Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
History of Communications
Data
Communications
BY: ENGR. JOMAR B. CALAUOD
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1. Performance
Transit Time – amount of time required for a message to
Simplex travel from one device to another device
Response Time – elapsed time between an inquiry and a
response
Networking metrics:
Half-Duplex Throughput – actual data transfer rate between two
computers
Delay – how long it takes for an entire message to
completely arrive at the destination from the time the
Full-Duplex first bit is sent out from the source.
2. Security 1. Point-to-Point
include protecting data from unauthorized access, provides a dedicated link between two devices
protecting data from damage and development, and
implementing policies and procedures for recovery from the entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission
breaches and data losses. between those two devices
3. Reliability 2. Multipoint
measured by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a also called multidrop connection
link to recover from a failure, and the network's robustness more than two specific devices share a single link
in a catastrophe.
spatially-shared - several devices can use the link simultaneously
time-shared - users must take turns
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3. Star – every host is connected to a central hub 5. Tree – arranged like the branches of a tree
From https://bit.ly/2OhJ8Hy
5. Daisy Chain – one network node is attached to the
4. Mesh – each node is connected to every other node in next in a line or chain
the network. 6. Self-Healing Ring – a ring with a redundancy
From https://bit.ly/2ZbeCA2
From https://bit.ly/2LFzyvL
1. Local Area Network (LAN) – usually privately owned and 4. Wireless LAN (WLAN) – wireless distribution method for two
links the devices in a single office, building, or campus or more devices that use high-frequency radio waves and
often include an access point to the Internet
2. Wide Area Network (WAN) – provides long-distance
5. Personal-Area Network (PAN) – short-range wireless
transmission of data, image, audio, and video information network that is set up automatically between two or more
over large geographic areas that may comprise a devices such as laptop computers, peripheral devices, or
country, a continent, or even the whole world cell phones
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) – a network with a size 6. Storage Area Network (SAN) – provides users on the
between a LAN and a WAN. It normally covers the area network access to massive data files stored in mass
inside a town or a city memory units
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ensure the kind of interconnectivity necessary in today's 3 Main Sectors: Radiocommunications (ITU-R), Telecommunications Standardization
(ITU-T)*, and Development (ITU-D)
marketplace and in international communications 2. American National Standards Institute (ANSI) – oversees the development
De facto – standards that have not been approved by an standards for products, services, processes, and systems in the US.
organized body but have been adopted as standards through 3. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) – a professional
widespread use association for electrical engineers (and associated disciplines). Oversees the
development and adoption of international standards for computing and
De jure – standards that have been legislated by an officially communications.
recognized body *Consultative Committee for International Telephony and Telegraphy (CCITT) – former
name of ITU-T
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Bit rate – number of bits per second that can be 1. Nyquist Theorem
transmitted along a digital line. 2. Hartley’s Law for Noiseless Channel
Baud rate – number of signal events or signal 3. Shannon-Limit for Information Capacity
elements passing a point on the line per second.
4. Shannon-Hartley Law for a Noisy Channel
Bandwidth – amount of data that can be
transmitted in a fixed amount of time
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Channel Capacity > Nyquist Theorem Channel Capacity > Hartley’s Law for
Noiseless Channel
Channel Capacity > Shannon Limit for Channel Capacity > Shannon Limit for
Information Capacity Information Capacity
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1. Asynchronous – sends one start bit (0) at the beginning and one or
more stop bits (1s) at the end of each byte.
2. Synchronous – we send bits one after another without start or stop
bits or gaps. It is the responsibility of the receiver to group the bits.
3. Isochronous – provides synchronization for the entire stream of bits.
In other words, it guarantees that the data arrive at a fixed rate.
4. Pleisiochronous – involves careful synchronization of transmission
systems of varying levels of bandwidth through the use of highly
accurate clocking devices.
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lowest layer of the OSI Reference Model responsible for the manner in which a device gains access to the
responsible for the mechanical, electrical, functional, and procedural medium specified in the physical layer.
mechanism required for the transmission of data
The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop
The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from (node) to the next.
one hop (node) to the next.
Protocol Data Unit (PDU): frames
Protocol Data Unit (PDU): bits
responsible for ensuring that the transfer of information occurs Creates and maintains dialogs between source and destination
correctly once a route is established through a network. applications
responsible for establishing and terminating data streams between
network nodes.
The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from
one process to another.
Protocol Data Unit (PDU): segments
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provides for common representation of the data. The presentation provides support services for user and application tasks. File transfer,
layer provides data transformation, formatting, and syntax interpretation of graphic formats and documents, and document
conversion. processing are supported at this level.
