HISTORY   O F   S PECIAL   E DUCATION    

 
The   history   of   Special   Education   begins   with   the   18th  century.   Before   that   time,   persons   with  
disabilities  were  not  taken  in  consideration,  and  were  often  mistaken  as  being  possessed  by  evil  powers,  
cursed,  or  simply  stupid  (Blackhurst  13,  14).  With  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century,  and  also  of  the  period  
known  as  the  Enlightenment,  ideas  about  education  started  to  arise.    
                       The   Enlightenment   period   influenced   Special   Education   is   many   ways.   To   start,   Jean   Jacques  
Rousseau   (1712-­‐1778)   publishes   his  Emile,   a   book   about   the   education   of   children.   According   to  
Rousseau,  learning  should  happen  in  agreement  with  a  child’s  cognitive  speed,  with  minimal  outer  stimuli  
from  society,  which  is  known  for  praising  social  roles,  and  wealth.  This  idea  of  teaching  children  in  their  
own  pace  set  the  ground  for  many  educators  (Johnston).    
Charles  Michel  L’Epeé  was  one  of  the  pioneers  in  the  18th  century  in  what  concerns  the  education  
of  the  disabled.  In  1760  he  founded  the  first  public  school  for  people  with  disabilities  in  France.  He  was  
concerned   with   language   and   phonetics   being   taught   in   a   different   way   as   a   tool   for   the   education   of   deaf  
and  blind  students.  Following  L’Epeé’s  path,  Valentin  Haüy  founded  the  “Institution  Nationale  des  Jeunes  
Aveugles”  in  1784,  which  is  recognized  as  the  first  school  in  the  world  for  the  education  of  blind  people.  
Haüy   was   inspired   by   many   people:   Rousseau,   L’Epeé,   and   Madame   Von   Paradis,   who   was   blind,   and  
helped   him   develop   the   methods   used   in   the   school.   Using   these   methods,   Haüy   was   able   to   educate   a  
blind  boy  who  later  became  a  teacher  in  the  same  school  (Safford  38-­‐46).  Another  person  who  was  also  
concerned  with  the  education  of  people  with  special  needs,  Jean  Marc  Gaspard  Itard  was  concerned  with  
different  methods  in  order  to  educate  disabled  children.  He  tried  to  educate  a  boy,  who  was  found  in  the  
wild,  for  about  five  years.  With  no  actual  improvements,  Itard  gave  up  on  the  attempt  and  let  the  boy  go  
back   to   his   wild   life.   Still,   his   researches   and   efforts   were   of   great   influence   on   the   works   of   special  
educators,  especially  in  the  United  States.    
On   the   19th  century   special   education   became   more   palpable,   with   efforts   from   people   such   as  
Rev.   Thomas   Gallaudet,   and   Samuel   Howe   in   taking   action   on   the   matter   of   special   education.  
In  Hartford,  Connecticut,   Rev.   Thomas   Gallaudet   implemented   the   first   school   for   the   deaf   in   1817.   The  
school   was   called   American   Asylum   for   the   Education   of   the   Deaf   and   Dumb,   and   it   is   nowadays  
the  American  School  for  the  Deaf.  Another  person  of  equal  importance  in  the  history  of  special  education  
is  Samuel  Gridley  Howe.  Howe  was  interested  in  the  education  of  blind  students,  and  in  1829  founded  the  
first   school   for   blind   children   in   the  United   States.   The   school   nowadays   is   called   the  PerkinsSchool  for  
the  blind,  and  it  is  located  in  Massachusetts.  Howe  also  was  the  founder  of  the  Massachusetts  School  for  
Idiotic   and   Feebleminded   children   in   1848.   Following   the   example   of   these   two   people,   other   states  
started  opening  institutions  that  aim  to  educate  disabled  children.  In  1851  a  school  opened  in  Albany;  in  
1853   the  PennsylvaniaTraining   School  fro   Feebleminded   Children   opened   as   well;   in  
1857,  Ohio  State  opened   the   Institution   of   the   Feebleminded   Youth;   and   in   1858   the   first   school   for  
retarded   children   was   open   in  Connecticut  (Kanner   63,   64).   With   special   education   becoming   more  
important   through   the   years,   in   1876   the   Association   of   Medical   Officers   of   American   Institutions   for  
Idiotic   and   Feebleminded   Persons   was   found,   and   in   1878   two   more   special   education   classes   opened  
in  Cleveland.    
Changes  were  made  also  in  what  concerns  the  law  of  implementing  special  education  in  schools.  
In  1890  it  was  the  states’  responsibility  to  provide  institutions  for  the  special  children,  and  in  1897  the  
Department  of  Special  Education  was  created  by  the  National  Education  Association.    
The   20th  century   is   characterized   by   the   implementation   of   laws   to   assure   that   people   with  
disabilities  would  have  their  rights  to  education  guaranteed.  In  1906,  the  New  York  University  included  in  
the  courses  offered  by  the  school  a  training  program  for  special  education  teachers.  In  1908  the  French  
researcher   Alfred   Binet,   along   with   Theodore   Simon,   created   the   intelligence   scale:   a   standardized  
intelligence   test   in   order   to   identify   mentally   retarded   children.   Later   on,   the   test   would   be   applied   to   the  
American   standards,   and   the   idea   of   Intelligence   Quotient   was   introduced   in   1916   by   Lewis   Terman,  
renaming   the   test   from   Simon-­‐Binet   scale   to   Stanford-­‐Binet   scale.   Continuing   the   wave   of  
implementations,  in  1918  all  states  recognized  that  all  citizens  have  the  right  to  education,  and  in  1922  
the   Council   for   Exceptional   Children   (CEC)   was   founded   by   Elizabeth   Farrell.   This   Council   plays   an  
important   role   in   providing   laws   to   protect   those   with   disabilities.   In   1931   the   United   States   Office   of  
Education  established  a  section  on  the  exceptional  children,  and  in  1936  blind  persons  are  included  in  the  
Social  Security  Act  of  1935.  Despite  some  efforts,  the  attention  from  special  educational  issues  was  shifted  
to   other   concerns   such   as   the   Great   Depression   and   the   Second   World   War.   However,   in   the   1950s   the  
number   of   changes   made   in   the   governmental   area   was   significant   (Winzer   373-­‐375).   To   start,   in   1950  
the  National  Association  for  Retarded  Children  (NARC)  was  founded  by  parents  of  children  with  mental  
  

