Combustion Process in CI and SI Engines

Unit-III
Combustion
1
Outline of the Unit-III
Combustion in CI and SI engines: Introduction, Stages of

combustion, Combustion parameters, Delay period and
Ignition Lag, Turbulence and Swirl, Effects of engine
variables on combustion parameters, Abnormal combustion
in CI and SI engines, Detonation and knocking, Control of
abnormal combustion, Types of combustion chambers.
2
Introduction
 Combustion is a chemical reaction in which certain

elements of the fuel like hydrogen and carbon with oxygen
liberating heat energy and causing an increase in
temperature of the gas.
 The conditions necessary for combustion are the presence

of combustible mixture and some means of initiating the
process.
3
Introduction
 The theory of combustion is a very complex subject and

has been a topic of intensive research for many years.
 In spite of this, not much knowledge is available concerning

the phenomenon of combustion.
4
Homogeneous Mixture
 In spark-ignition engines a nearly homogeneous mixtures

of air and fuel is formed in carburettor where fuel and
oxygen molecules are more or less, uniformly distributed.
 Once the fuel vapour-air mixture is ignited, a flame front

appears and rapidly spreads through the mixture.
 The flame propagation is caused by heat transfer and

diffusion of burning fuel molecules from the combustion
zone to the adjacent layers of unburnt mixture.
5
Homogeneous Mixture
 In a homogeneous mixture with an equivalence ratio, ɸ,

close to 1.0, the flame speed is normally of the order of 40
cm/s.
 However, in a spark-ignition engine the maximum flame

speed is obtained when ɸ is between 1.1 and 1.2, i.e.,
when the mixture is slightly richer than stoichiometric.
6
Heterogeneous Mixture
 In a heterogeneous gas mixture, the rate of combustion is

determined by the velocity of mutual diffusion of fuel vapors
and air and the rate of chemical reaction is of minor
importance.
 In heterogeneous mixture, combustion takes place in

overall lean mixture since, there are always local zones
where ɸ varies between 1.0 and 1.2 corresponding to
maximum rate of chemical reaction.
7
Heterogeneous Mixture
 Ignition starts in this zone and the flame produced helps to

burn the fuel in the adjoining zones where the mixture is
leaner.
 Similarly, combustion in rich zones occurs due to high

temperature produced due to combustion initiated in the
zones where ɸ is 1.0 to 1.2.
8
Combustion in SI Engines
9
Introduction
 In a conventional SI engine, fuel-air mixture is compressed

during the compression stroke.
 Normally, combustion is initiated towards the end of

compression stroke at the spark plug by an electric discharge.
 Following inflammation, a turbulent flame develops,

propagates through the air-fuel premixture until it reaches
combustion chamber walls, then it extinguishes.
10
Stages of combustion in SI engines
11
Sir Ricardo, Known as the father of engine research, describes

the combustion process in a SI engine as consisting of three
stages:
1. Ignition lag
2. Propagation of flame
3. Afterburning
12
13
1. Ignition Lag (A--B)

 It is also known as preparation phase in which growth and
development of a self propagating nucleus of flame takes
place.
 This is a chemical process depending upon both temperature
and pressure, the nature of the fuel and the proportion of the
exhaust residual gas.
 It also depends upon the relationship between the temperature
and the rate of reaction.
14
2. Propagation of flame (B--C)
 It is physical one and concerned with the spread of the flame
throughout the combustion chamber.
 The starting point of the second stage is where first
measurable rise of pressure is seen on the indicator diagram.
 The flame propagates practically at a constant velocity.
 The rate of heat release depends largely on the turbulence
intensity and also on the reaction rate which is dependent on
the mixture composition.
15
 The rate of pressure rise is proportional to the rate of heat

release because combustion chamber volume remains
practically constant during this stage.
16
3. Afterburning (Point C)
 The starting point for this stage is usually taken at the
instant at which the maximum pressure is reached on the
indicator diagram (point c).
 The flame velocity decreases during this stage.
 The rate of combustion becomes low due to lower flame
velocity and reduced flame front surface.
 No pressure rise is seen as expansion stroke starts before
this stage.
17
Flame Front Propagation
 The two important factors which determine the rate of

movement of the flame front across the combustion
chamber are:
1. Reaction rate
2. Transposition rate
 The reaction rate is the result of a purely chemical
combination process in which the flame eats its way into the
unburnt charge.
18
19
 The transposition rate is due to the physical movement of

the flame front relative to the cylinder wall and is also the
result of the pressure differential between the burning gases
and the unburnt gases in the combustion chamber.
 The fig. 12.3 shows the rate of flame propagation. In area I

