LEADERSHIP

Leader
￮ From the 1300’s Middle –
English word “leden,”
meaning “to go before”. It
first appeared in 1125 coming
from the old English word
“laeden” meaning “cause to
go with one.”
Leader
￮ The ability to influence a
group toward the
achievement of a vision or
set of goals.
Leadership
￮ Set of behaviors enacted by
the leader, series of
functions needed to be
carried out, or the results of
both.
Leader vs Manager
Manager
An individual who engages in
traditional administrative
behaviors such as:
 Planning
 Organizing work
 Controlling
Leader
A leader not only fulfills the
required admin functions but
also inspires and motivates
employees to strive for
excellence, and facilitates
organizational change.
CHARACTERISTICS OF
LEADERS:

￮ What makes a
person a leader?

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1. Trait Theories of Leadership
￮ Theories that consider personal qualities and characteristics
that differentiate leaders from non-leaders.
￮ Based on recent research literature, there are two
conclusions about personality traits and leadership:
￮ Traits can predict leadership.
￮ Traits do a better job in predicting the emergence of leaders
and the appearance of leadership than in distinguishing
between effective and ineffective leaders.
￮ The fact that an individual exhibits the right traits and others
consider that person a leader does not necessarily mean
he/she will be effective. 7
Personality Traits and Leadership
￮ What constitutes a great leader?
￮ In general, individuals who like being around people and who
are able to assert themselves (extraverted), disciplined, and
able to keep commitments they make (conscientious), and
creative and flexible (open) have an apparent advantage
when it comes to leadership.
￮

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Personality Traits and Leadership
A. Big 5 Traits

￮ Researchers have consistently found extraversion to be the

most predictive trait of effective leadership. However,
extraversion sometimes relates more to the way leaders
emerge than to their effectiveness.
￮ Assertiveness: high- less effective; mod. high – effective
￮ Conscientiousness and Openness to experience – may
predict leadership especially leader effectiveness.
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Personality Traits and Leadership
￮ B. Dark Side Traits
1. Machiavellianism * Based on studies, a higher
score on dark side and
2. Narcissism emotional stability can
contribute to leadership
3. Psychopathy emergence.

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Personality Traits and Leadership
Emotional Intelligence and Leadership
￮ A leader who effectively displays and

manages emotions will find it easier to

influence the feelings of followers by
expressing genuine sympathy and
enthusiasm for good performance.
￮ High Emotional Intelligence – emerge as

leaders 11
Personality Traits and Leadership
2. Behavioral Theories
￮ Trait theories help us predict leadership, but they don’t fully help us
explain leadership.
￮ Trait theories is used as a basis for selecting the right people for
leadership; behavioral theories predict who can be trained to be
leaders.
￮ Behavioral theories will help us define the parameters of leadership.

￮ Ohio State Studies – the most comprehensive behavioral theories of

leadership narrowed the thousand dimensions into two dimensions:
initiating structure and consideration structure. 12
Personality Traits and Leadership
1. Initiating Structure (Task orientation)
￮ The extent to which a leader is likely to define and structure
his/her role and those of employees in the search for goal
attainment.
￮ A leader high in Initiating Structure is someone who:
￮ A. assigns followers’ particular tasks
￮ B. sets definite standards of performance
￮ C. emphasizes deadlines

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Personality Traits and Leadership