disabilities.   This   association   ignited   the   idea   of   public   law   94-­‐142,   by   asking   that   every   mentally   retarded  
child  has  the  right  to  education,  and  that  such  would  occur  depending  on  each  person’s  needs.  In  1954,  in  
the  case  of  Brown  vs.  Board  of  Education,  it  was  stated  by  the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States  that  all  
children  have  the  right  to  education  in  equal  terms.  Finally,  in  1958,  President  Eisenhower  signed  public  
law   85-­‐926,   which   provided   grants   to   colleges   and   universities   to   make   sure   that   courses   would   be  
offered  to  prepare  teachers  for  special  education.  After  this,  a  snowball  effect  ran  through  the  sixties  and  
seventies.      
In   1965,   the   Elementary   and   Secondary   Education   Act   was   passed,   and   it   provided   funds   for  
schools  in  order  to  have  a  proper  environment  for  children  with  disabilities.  In  1966  it  was  the  turn  of  the  
Education   of   Handicapped   Act,   which   was   passed   in   order   to   grant   funds   to   schools   to   train   teachers,   but  
also  required  a  Bureau  of  Education  for  the  Handicapped  in  the  Office  of  Education.  
In  the  early  seventies  two  important  cases  started  a  revolution  in  Special  Education:  the  case  of  
the   Pennsylvania   Association   for   Retarded   Children   vs.  Commonwealth  of  Pennsylvania  in   1971,   and   in  
1972   the   case   of   Mills   vs.   District   of   Columbia   Board   of   Education.   The   first   case   fought   for   the   right   of  
children  with  disabilities  to  a  free  and  appropriate  public  education,  and  the  second  served  to  reinforce  
the  ideas  of  the  previous.  Both  cases  though  required  that  children  and  their  families  had  the  right  to  a  
procedural  due  process  when  it  comes  to  protecting  the  rights  of  those  with  disabilities.  After  these  two  
cases,  thirty  six  other  cases  followed  (Ballard  2,  3).  
The   ideas   to   protect   children   with   disabilities,   and   to   guaranteed   education   for   such   were  
becoming  overwhelming,  and  it  was  coming  time  to  put  all  those  small  accounts  in  one  effective  law.  In  
1973,  the  Rehabilitation  Act  was  passed  and  assured  the  rights  of  people  with  disabilities  in  respect  to  a  
non-­‐discriminative   environment   in   education,   employment,   and   housing.   It   is   though,   in   1975   that   the  
sum  of  all  small  acts  towards  the  education  of  handicapped  children  emerged  in  one  law:  Public  Law  94-­‐
142.   This   law   guarantees   that   people   with   disabilities   have   the   right   to   free   and   appropriate   public  
education,   in   a   least   restrictive   environment;   also,   it   required   that   each   individual   had   his   or   her   own  
educational  plan  (IEP),  and  that  all  people  with  disabilities  had  the  right  to  a  fair  due  process.    
In   1990   after   being   revised,   Public   Law   94-­‐142   became   known   as   IDEA,   Individual   with  
Disabilities   Education   Act,   and   has   been   revised   again   in   1997.   Also   in   1990,   the   American   with  
Disabilities  Act  was  passed  guaranteeing  that  implementation  would  be  made  to  people  with  disabilities  
in  the  work  environment,  as  well  as  in  public  transportation,  and  telecommunications.  
 