(A--B), the flame front progresses relatively slowly due to a
low transposition rate and low turbulence.
20
 As the flame leaves the quiescent zone and proceeds into

more turbulent areas (area II) where it consumes a greater
mass of mixture, it progresses more rapidly and at a
constant rate (B--C).
 The volume of unburned charge is very much less towards
the end of flame travel and so the transposition rate again
becomes negligible thereby reducing the flame speed.
 The reaction rate is also reduced again since the flame is
entering a zone (area III) of relatively low turbulence (C--D).
21
Factors affecting the Flame Speed
1. Turbulence
2. Fuel-Air Ratio
3. Temperature and Pressure
4. Compression Ratio
5. Engine Speed
6. Engine Size
22
1. Turbulence
 The flame speed is quite low in non-turbulent mixtures
and increases with increasing turbulence.
2. Fuel-Air Ratio
 The air-fuel ratio has a very significant influence on the
flame speed. The highest flame velocities are obtained
with somewhat richer mixture (point A) as shown in fig.
12.4.
23
24
3. Temperature and Pressure
 Flame speed increases with increase in intake
temperature and pressure.
4. Compression Ratio
 The engines having high compression rations have
higher flame speeds.
5. Engine Speed
 The flame speed increases almost linearly with engine
speed since the increase in engine speed increases the
turbulence in the cylinder.
25
6. Engine Size
 Engine size does not have much effect on the rate of
flame propagation.
 Large engines are designed to operate at low speeds as
time required for complete combustion is more here
because flame has to travel a larger distance.
26
The phenomenon of Knock in SI Engines
 In normal combustion, the flame initiated by the spark

travels across the combustion chamber in a fairly uniform
manner.
 Under certain operating conditions the combustion deviates

from its normal course leading to loss of performance and
possible damage to the engine.
 This type of combustion may be termed as abnormal

combustion (or) knocking combustion. Consequences are:
27
1. Loss of power
2. Recurring preignition
3. Mechanical damage to the engine
28
 In a SI engine combustion is initiated between the spark

plug electrodes and then spreads across the combustible
mixture.
 A definite flame front which separates the fresh mixture from
the products of combustion travels from the spark plug to
the other end of the combustion chamber.
 Heat release due to combustion increases the temperature
and pressure of the burned part of the mixture above those
of the unburned mixture.
29
 In order to effect pressure equalization the burned part of

the mixture will expand and compress the unburned part
adiabatically, thereby, increasing the pressure and
temperature of unburned part further.
 If the temperature of unburned mixture exceeds the self-
ignition temperature of the fuel and remains at or above this
temperature during the ignition lag, spontaneous ignition (or
auto-ignition) occurs at various pin-point locations outside
the combustion envelope. This phenomenon is called
knocking. 30
31
32
Combustion Chambers for SI Engines
33
Introduction
 Combustion chamber is the space enclosed between the
piston head and cylinder head when the piston is at top dead
center position.
 The design of the combustion chamber for an SI engine has
an important influence on the engine performance and its
knocking tendencies.
 It has resulted in the raising of the compression ratio from 4
before the first world war period to 11 in the present times
with special combustion chamber designs and suitable
antiknock fuels.
34
Introduction
 The design involves the shape of the combustion chamber,

the location of spark plug and the location of inlet and
exhaust valves.
 Combustion chambers must be designed carefully keeping

in mind the following general objectives:
1. Smooth Engine Operation
2. High Power Output and Thermal Efficiency
35
Basic Hemi Engine Design
36
Classification of Combustion Chambers
 Depending upon the location of the spark plug, valves and