Controlled Access
Contention-Based Access
1. CSMA/CD
2. CSMA/CA
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1. Circuit Switching – provides continuous and exclusive access between 802.1 - defines architecture layers and rules for interconnection of disparate LAN
physical circuits for the duration of the conversation. protocols. Includes data formatting, network management and internetworking.
802.2 - defines equivalent of Logical Link Control services, including protocol for data
2. Packet Switching – transmission of data in packets of fixed length across a transfer.
shared network. Each packet is individually addressed, in order that the
packet switches can route each packet over the most appropriate and 802.3 - defines CSMA/CD Access Method and Physical Layer specifications.
available circuit. 802.4 - Token-Passing Bus Access Method and Physical Layer specifications.
3. Frame Switching (Frame Relay) – supports the transmission of virtually any 802.5 - Token-Passing Ring Access Method and Physical Layer specifications.
computer data stream in its native form.
802.6 - Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) Access Method and Physical Layer
4. Cell Switching (Asynchronous Transfer Mode/ATM) – data is organized into specifications. DQDB (Distributed Queue Dual Bus) is defined.
cells of fixed length, shipped across very high-speed facilities and switched 802.7 - Broadband Technical Advisory Group. Standards for definition of a broadband
through very high speed, specialized switches. cable plant design. Established guidelines for LAN construction within a physical
5. Photonic Switching - will eliminate the requirement for opto-electric facility such as a building.
conversion when connected to a fiber optic transmission system.
802.8 - Fiber Optic Technical Advisory Group. Established to assess The Internet is divided logically into domains. Under the terms of IPv4
impact of fiber optics and to recommend standards. (Internet Protocol version 4), these are identified as a 32-bit portion of the
total address. Addresses follow a standard convention, which is similar to
802.9 - Integrated Voice and Data Networks (ISDN/Isochronous Traffic) user@organization.domain
802.10 - Internetwork Security.
802.11 - Wireless LAN/WLAN. Domain types include the following:
802.12 - High-Speed LANs, Demand Priority Access (e.g., .com = commercial organizations
100VGAnyLAN).
.edu = educational institutions
802.15 - A communications specification that was approved in early
.gov = government agencies
2002 by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Standards
Association (IEEE-SA) for wireless personal area networks (WPANs). .mil = military
802.16 - Broadband Wireless Metropolitan Area Network (WMAN). .net = network access providers
Line Coding – process of converting binary data to a digital To maximize the efficiency of their infrastructure, telephone
signal companies have traditionally multiplexed signals from lower-
bandwidth lines onto higher-bandwidth lines.
Ex. NRZ, RZ, Manchester, AMI
Block coding – provides redundancy to ensure
synchronization and inherent error detection
Ex. 4B/5B, 8B/10B
Scrambling – provides synchronization without increasing
the number of bits.
Ex. B8ZS and HDB3.
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Group - - - 12
Supergroup - - - 5 60
Mastergroup - - 10 50 600
1. Single-bit error – only 1 bit of a given data unit 1. Redundancy – transmitting each character twice.
(such as a byte, character, or packet) is If the same character is not received twice in
changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1. succession, a transmission error has occurred.
2. Burst Error – 2 or more bits in the data unit have 2. Echoplex – receiving device “echoes” the
changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1. received data back to the transmitting device.
3. Exact-count Encoding – the number of binary 1s
in each character is the same.
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4. Parity Checking – appending one or more parity bits to the 1. Symbol Substitution – receiving computer will replace
data set in order to create odd parity or even parity.
faulty symbols
1. Vertical Redundancy Checking (VRC) – adds a parity bit at the end of
each transmitted character 2. Retransmission (ARQ) – resending a message when it is
2. Longitudinal Redundancy Checking (LRC) or Block Checking received in error and the receive terminal automatically
Character (BCC) - adds a “parity bit” at the end of each transmitted calls for retransmission of the entire message.
block or data sets
5. Cyclic Redundancy Checking – uses a unique mathematical 3. Forward Error Correction (FEC) – involves the addition of
polynomial known to both transmitter and receiver. The result redundant information embedded in the data set in order
of that calculation is appended to the block or frame or text that the receiving device can detect errors and correct
as either a 16- or 32-bit value for them without requiring a retransmission.
A 32-bit address that uniquely and universally An IPv6 address consists of 16 bytes (octets); it is
defines the connection of a device to the 128 bits long.
Internet.
IPv6 specifies hexadecimal colon notation.
The address space of IPv4 is 2^32 or
4,294,967,296.
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Unicast – the process of sending a packet from 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255 (10.0.0.0 /8)
one host to an individual host
172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255 (172.16.0.0 /12)
Broadcast – the process of sending a packet from 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255 (192.168.0.0 /16)
one host to all hosts in the network
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