 
A  Brief  History    
In   January   of   1800,   a   young   boy   wandered   out   of   the   woods   near  Saint-­‐Sernin-­‐sur-­‐Rance,  
France.   The   villagers   took   him   in,   but   the   boy   had   obviously   spent   most   of   his   life   alone   in   the  
wilderness.  He  had  no  speech  skills  and  was,  predictably,  completely  unable  to  communicate  with  or  
make  sense  of  the  civilization  he  had  found  himself  in.  Eventually,  the  care  and  keeping  of  the  boy  
was   turned   over   to   a   young   physician   named   Jean-­‐Marc   Gaspard   Itard,   who   called   the   child   Victor  
(Wikipedia,  "Victor  of  Aveyron").  For  the  next  five  years,  Itard  diligently  worked  with  Victor,  trying  
to   teach   him   to   speak.   He   was   only   able   to   teach   the   boy   basic   social   and   self-­‐help   skills,   and  
therefore   considered   the   project   a   failure.   Little   did   Itard   know   that   this   groundbreaking   work  
would  lead  to  his  legacy  as  "The  Father  of  Special  Education."  (Gargiulo  16-­‐17)  

In  the  mid-­‐nineteenth  century,  Edouard  Seguin,  a  student  of  Itard,  also  pushed  forward  the  
field  of  Special  Education.  In  1839,  Seguin  opened  the  first  school  for  children  with  special  needs.  He  
pioneered   the   idea   that   the   children   in   his   care   were   neither   diseased   or   abnormal,   but   simply  
dealing   with   mental   and   developmental   delays.   His   methods   of   therapy   and   education,   centered  
around   sensory   training,   gained   worldwide   approval   and   are   still   considered   valid   today.  
(britannica.com)  

Up   until   the   1950's,   children   with   disabilities   were   commonly   and   openly   excluded   from  
educational   settings.   In   that   mindset,   an   education   was   a   privilege,   and   several   instances   exist   of  
school  boards  and  educators  refusing  to  teach  a  disabled  child  for  fear  of  distracting  the  other  pupils  
or   consuming   too   much   of   the   teacher's   time.  
In   1954,   the   first   bit   of   legislation   to   stop   such   cruelty   was   passed   in   the   case  Brown   v.   Board   of  
Education  of  Topeka,  Kansas.  
  

Brown  v.  Board  of  Education  of  Topeka,  Kansas  

In   this   famous   case,   the   Supreme   Court   ruled   that   education   is   a   fundamental  
function  of  the  government  and  that  everyone  has  equal  rights  to  reap  its  benefits.  The  
Court   found   that   racial   segregation   of   schools   is   in   direct   violation   of   the   Fourteenth  
Amendment   to   the   Constitution.   This   case   was   centered   around   racially   segregated  
schools,   but   it   also   spelled   change   for   children   with   disabilities.   If   a   child   cannot   be  
discriminated  against  because  he  or  she  is  black,  then  a  child  cannot  be  discriminated  
against   because   he   or   she   has   a   disability.   This   bit   of   legislation   opened   the   door   for  
millions  of  exceptional  children  across  America.  
In  the  same  vein  as  Brown  v.  Board  of  Education,  the  Civil  Rights  movement  of  the  
1960's   helped   cement   disabled   childrens'   right   to   be   in   a   classroom.   People   across  
America  fought  for  the  right  to  be  seen  as  a  valuable,  equal  citizen,  and  the  impact  was  
huge.  At  the  same  time  that  Dr.  King  was  leading  crowds  through  the  streets  of  Selma,  
Alabama,   individuals   across   the   country   were   fighting   for   the   rights   of   the  
disabled.  (Gargiulo  44)    

 
HISTORY   O F   S PECIAL   E DUCATION   L AWS  
 
Students   with   disabilities   have   only   had   a   legally   protected   right   to   attend   public   school   since   the  
passing   of    The   Education   for   All   Handicapped   Children   Act   (PL   94-­‐142)  in   1975.   Here   is   a   look   at  
some  of  the  key  legislation  that  set  the  stage  for  the  special  education  system  as  we  know  it  today.  
 