type of cylinder head, the combustion chambers in SI
engines are of the following shapes:
1. Spherical shape
2. I-shape
3. L-shape
4. T-shape
5. F-shape
37
I-Head
Spherical Shape
T-head F-head 38
L-head
39
40
 In Spherical shape combustion chambers, Inlet and
Exhaust valves are fitted in the cylinder head. Spark plug
may be at the center or at side of the head.
 I-head combustion chambers have overhead valves. The

engines with this type of combustion chamber are used in
high speed vehicles and racing cars.
 T-shape combustion chamber projects around the cylinder

head. The spark is fitted at the top and valves in the sides.
This type of engines have good efficiency.
41
 F-head combustion chamber projects at one side of the

cylinder head. The location of the spark plug and valves is
shown in figure 12.8.
 L-head combustion chambers use side valves.
42
Combustion in CI Engine
43
Introduction
 Combustion in SI engine is quite different from that of an SI
engine.
 Combustion in SI engine is essentially a flame front moving
through a homogeneous mixture while in CI engine it is an
unsteady process occurring simultaneously in many spots in a
very non homogeneous mixture controlled by the fuel
injection.
 Air intake into the cylinder is not throttled, thus engine torque
and power output are controlled by the amount of fuel injected
per cycle.
44
Introduction
 Only air is compressed in the cylinder during compression stroke

and a much higher compression ration (12-24) are used in CI
engines.
 In addition to air swirl and turbulence of the air, a high injection
velocity is needed to spread the fuel throughout the cylinder and
cause it to mix with the air.
 Fuel is injected into the cylinders late in the compression strokes
by one or more injectors located in each cylinders. Injection time
is usually about 20º of crankshaft rotation (15º bTDC and 5º
aTDC).
45
Introduction
46
Effect of A/F Ration on Power Output in CI Engine
47
Stages of Combustion in CI Engine
48
49
The combustion process proceeds by the following stages:
1. Ignition Delay Period (ab):
 Fuel is injected directly into the cylinder towards the end of
the compression stroke.
 The liquid fuel atomizes into small drops and penetrates into
the combustion chamber.
 The fuel vaporizes and mixes with the high-temperature high-
pressure air.
50
2. Period of Rapid Combustion

 It is also called the period of uncontrolled combustion.
 The commencement of the combustion process at the end of
the delay period marks the beginning of the uncontrolled
combustion.
 It leads to rapid pressure rise and sustains until peak pressure
is achieved.
51
 The flame generated spreads throughout the chamber and
ignites the fuel in the chamber.
 The rate of heat release is maximum during this period.
Hence pressure and temperature rises to a peak value.
 The pressure rise depends upon the delay period i.e. Longer
the delay, the more rapid and higher is the pressure.
52
3. Period of Controlled Combustion
 It occurs after the peak pressure is achieved.
 The already established temperature and pressure thereby
results into almost instantaneous vaporization and burning of
the remaining fuel that is then injected into the chamber.
 It depends upon the rate and timing of fuel injection.
 It is assumed to end at maximum cycle temperature.
53
4. Period of After-Burning
 A small portion of fuel remain unburnt, as they fail to form a
combustible mixture during the above stages.
 Those least volatile fuel molecules undergo combustion
during this phase.
 The rate of after-burning depends on the velocity of diffusion
and turbulent mixing of unburnt and partially burnt fuel with
the air.
54
 Reasons include incomplete fuel atomization, poor injection

penetration, improper fuel grade, improper injection timing,
or lack of sufficient air supply.
 The duration of the after-burning phase may correspond to
70-80 degrees of crank travel from TDC.
55
56
Ignition Delay Period
 The fuel does not ignite immediately upon injection into the
combustion chamber.
 There is a definite period of inactivity between the time when
the first droplet of fuel hits the hot air in the combustion
chamber and the time it starts through the actual burning phase.
 This period is known as the ignition delay period. It can be
divided into two parts:
I. Physical delay
II. Chemical delay
57
1. Physical Delay:
 The physical delay is the time between the beginning of
injection and the attainment of chemical reaction
conditions.
 During this period, the fuel atomization, evaporation and
mixing of fuel vapour with cylinder air takes place raising
its temperature to its self ignition temperature.
 It depends upon the type of fuel.
58
1. Physical Delay:
 Good atomization requires high fuel-injection pressure, small
injector hole diameter, optimum fuel viscosity, high cylinder
pressure.
 Rate of vaporization of the fuel droplets depends on droplet
diameter, velocity, fuel volatility, pressure and temperature of
the air.
 It is greatly reduced by using high injection pressures, higher
combustion chamber temperatures and high turbulence to
facilitate breakup of the jet and improving evaporation.
59
2. Chemical Delay:
 During the chemical delay, reactions start slowly and then
accelerate until inflammation or ignition takes place.
 Generally, chemical delay is larger than the physical delay.
 It depends upon the surrounding temperatures and at high
temperatures, the chemical reactions are faster and the physical
delay becomes longer than the chemical delay.
 The ignition lag in SI engine is essentially equivalent to the
chemical delay for the CI engine.
60
Factors affecting the Delay Period
Many design and operating factors affect the delay period. The
important ones are:
 Compression Ratio: Increase in CR increases the