￮ According to a review of leadership literature, initiating

structure is more strongly related to higher levels of group
and organization productivity, and to more positive
performance evaluations.
￮
2. Consideration (relationship orientation)
￮ The extent to which a person’s job relationships are
characterized by mutual trust, respect for employees’ ideas,
and regard for their feelings.
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Personality Traits and Leadership
￮ Machiavellianism Leadership Style -
characterized by a leadership style
that manifests a deceitful
interpersonal style, a cynical disregard
for morality, a lack of empathy, and a
focus on self-interest and personal
gain.
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3. Contingency Theories
￮ - States that a leader’s effectiveness is contingent upon with
how his or her leadership style matches to the situation. That
is, the leader must find out what kind of leadership style and
situation he or she thrives in.
￮
A. Fiedler Model – proposes that group performance depends on
the proper match between the leader’s style and the degree to
which the situation gives the leader control.
￮ - Leadership style is assumed to be permanent.
￮ - A leader is effective when his or her style of leadership fits
with the situation. 16
3. Contingency Theories
B. Situational Leadership Theory
￮ - Focuses on the followers.
￮ - Successful leadership depends on selecting the right
leadership style contingent on the followers’ readiness, the
extent to which followers are willing and be able to
accomplish a specific task.
C. Path-Goal Theory
￮ - Suggests that it’s the leaders’ job to provide followers with
information, support or other resources necessary to achieve
goals.
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3. Contingency Theories
D. Leader-Participation Model
￮ - relates leadership behavior to subordinate participation in
decision-making.
￮ - provides a set of rules to determine the form and amount of
participative decision making in different situations.

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CONTEMPORARY
THEORIES OF
LEADERSHIP
iNTRODUCTiON
Leaders are important – to organizations and
employees. The understanding of leadership
is a constantly evolving science.
Contemporary theories have built upon the
foundation we have just established to
discover unique ways leader emerge,
influence, and guide their employees and
organizations.

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 Leader –
1 Member
Exchange
(LMX)
Theory
Leader – Member
Exchange (LMX) Theory
￮ A theory that supports leaders’ creation of in-
groups and out-groups.
￮ Subordinates with in-group status will likely
have higher performance ratings, less
turnover, and greater job satisfaction.

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2
Charismatic
Leadership
Charismatic Leadership

￮ Max Weber: defined Charisma (from the Greek for

“gift”) as a certain quality of an individual
personality, by virtue of which he or she is set
apart from ordinary people and treated as
endowed with supernatural.
￮ A leadership theory that states that followers
make attributions of heroic or extraordinary
leadership abilities when they observe certain
behaviors.
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Qualities of Charismatic Leaders
1. Vision and articulation – expressed as an idealized
goal
2. Personal Risk – self-sacrifice
3. Sensitivity to follower needs – responsive to
followers’ needs and feelings
4. Unconventional behavior – engages in behavior
that are perceived as novel and counter to norms.
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3 Transactional
and
Transformati
onal
Leadership
Transactional Leaders
￮ Leaders who guide their
followers toward
established goals by
clarifying role and task
requirements.
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Characteristics of
Transactional Leaders
1. Contingent reward – contracts exchange of
rewards for effort, promises rewards for good
performance, recognizes accomplishments.
2. Management by exception (active) – watches
and searches for deviations from rules and
standards, takes corrective action.
3. Management by exception (passive) – intervenes
only if standards are not met.
4. Laissez-Faire – abdicates responsibilities, avoids
making decisions. 28
Transformational Leaders
￮ Leaders who inspire
followers to transcend their
own self-interests and who
are capable of having a
profound and extraordinary
effect on followers.
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Characteristics of
Transformational Leaders
1. Idealized Influence – provides vision and sense of
mission, instills pride, gains respect and trust.
2. Inspirational Motivation – communicates high
expectations, uses symbols to focus efforts,
expresses important purposes in simple ways.
3. Intellectual stimulation – promotes intelligence,
rationality, and careful problem solving.
4. Individualized consideration – gives personal
attention, treats each employee individually,
coaches, advises. 30
31
How Transformational
Leadership Works
1. Greater decentralization of responsibility.
2. Higher propensity to take risks.
3. Compensation plans geared toward long-term
results.
4. Positive personal control among workers, which
increased their creativity at work.

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RESPONSIBLE
LEADERSHIP
iNTRODUCTiON
￮ Although theories have increased our
understanding of effective leadership, they
do not explicitly deal with the roles of ethics
and trust, which are also essential.
￮ We will look into contemporary concepts that
explicitly address the role of leaders in
creating ethical organizations.

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1
AUTHENTIC
LEADERSHIP
Authentic Leadership
￮ Leaders who know who they are, know what
they believe in and value, and act on those
values and beliefs openly and candidly. Their
followers consider them to be ethical people.
￮ The primary quality produced by authentic
leadership is trust.
￮ Authentic leaders share information,
encourage open communication, and stick
to their ideals.