(1975):   The   Education   for   All   Handicapped   Children   Act   (EHA)   gave   children   with   disabilities  
specific   legal   rights   to   an   education.  Until   this   time,   many   students   with   disabilities   were   not  
allowed  to  attend  school  at  all.  The  act  contained  a  provision  stating  that    students  with  disabilities  
should   be   placed   in  least   restrictive   environment  (LRE)   in   order   to   allow   the   maximum   possible  
opportunity  to  interact  with  non-­‐disabled  peers.  Separate  schooling  may  only  occur  when  the  nature  
or   severity   of   the   disability   is   such   that   instructional   goals   cannot   be   achieved   in   the   regular  
classroom.   The   law   also   contained   a   due   process   clause   that   guarantees   an   impartial   hearing   to  
resolve  conflicts  between  the  parents  of  disabled  children  and  the  school  system.  
 
In   the   1970s   and   1980s,   due   to   strong   parent   advocacy,   students   with   “mild   disabilities”   were  
mainstreamed  with  more  frequency  into  regular  classrooms  (Causton  &  Tracy-­‐Bronson,  2015).  

(1990):   The   EHA   was   reformulated   as   the   Individuals   with   Disabilities   Education   Act  
(IDEA).  IDEA   elaborated   on   the   inclusion   of   children   with   disabilities   into   regular   classes   and   also  
focused   on   the   rights   of   parents   to   be   involved   in   the   education   decisions   affecting   their   children.  
IDEA   required   that   an  Individualized   Education   Program  (IEP)   be   designed   with   parental   approval  
to  meet  the  needs  of  every  child  with  a  disability.  
 
(1990):   After   IDEA   and   decades   of   campaigning   and   lobbying,   the   Americans   with   Disabilities  
Act   (ADA)   was   passed.  This   ensured   the   equal   treatment   and   equal   access   of   people   with  
disabilities  to  employment  opportunities  and  to  public  accommodations.  The  ADA  was  intended  to  
prohibit  discrimination  on  the  basis  of  disability  in  employment,  services  rendered  by  state  and  local  
governments,  places  of  public  accommodation,  transportation,  and  telecommunications  services.  
 
(1997):  IDEA  was  reauthorized  in  1997.  In  addition  to  upholding  the  rights  outlined  in  previous  
legislation.   The   act    emphasized   academic   outcomes   for   students   with   disabilities.   This   involved  
raising   expectations   for   students,   supporting   students   who   follow   the   general   curriculum,  
supporting   parents,   and   helping   states   determine   appropriate   outcomes.   With   the   focus   on  
outcomes,  school-­‐to-­‐work  transition  planning  gained  new  importance.  
  

 
Inclusive  education  has  become  more  accepted  in  the  education  community  since  2000.     The  
reauthorization   of   IDEA   in   2004   Congress   reiterated   that   special   education   and   related   services  
should   be   designed   to   meet   students’   unique   needs.”   In   addition,   they   stated   that   students   with  
disabilities  should  have  “access  to  the  general  education  curriculum  in  the  regular  classroom,  to  the  
maximum  extent  possible.”  
 
The   use   of     “scientific,   research-­‐based   interventions,”   known   as     Response   to  
Intervention  (RTI)   also   began   because   of   the   changes   in   the   2004   law.  These   interventions,  
which   are   started   in   general   education   before   students   are   given   special   education   services,   are  
called  “multitiered  systems  of  support”  (MTSS)  in  ESSA.  
 
IDEA   should   have   been   reauthorized   in   2009  but   was   delayed   because   of   the   changes   to   No  
Child  Left  Behind  (NCLB),  now  the  Every  Student  Succeeds  Act  (ESSA).  It  remains  to  be  seen  if  
IDEA   and   ESSA   can   coexist   in   an   era   of   deregulation,   school   vouchers,   and   local   control.   We   can   only  
hope  that  the  gains  we  have  made  for  students  with  disabilities  will  continue     long  into  our  nation’s  
future.  
 