temperature of air. Auto-ignition temperature decreases with
increased density. Both these reduce the delay period(DP)
 Engine Power Output: With an Increase in engine power,

the operating temperature increases. A/F ratio decreases
and DP decrease.
61
 Engine Speed: DP decreases with increasing engine speed

as the temperature and pressure of compressed air rises at
high engine speeds.
 Injection Timing: The temperature and pressure of air at the

beginning of injection are lower for higher injection advance.
The DP increases with increase in injection advance or
longer injection timing. The optimum angle of injection is 20°
BTDC.
62
63
 Atomization of fuel: Higher fuel injection pressures increase

the degree of atomization. The fineness of atomization
reduces the DP due to higher surface volume ration.
 Injection Pressure: Increase in injection pressure reduces

the auto ignition temperature and hence decreases DP.
 Fuel Properties: Low self ignition temperature reduces DP.

Other fuel properties which affect DP are volatility, surface
tension, latent heat and viscosity.
64
 Intake Temperature: High intake temperature increase the air

temperature after compression which reduces DP.
 Engine Size: Large engines operate at lower speeds, thus

increasing the DP in terms of crank angle.
 Cetane No.: Fuels with high cetane no. have lower DP.
 F/A ratio: With increasing F/A ratio, operating temperature

increases and thus DP decreases.
65
 Combustion Chamber Shape: Engines with precombustion

chambers will have low DP.
 Injection Duration: Increase in injection duration results in

higher quantity of fuel injected which reduces DP.
66
The phenomenon of Knock in CI Engine
Abnormal Combustion or Knocking

 Thus, it is seen that the complete combustion in CI engines
may be comprising of four distinct phases i.e. ‘ignition delay’
followed by‘ uncontrolled combustion,’ ‘controlled
combustion’ and ‘after burning’.
 Combustion generally becomes abnormal combustion in CI
engines when the ignition delay is too large resulting into
large uncontrolled combustion and zig-zag pressure rise.
67
The phenomenon of Knock in CI Engine
 Abnormal combustion in CI engines may also be termed as
‘knocking’ in engines and can be felt by excessive
vibrations, excessive noise, excessive heat release, pitting
of cylinder head and piston head etc.
 In order to control the knocking some additives are put in CI
engine fuel so as to reduce its’ self ignition temperature and
accelerate ignition process.
 Also, the combustion chambers are properly designed so as
to have reduced physical and chemical delay.
68
Comparison of Knocking in SI and CI Engines
Parameter SI Engines CI Engines
Occurs at the end of Occurs at the beginning

Timing
combustion of combustion
Auto ignition of end Ignition of accumulated

Major Cause
charge fresh charge
Not possible as only air

Possible as the fuel air
Pre-Ignition is compressed
mixture is compressed
69
Comparison of Knocking in SI and CI Engines
70
Combustion Chambers for CI Engine
71
Introduction
 The most important function of the CI engine combustion

chamber is to provide proper mixing of fuel and air in a short
time.
 In order to achieve this, an organized movement of air called
air swirl is provided to produce high relative velocity between
the fuel droplets and the air.
 Since air swirl or turbulence are necessary for better mixing
which can be controlled by combustion chamber.
72
Introduction
 This makes it necessary to study combustion chamber

