone rows may be heard
progressing at once, or there may be parts of a composition which are written freely, without
recourse to the twelve-tone technique at all. Offshoots or variations may produce music in which:

the full chromatic is used and constantly circulates, but permutational devices are ignored
permutational devices are used but not on the full chromatic

Also, some composers, including Stravinsky, have used cyclic permutation, or rotation, where the
row is taken in order but using a different starting note. Stravinsky also preferred the inverse-
retrograde, rather than the retrograde-inverse, treating the former as the compositionally
predominant, "untransposed" form.[27]

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Although usually atonal, twelve tone music need not be—several pieces by Berg, for instance, have
tonal elements.

One of the best known twelve-note compositions is Variations for Orchestra by Arnold
Schoenberg. "Quiet", in Leonard Bernstein's Candide, satirizes the method by using it for a song
about boredom, and Benjamin Britten used a twelve-tone row—a "tema seriale con fuga"—in his
Cantata Academica: Carmen Basiliense (1959) as an emblem of academicism.[28]

Schoenberg's mature practice

Ten features of Schoenberg's mature twelve-tone practice are characteristic, interdependent, and
interactive:[29]

1. Hexachordal inversional combinatoriality

2. Aggregates
3. Linear set presentation
4. Partitioning
5. Isomorphic partitioning
6. Invariants
7. Hexachordal levels
8. Harmony, "consistent with and derived from the properties of the referential set"
9. Metre, established through "pitch-relational characteristics"
10. Multidimensional set presentations.

See also
List of dodecaphonic and serial compositions
All-interval twelve-tone row
All-interval tetrachord
All-trichord hexachord
Pitch interval
List of tone rows and series

References
Notes
1. Whittall 2008, 26. 6. Leeuw 2005, 149.
2. Perle 1991, 145. 7. Leeuw 2005, 155–57.
3. Perle 1977, 2. 8. Schoenberg 1975, 213.
4. Schoenberg 1975, 218. 9. Perle 1977, 9–10.
5. Whittall 2008, 25. 10. Perle 1977, 37.

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11. Neighbour 1955, 53. 21. Perle 1977, 91–93.

12. John Covach quoted in Whittall 2008, 24. 22. Babbitt 1960, 249–50.
13. Whittall 2008, 24. 23. Haimo 1990, 13.
14. Reti 1958, 24. Alegant 2010, 20.
15. Chase 1987, 587. 25. Alegant 2010, 21.
16. Perle 1977, 3. 26. Alegant 2010, 22 and 24.
17. Whittall 2008, 52. 27. Spies 1965, 118.
18. Loy 2007, 310. 28. Brett 2007.
19. Benson 2007, 348. 29. Haimo 1990, 41.
20. Haimo 1990, 27.

Sources

Alegant, Brian. 2010. The Twelve-Tone Music of Luigi Dallapiccola. Eastman Studies in
Music 76. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press. ISBN 978-1-58046-325-6.
Babbitt, Milton. 1960. "Twelve-Tone Invariants as Compositional Determinants". Musical
Quarterly 46, no. 2, Special Issue: Problems of Modern Music: The Princeton Seminar in
Advanced Musical Studies (April): 246–59. doi:10.1093/mq/XLVI.2.246 (https://dx.doi.org
/10.1093%2Fmq%2FXLVI.2.246). JSTOR 740374 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/740374)
(subscription required).
Babbitt, Milton. 1961. "Set Structure as a Compositional Determinant". Journal of Music
Theory 5, no. 1 (Spring): 72–94. JSTOR 842871 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/842871)
(subscription required).
Benson, Dave. 2007 Music: A Mathematical Offering (https://books.google.com
/books?id=Ko1NsIq4qLIC&pg=PA348#v=onepage&q&f=false). Cambridge and New York:
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85387-3.
Brett, Philip. "Britten, Benjamin." Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Accessed 8 January
2007), http://www.grovemusic.com.
Chase, Gilbert. 1987. America's Music: From the Pilgrims to the Present, revised third
edition. Music in American Life. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-00454-X
(cloth); ISBN 0-252-06275-2 (pbk).
Haimo, Ethan. 1990. Schoenberg's Serial Odyssey: The Evolution of his Twelve-Tone Method,
1914–1928. Oxford [England] Clarendon Press; New York: Oxford University Press ISBN
0-19-315260-6.
Hill, Richard S. 1936. "Schoenberg's Tone-Rows and the Tonal System of the Future".
Musical Quarterly 22, no. 1 (January): 14–37. doi:10.1093/mq/XXII.1.14 (https://dx.doi.org
/10.1093%2Fmq%2FXXII.1.14). JSTOR 739013 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/739013)
(subscription required).
Lansky, Paul, George Perle, and Dave Headlam. 2001. "Twelve-note Composition". The New
Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John
Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers.
Leeuw, Ton de. 2005. Music of the Twentieth Century: A Study of Its Elements and Structure,
translated from the Dutch by Stephen Taylor. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. ISBN
90-5356-765-8. Translation of Muziek van de twintigste eeuw: een onderzoek naar haar