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Authentic Leadership
￮ Related to this behavior is the
concept of humility. Research shows
that leaders who model humility
help followers to understand the
growth process for their own
development.

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2
ETHICAL
LEADERSHIP
Ethical Leadership
￮ Leadership is not value-free. In assessing its
effectiveness, we need to address the means
a leader uses to achieve its goals as well as
the content of those goals.
￮ Ethical top leadership influences not only
direct followers, but all the way down the
command structure as well, because top
leaders create an ethical culture and expect
lower-level leaders to behave along ethical
guidelines.
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3
SERVANT
LEADERSHIP
Servant Leadership
￮ A leadership style marked by going beyond
the leader’s own self-interest and instead
focusing on opportunities to help followers
grow and develop.
￮ Characteristic behaviors include listening,
emphathizing, persuading, accepting
stewardship, and actively developing
followers’ potential.

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 IMPLICATIONS OF
LEADERSHIP THEORIES
TO HUMAN BEHAVIOR
IN ORGANIZATIONS
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iMPLiCATiONS
￮ For maximum leadership effectiveness,
ensure that your preferences on the initiating
structure and consideration dimensions are
a match for your work dynamics and culture.
￮ Hire candidates who exhibit transformational
leadership qualities and who have
demonstrated success in working through
others to meet long-term vision.

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iMPLiCATiONS
￮ Personality tests can reveal candidates
higher in extraversion, conscientiousness, and
openness, which may indicate leadership
readiness.
￮ Hire candidates whom you believe are
ethical and trustworthy for management
roles and train current managers in your
organization’s ethical standards in order to
increase leadership effectiveness.

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iMPLiCATiONS
￮ Seek to develop trusting relationships with
followers because, as organizations have
become less stable and predictable, strong
bonds of trust are replacing bureaucratic
rules in defining expectations and
relationships.
￮ Consider investing in leadership training such
as formal courses, workshops, and mentoring.

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WORK SCHEDULES

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COMPRESSED WORKWEEKS

￮ More vacations
￮ More time with family
￮ More moonlighting
￮ Less costs
￮ Small increase in
productivity
￮ Great increase in
job satisfaction
￮ Moderate
increase in fatigue
 ￮ Small
reduction in
turnover rates
MOONLIGHTING

￮ It was found out that

moonlighters were
better adjusted and
more active in the
community than non-
moonlighters.
￮ Conflict of interest.
Flexible Work Hours
￮ flexibility in the hours work.

THREE BASIC COMPONENTS:

￮ Bandwidth is the total number of potential hours
available for work each day.
￮ Core hours are those that everyone must work; consist
of the hours during which an organization is busiest
with its outside contacts.
￮ flexible hours are those that remain in the bandwidth
and in which the employee has a choice of working.
Additional

￮ Gliding time, there are no core hours.

Employee can choose her own hours
without advance notice or scheduling.
￮ Flexitour or modified flexitour, the
employee must submit a schedule on a
weekly, biweekly, or monthly basis,
depending on the organization.
PEAK TIME PAY

￮ employees are encouraged to

work only part time but are paid
at a higher hourly rate.
JOB SHARING

￮ It involves two
employees who
share their work
hours.
Stress and
Well-Being
Stress
Perceived psychological
pressure.

Stressors
Significant life events.

Strains
Negative physical and psychological consequences
• Positive Stress (Eustress)
• Negative Stress (Distress)

Optimal level of arousal

or
Inverted-U theory
Type A Personalities Type B Personalities

Achievement striving Relaxed

Impatience Agreeable
time urgency Outgoing
Anger Laid-back
Hostility Better coping mechanisms
Multitasker
Slower to recover after the
stressor is removed
Neurotics
Anxious
Often depressed
Pessimistic and lack hope.
They are more likely to perceive
events as being stressful and more
likely to have negative reactions to
stressful events
Gender and Minority
￮ Many studies suggest that
women have more stress
than men and that
depression is twice as
common among them.
￮ Minorities experienced
more stress than
nonminorities.
￮ The amount of stress you have experienced
throughout your life seems to affect how
you will handle future stress.
￮ Learning new behaviors to handle stress
and working through with person’s feelings
about previous stress.
 PERSONAL
STRESS