design in detail.
 CI engine combustion chambers are classified into two
categories:
1. Direct-Injection (DI) Type
2. Indirect-Injection (IDI) Type
73
 Also called an open combustion chamber in which the

combustion space is essentially a single cavity with little
restriction from one part of the chamber to the other.
 Therefore, no large difference in pressure between parts of
the chamber during the combustion process is seen.
 The fuel is injected directly in this space.
 The injector nozzles used for this type are generally of
multihole type working at relatively high pressure (about 200
bar).
74
 The main advantages of this chamber are:
I. Minimum heat loss during compression because of lower
surface area to volume ration and hence better efficiency.
II. No cold starting problems.
III. Fine atomization because of multihole nozzle.
 Major drawbacks of this chamber are:
I. High fuel injection pressure required and hence complex
design of fuel injection pump.
II. Necessity of accurate metering of fuel by the injection
system, particularly for small engines.
75
 Direct-injection (DI) type are classified further into:
I. Shallow depth chamber
II. Hemispherical chamber
III. Cylindrical chamber
IV. Toroidal chamber
76
77
I. Shallow Depth Chamber
 In this chamber, the depth of the cavity provided in the

piston is quite small.
 This is usually adopted for large engines running at low
speed.
 Since the cavity diameter is very large, the squish is
negligible.
78
II. Hemispherical Chamber
 This chamber also gives small squish.

 However, the depth to diameter ration can be varied to
give any desired squish to give better performance.
79
80
III. Cylindrical Chamber
 This design was attempted in recent diesel engines.

 This is modification of the cylindrical chamber in the form
of a truncated cone with base angle of 30º.
 The swirl was produced by masking the valve for nearly
180º of circumference.
 Squish can also be varied by varying the depth .
81
IV. Toroidal Chamber
 The idea behind this shape is to provide a powerful squish

along with the air movement, similar to that of the familiar
smoke ring, within the toroidal chamber.
 Due to powerful squish, there is better utilization of
oxygen.
 The cone angle of spray for this type of chamber is 150º to
160º.
82
 The chamber is divided into two or more distinct

compartment connected by restricted passages which
creates pressure differences between them during
combustion process.
 The main advantages of this type are:
I. Injection pressure required is low
II. Direction of spraying is not very important.
83
 The major drawbacks of this type which have made it application

limited are:
I. Poor cold starting performance requiring heater plugs.
II. Specific fuel consumption is high because of loss of
pressure due to air motion through the duct and heat loss
due to large heat transfer area.
 These chambers are classified further into:
I. Swirl chamber
II. Precombustion chamber
III. Air cell chamber
84
1. Swirl Chamber
 It consists of a spherical-shaped
chamber separated from the
engine cylinder and located in
the cylinder head as shown in fig
12.20.
 In the swirl combustion chamber
(also known as turbulence
combustion chamber) the air is
given a swirl while coming in the
cylinder.
85
1. Swirl Chamber
 The fuel is injected in the swirled air so that mixing and
burning of the fuel takes place completely.
 This chamber finds application where:
 Fuel quality is difficult to control.
 Reliability under adverse condition is more important
than fuel economy.
 The use of single hole of larger diameter for the fuel spray
nozzle is often important consideration for swirl chamber
engine.
86
2. Precombustion Chamber
 In this chamber, there are two
combustion chambers-one is
auxiliary combustion chamber
and the other is main
combustion chamber.
 The auxiliary combustion
chamber is connected to the
main combustion chamber
through a number of small holes
or orifices.
87
 The auxiliary combustion chamber is smaller in size than the
main combustion chamber and is called pre-combustion
chamber.
 Fuel is injected into the pre-combustion chamber where it
partly burns.
 This partly burnt fuel goes through a small orifice at a very
high velocity in the main combustion chamber, where the
complete combustion takes place.
 The turbulence created in the combustion chamber helps to
ignite the fuel completely.
88
 The rate of pressure rise and maximum pressure is lower