The  No  Child  Left  Behind  (NCLB).  NCLB  ensures  that  all  the  students  regardless  of  their  disabilities  
gain   the   education   that   they   wish   to   pursue.   The   laws   and   the   changing   perceptive   of   school  
managements   modified   the   structure   and   purpose   of   special   education   services.   The   laws  
proclaimed  that  students  with  disabilities  should  gain  access  to  the  basic  education  program  of  study  
in  the  usual  classroom  and  also  to  the  utmost  extent  possible  like  any  other  student.  
What  Is  Special  Education?  
 
Do   you   know   what   Special   Education   is?   In   general,   Special   Education   is   a   type   of   learning  
offered   to   students   with   additional   needs.   Special   Education   is   a   blessing   to   students   with  
mental  challenges  and  learning  disabilities.  It  is  an  education  or  teaching  method  designed  for  
students   who   require   additional   assistance   with   their   studies.   Special   Education   focuses   on  
instruction   that   is   intended   to   satisfy   the   requirements   of   students   with   disabilities   and   it   helps  
students  with  disabilities  to  learn  very  similar  skills  and  information  as  other  students.  Special  
Education   is   a   term   that   denotes   special   needs,   and   it   also   involves   education   for   people   with  
special  needs.  

The  Viewpoint  of  Special  Education  

A   lot   of   people   have   doubts   on   the   idea   of   special   education.   They   consider   that   it   is   a   poor  
notion   but   their   thinking   is   not   right   because   it   is   essential   for   people   who   need   special  
attention  in  their  education.  The  general  idea  behind  special  education  is  that  all  people  should  
get   an   education,   and   get   a   chance   to   learn   whether   they   are   disabled   or   not.   Students   with  
disabilities   may   not   be   able   to   study   well   if   they   participate   in   the   same   education   that   other  
students   obtain.   So,   it   is   always   a   good   idea   to   send   students   to   a   place   where   they   get   full  
integration  and  participation  in  education.  Here  comes  the  importance  of  special  education.  

In   general,   the   disabilities   can   be   physical,   emotional,   and   behavioral.   Some   of   the   general  
special   needs   comprise   physical   disabilities,   learning   disabilities,   children   with   multiple  
disabilities,  emotional  and  behavioral  disorders,  communication  disorders    and  developmental  
disabilities.   Students   with   disabilities   or   students   who   need   special   attention   in   their   learning  
are   expected   to   profit   from   extra   educational   services.   Special   education   is   used   to   present  
students  with  disabilities  extra  educational  services  including  the  use  of  technology,  dissimilar  
approaches   to   teaching,   an   explicitly   modified   teaching   space   and   many   more.   In   special  
education   settings,   the   educators   has   to   change   teaching   techniques   and   environment   to   meet  
the  students’  special  needs.  (Ref:  Copyright  ©  2013-­‐2018  Special  Education  Guide.)  

 
  