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elementen en structuur. Utrecht: Oosthoek, 1964. Third impression, Utrecht: Bohn, Scheltema
& Holkema, 1977. ISBN 90-313-0244-9.
Loy, D. Gareth, 2007. Musimathics: The Mathematical Foundations of Music, Vol. 1.
Cambridge, Mass. and London: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-12282-5.
Neighbour, Oliver. 1954. "The Evolution of Twelve-Note Music". Proceedings of the Royal
Musical Association, Volume 81, Issue 1: 49–61. doi:10.1093/jrma/81.1.49 (https://dx.doi.org
/10.1093%2Fjrma%2F81.1.49)
Perle, George. 1977. Serial Composition and Atonality: An Introduction to the Music of
Schoenberg, Berg, and Webern, fourth edition, revised. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London:
University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03395-7
Perle, George. 1991. Serial Composition and Atonality: An Introduction to the Music of
Schoenberg, Berg, and Webern, sixth edition, revised. Berkeley: University of California
Press. ISBN 978-0-520-07430-9.
Reti, Rudolph. 1958. Tonality, Atonality, Pantonality: A Study of Some Trends in Twentieth
Century Music. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-20478-0.
Rufer, Josef. 1954. Composition with Twelve Notes Related Only to One Another, translated
by Humphrey Searle. New York: The Macmillan Company. (Original German ed., 1952)
Schoenberg, Arnold. 1975. Style and Idea, edited by Leonard Stein with translations by Leo
Black. Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-05294-3.
207–208 "Twelve-Tone Composition (1923)"
214–45 "Composition with Twelve Tones (1) (1941)"
245–49 "Composition with Twelve Tones (2) (c.1948)"
Solomon, Larry. 1973. "New Symmetric Transformations". Perspectives of New Music 11, no.
2 (Spring-Summer): 257–64. JSTOR 832323 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/832323)
(subscription required).
Spies, Claudio. 1965. "Notes on Stravinsky's Abraham and Isaac". Perspectives of New Music
3, no. 2 (Spring–Summer): 104–26. JSTOR 832508 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/832508)
(subscription required).
Whittall, Arnold. 2008. The Cambridge Introduction to Serialism. Cambridge Introductions to
Music. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-86341-4 (cloth) ISBN
978-0-521-68200-8 (pbk).

Further reading

Covach, John. 1992. "The Zwölftonspiel of Josef Matthias Hauer". Journal of Music Theory
36, no. 1 (Spring): 149–84. JSTOR 843913 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/843913)(subscription
required).
Covach, John. 2000. "Schoenberg's 'Poetics of Music', the Twelve-tone Method, and the
Musical Idea". In Schoenberg and Words: The Modernist Years, edited by Russell A. Berman
and Charlotte M. Cross, New York: Garland. ISBN 0-8153-2830-3
Covach, John. 2002, "Twelve-tone Theory". In The Cambridge History of Western Music
Theory, edited by Thomas Christensen, 603–27. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 0-521-62371-5.

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Krenek, Ernst. 1953. "Is the Twelve-Tone Technique on the Decline?" The Musical Quarterly
39, no 4 (October): 513–27.
Šedivý, Dominik. 2011. Serial Composition and Tonality. An Introduction to the Music of
Hauer and Steinbauer, edited by Günther Friesinger, Helmut Neumann and Dominik Šedivý.
Vienna: edition mono. ISBN 3-902796-03-0
Sloan, Susan L. 1989. "Archival Exhibit: Schoenberg’s Dodecaphonic Devices
(http://www.schoenberg.at/library/index.php/attachments/single/244)". Journal of the Arnold
Schoenberg Institute 12, no. 2 (November): 202–205.
Starr, Daniel. 1978. "Sets, Invariance and Partitions". Journal of Music Theory 22, no. 1
(Spring): 1–42. JSTOR 843626 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/843626)(subscription required).
Wuorinen, Charles. 1979. Simple Composition. New York: Longman. ISBN 0-582-28059-1.
Reprinted 1991, New York: C. F. Peters. ISBN 0-938856-06-5.

External links
Twelve tone square (http://www.andreaslehmann.com Wikiquote has
/programmierung/reihenquadrat/) to find all combinations quotations related to:
of a 12 tone sequence Twelve-tone technique
New Transformations: Beyond P, I, R, and RI
(http://solomonsmusic.net/diss8.htm) by Larry Solomon
Javascript twelve tone matrix calculator and tone row analyzer (http://composertools.com
/Tools/)
Matrix generator from musictheory.net (http://www.musictheory.net/utilities
/html/id98_en.html) by Ricci Adams
Twelve-Tone Technique, A Quick Reference (http://musike.cmpr.edu/docs/v001/roman-
eng.pdf) by Dan Román
Dodecaphonic Knots and Topology of Words (http://recherche.ircam.fr/equipes/repmus
/mamux/documents/fjPisa.pdf) by Franck Jedrzejewski
Database on tone rows and tropes (http://www.uni-graz.at/~fripert/db/)

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