compared to those of open chamber.
 It has multi-fuel capability without any modification in the
injection system because of the temperature of the
precombustion chamber.
89
3. Air-Cell Chamber
 In this chamber, clearance
volume is divided into two
parts, one in the main
cylinder and the other
called the energy cell.
 The energy cell is further
divided into two parts,
major and minor, which are
separated from each other
and from the main chamber
by narrow orifices.
90
3. Air-Cell Chamber
 A pintle type of nozzle injects the fuel across the main
combustion chamber space towards the open neck of the air
cell.
 The high velocity jet coming out of the air cell produces swirl
motion or turbulence in the main chamber and hence
thoroughly mixes the fuel with air resulting in the complete
combustion.
 The design is not suitable for variable speed operation as the
combustion induced swirl has no relation with the speed of the
engine.
91
Combustion in CI Engine
Direct Injection Direct Injection Direct Injection Indirect injection

quiescent chamber multi-hole nozzle single-hole nozzle swirl pre-chamber
92
swirl in chamber swirl in chamber
References
 Internal Combustion engine fundamentals by John B. Heywood
 Engineering Fundamentals of the Internal combustion Engine by

Willard W. Pulkrabek
 Internal Combustion Engine by V. Ganesan
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HapIGjHkBHU&hd=1
 Squish" is an effect in internal combustion engines which creates

sudden turbulence of the fuel/air mixture as the piston approaches
top dead centre (TDC).
93
Thank You
94
95

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Unit-III

Combustion in CI and SI engines: Introduction, Stages of

 Combustion is a chemical reaction in which certain

 The conditions necessary for combustion are the presence

 The theory of combustion is a very complex subject and

 In spite of this, not much knowledge is available concerning

 In spark-ignition engines a nearly homogeneous mixtures

 Once the fuel vapour-air mixture is ignited, a flame front

 The flame propagation is caused by heat transfer and

 In a homogeneous mixture with an equivalence ratio, ɸ,

 However, in a spark-ignition engine the maximum flame

 In a heterogeneous gas mixture, the rate of combustion is

 In heterogeneous mixture, combustion takes place in

 Ignition starts in this zone and the flame produced helps to

 Similarly, combustion in rich zones occurs due to high

 In a conventional SI engine, fuel-air mixture is compressed

 Normally, combustion is initiated towards the end of

 Following inflammation, a turbulent flame develops,

Sir Ricardo, Known as the father of engine research, describes

1. Ignition Lag (A--B)

 The rate of pressure rise is proportional to the rate of heat

 The two important factors which determine the rate of

 The transposition rate is due to the physical movement of

 The fig. 12.3 shows the rate of flame propagation. In area I

 As the flame leaves the quiescent zone and proceeds into

 In normal combustion, the flame initiated by the spark

 Under certain operating conditions the combustion deviates

 This type of combustion may be termed as abnormal

 In a SI engine combustion is initiated between the spark

 In order to effect pressure equalization the burned part of

 The design involves the shape of the combustion chamber,

 Combustion chambers must be designed carefully keeping

1. Smooth Engine Operation

2. High Power Output and Thermal Efficiency

 Depending upon the location of the spark plug, valves and

 I-head combustion chambers have overhead valves. The

 T-shape combustion chamber projects around the cylinder

 F-head combustion chamber projects at one side of the

 L-head combustion chambers use side valves.

 Only air is compressed in the cylinder during compression stroke

2. Period of Rapid Combustion

 Reasons include incomplete fuel atomization, poor injection

 Compression Ratio: Increase in CR increases the

 Engine Power Output: With an Increase in engine power,

 Engine Speed: DP decreases with increasing engine speed

 Injection Timing: The temperature and pressure of air at the

 Atomization of fuel: Higher fuel injection pressures increase

 Injection Pressure: Increase in injection pressure reduces

 Fuel Properties: Low self ignition temperature reduces DP.

 Intake Temperature: High intake temperature increase the air

 Engine Size: Large engines operate at lower speeds, thus

 F/A ratio: With increasing F/A ratio, operating temperature

 Combustion Chamber Shape: Engines with precombustion

 Injection Duration: Increase in injection duration results in

Abnormal Combustion or Knocking

Parameter SI Engines CI Engines

Occurs at the end of Occurs at the beginning

Auto ignition of end Ignition of accumulated

Not possible as only air

 The most important function of the CI engine combustion

 This makes it necessary to study combustion chamber

 Also called an open combustion chamber in which the