 
Special  Education  Glossary  
Accommodations   Practices  &  procedures  that  allow  students  with  disabilities  to  learn  
In   Texas,   the   name   for   the   IEP   Team   made   up   of   a   student's   parents   and   school   staff   who  
Admission,   Review,  meet   at   least   annually   to:   decide   whether   or   not   the   student   has   an   eligible   disability,  
and  Dismissal  (ARD)   determine   what   special   education   and   related   services   will   be   provided,   and  develop   an  
individual  education  program  (IEP).  
Assistive   Technology  Any   item,   piece   of   equipment,   or   product   system   that   is   used   to   increase,   maintain,   or  
(AT)   improve  the  functional  capabilities  of  a  child  with  a  disability  
Behavior   Intervention  
Written  plan  to  address  behavioral  concerns  impeding  the  child's  learning  or  that  of  others  
Plan  (BIP)  
Curriculum-­‐Based   A   method   teachers   use   to   find   out   how   students   are   progressing   in   basic   academic   areas  
Measurement  (CBM)   such  as  math,  reading,  writing,  and  spelling.  
A   formal   legal   procedure   used   to   solve   disagreements   regarding   the   education   of   students  
Due  process  
who  receive  special  education  supports  and  services  
The  collection  of  information  to  determine  whether  a  child  is  a  child  with  a  disability,  and  to  
Evaluation  
determine  the  educational  needs  of  the  child  
Full   and   Individual  
A  comprehensive  diagnostic  study  of  a  student  
Evaluation  (FIE)  
Full   continuum   of  
Fully  supported  inclusion  with  modifications  for  the  individual  needs  of  the  child  
Services  
Functional   Behavioral  A   process   for   collecting   information   that   will   help   determine   the   underlying   purpose   or  
Assessment  (FBA)   motivation  of  a  student's  challenging  behavior  
Free   Appropriate  
Special   education   and   related   services   that   have   been   provided   at   public   expense,   under  
Public   Education  
public  supervision  and  direction  and  without  charge  
(FAPE)  
Individualized  
A  written  statement  for  each  child  with  a  disability  that  is  developed,  reviewed  and  revised  
Education   Program  
by  the  ARD  committee,  of  which  parents  are  active  members  
(IEP)  
Individualized   Family  A   written   plan   for   infants   and   toddlers   with   disabilities,   aged   birth   to   three,   and   their  
Service  Plan  (IFSP)   families  
To  the  maximum  extent  appropriate,  children  with  disabilities,  including  children  in  public  
Least   Restrictive  
or   private   institutions   or   other   care   facilities,   are   educated   with   children   who   are   not  
Environment  (LRE)  
disabled  
Mainstreaming   Integration  of  children  in  special  education  into  conventional  classes  and  school  activities  
A  change  in  what  the  student  is  expected  to  learn  that  is  different  from  the  general  education  
Modifications  
curriculum  
One  of  the  available  options  used  for  resolving  disagreements  about  a  child's  identification,  
Mediation   evaluation,  educational  placement  and  the  provision  of  a  free  appropriate  public  education  
(FAPE).    
A   statement   in   the   individualized   education   program   (IEP)   of   the   child's   present   levels   of  
Present   Level   of  
academic   achievement   and   functional   performance,   including   how   the   child's   disability  
Performance  
affects  the  child's  involvement  and  progress  in  the  general  education  curriculum  
A   document   that   explains   the   parent's   legal   rights   under   state   law   and   the   IDEA   to   be  
Procedural  Safeguards  
involved  in  and  make  decisions  about  their  child's  education  
An   early   intervention   model   for   addressing   the   learning   needs   of   all   students   through   a  
continuum   of   services   which   provide:   high   quality   instruction   &   intervention   strategies  
Response-­‐to-­‐
aligned   with   individual   student   need;   frequent   monitoring   of   student   progress;   data-­‐based  
Intervention  
school   improvement;   and   the   application   of   student   response   date   to   important   educational  
decisions  
Aids,   services,   and   other   supports   that   are   provided   in   regular   education   classes   or   other  
Supplementary   Aids  
education-­‐related   settings   to   enable   children   with   disabilities   to   be   educated   with   non-­‐
and  Services  
disabled  children  to  the  maximum  extent  appropriate  
Transition  Services   A  coordinated  set  of  activities  that  includes  moving  from  one  life  stage  to  another  
A   set   of   services   offered   to   individuals   with   disabilities   designed   to   enable   participants   to  
Vocational  
attain  skills,  resources,  and  expectations  needed  to  compete  in  the  interview  process,  get  a  
Rehabilitation  (VR)  
job,  and  keep  a  job  
 
  

References:  

Ballard,  J.,  Ramirez,  B.  A.,  &  Weintraub,  F.  J.  Special  Education  in  America:  Its  Legal  and  Governmental  Foundations  Reston,  VA:  The  
Council  for  Exceptional  Children  1982.    

Blackhurst,   A.   E.   &   Berdine,   W.   H.  An   Introduction   to   Special   Education  (3rd   ed.).  New   York,  NY:  HarperCollins  College  Publishers  
1993.    

Johnston,   I.  Introduction   to   Rousseau's   Emile  October,   1999   Malaspino   University-­‐College,   Nanaimo.   Oct.   22   2005  
<http://www.mala.bc.ca/~johnstoi/introser/rousseau.htm>  

"Edouard   Seguin."   Encyclopedia   Britannica   Online.   2012.   Encyclopedia   Britannica.   11           September   2012.  
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/53275/Edouard-­‐              Seguin>  

Gargiulo,  Richard  M.  Special  Education  in  Contemporary  Society,  An  Introduction  to          Exceptionality.  Media  Edition.  Thousand  Oaks,  
California:  Sage,  2012.  

"Victor   of   Aveyron."   Wikipedia:   The   Free   Encyclopedia.   2012.   11   September                                           2102.  

<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_of_Aveyron>