RESISTANCE RESENTMENT

FEAR
￮ Job characteristics
Stemmed from the duties and responsibilities
￮ Organizational characteristics

Stemmed from person–organization fit,

organizational rules and policies, supervisory
relationships, organizational change
JOB CHARACTERISTICS
￮ Role conflict occurs when our work expectations
and what we think we should be doing don’t match
up with the work we actually have to do.
￮ Role ambiguity occurs when an individual’s job
duties and performance expectations are not
clearly defined.
￮ Role overload When people feel they lack the skills
or workplace resources to complete a task or the
task cannot be done in the required amount of
time.
 ORGANIZATIONAL STRESSORS
￮ Person/organization fit, refers to how well such
factors as your skills, knowledge, abilities,
expectations, personality, values, and attitudes
match those of the organization.
￮ Change, occurs most often from downsizing and
restructuring.
￮ Relations with others, working with difficult people,
angry customers, and feeling of unjust treatment.
￮ Organizational politics, self-serving behaviors
employees use to increase the probability of
obtaining positive outcomes in organizations.
Stressors in the Physical
Work Environment
￮ Noise
￮ Temperature

It affects employee morale, health,

and perhaps performance
 Other Sources of Stress
￮ Minor frustration is stress we
encounter in our daily lives, and
it might include irritations.
￮ Forecasting develops from
constant worries about the
future, wasting time and energy
on “what ifs?”
￮ Residual stress is stress that is
carried over from previous
stressful situations that we
refuse to “let go.” MESHEKET BES
 Physical Health • Work Related
Psychological
￮ Depression • Illness • Smoking • Absenteeism
￮ Anxiety • Cardiovascula • Drinking • Turnover
￮ Anger r problems • Drug abuse • Lower
￮ Sleep • Headaches productivity
problems
• Joint pain • Workplace
violence
• Be confident—think: “I can do this”
• Be positive
• Be punctual—don’t procrastinate
• Be patient—some things just take time to do
• Believe in yourself—you are unique in this world, and
so are your talents
• Set goals for yourself—then work hard to achieve
them
• Get fun out of life—don’t take yourself too seriously
￮ Exercise
￮ Laughter
￮ Diet
￮ Smoking reduction
￮ Sleep
￮ Circle of Friends
￮ Self-Empowerment
￮ Coping Skills
Organizational
Communication
 TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONAL
COMMUNICATION
￮ Upward communication is communication of
subordinates to superiors or of employees to
managers.

￮ Downward communication process in

organizations has changed greatly over the
years.
UPWARD COMMUNICATION
￮ Serial communication, the message is
relayed from an employee to her
supervisor, who relays it to her supervisor,
who, in turn, relays it to her supervisor, and
so on.
Drawbacks:
1. Content and tone of message
2. MUM Effect (Minimize unpleasant message)

3. Informal communication channels

THINGS THAT FACILITATE
UPWARD COMMUNICATION
￮ Attitude surveys
￮ Focus Groups and Exit Interviews
￮ Suggestion box
￮ Third-Part facilitator
 THINGS THAT FACILITATE
UPWARD DOWNWARD
COMMUNICATION
￮ Bulletin Boards
￮ In-house message networks
￮ Policy Manual
￮ Employee Handbook
￮ Newsletters
￮ Intranet
 BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
￮ The transmission of business-
related information among
employees, management,
and customers.
￮ Memos
￮ Phone calls
￮ Email and voicemail
￮ Business meeting
￮ Office design
 INFORMAL COMMUNICATION
￮ It is a term that can be traced back to the Civil
War, when loosely hung telegraph wires
resembled grapevines. The communication
across these lines was often distorted.
￮ It is common because they provide employees
with information, power, and entertainment
Grapevine
 PEOPLE IN INFORMAL
COMMUNICATION
￮ Isolates were employees who received less
than half of the information
￮ Liaisons were employees who both received
most of the information and passed it on to
others
￮ Dead-enders were those who heard most of
the information but seldom passed it on to
other employees.