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Zingiber officinale Roscoe (pharmacological activity)

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Journal of Medicinal Plants Research Vol. 5(3), pp. 344-348, 4 February, 2011
Available online at http://www.academicjournals.org/JMPR
ISSN 1996-0875 ©2011 Academic Journals

Full Length Research Paper

Zingiber officinale Roscoe (pharmacological activity)

Riazur Rehman1, M. Akram2, Naveed Akhtar1, Qaiser Jabeen1, Tariq saeed3, S. M. Ali Shah1,
Khalil Ahmed1, Ghazala Shaheen1, H. M. Asif1
1
Faculty of Pharmacy and Alternative Medicine, The Islamia University, Karachi, Pakistan.
2
Shifa Ul Mulk Memorial Hospital, Hamdard University, Karachi, Pakistan.
3
University College of Pharmacy, Punjab University Lahore.
Accepted 10 December, 2010

Ginger is a tuber that is consumed whole as a delicacy, medicine, or herb. It is the rhizome of the plant
Zingiber officinale. It lends its name to its genus and family (Zingiberaceae). Other notable members of
this plant family are turmeric, cardamom, and galangal. Ginger cultivation began in South Asia and has
since then spread to East Africa and the Caribbean. It is sometimes called root ginger to distinguish it
from other things that share the name ginger. Zingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae) and Pentadiplan-dra
brazzeana (Pentadiplandraceae) are highly reputed in African folk medical practices for many purposes.
Z. officinale is used for the treatment of flatulence, colic, diarrhoea, spasm, cold and influenza. Zingiber
officinale is used as an appetite stimulant, a narcotic antagonist and an anti-inflammatory agent. Recent
study showed that it has antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, anti-hyperglycemic,
anti-hyperlipidemic and anti-emetic actions. Main constituents are sesquiterpenoids, with (-)-
zingiberene. Sesquiterpene lactones (SLs) are natural products responsible for its anti-inflammatory
activity.

Key words: Sesquiterpenoids, anti-inflammatory activity, zingiberene.

INTRODUCTION

The characteristic odor and flavor of ginger is caused by
a mixture of zingerone, shogaols and gingerols, volatile
oils that compose one to three percent of the weight of
fresh ginger. In laboratory animals, the gingerrols
increase the motility of the gastrointestinal tract and have
analgesic, sedative, antipyretic and antibacterial
properties. Ginger oil has been proven to prevent skin
cancer in mice and a study at the University of Michigan
demonstrated that gingerols can kill ovarian cancer cells.
Ginger contains up to three percent of a fragrant
essential oil whose main constituents are
sesquiterpenoids, with (-)-zingiberene as the main
component. Smaller amounts of other sesquiterpenoids
(β-sesquiphellandrene, bisabolene and farnesene) and a
small monoterpenoid fraction (β-phelladrene, cineol, and
citral) have also been identified. The pungent taste of
ginger is due to nonvolatile phenylpropanoid-derived
compounds, particularly gingerols and shogaols, which
form from gingerols when ginger is dried or cooked.
*Corresponding author. E-mail: makram_0451@hotmail.com.
Tel: 92-021-6440083.Fax: 92-021-6440079.
Zingerone is also produced from gingerols during this
process; this compound is less pungent and has a spicy-
sweet aroma.
Ginger is also a minor chemical irritant, and because of
this was used as a horse suppository by pre-World War I
mounted regiments for feaguing. Ginger has a sialagogue
action, stimulating the production of saliva, which makes
swallowing easier. Sesquiterpene lactones (SLs) are
natural products responsible for the anti-inflammatory
activity (Ernst et al., 2000).
Botanical description
Ginger is herbaceous rhizomatous perennial, reaching up
to 90 cm in height under cultivation. Rhizomes are
aromatic, thick lobed, pale yellowish, bearing simple
alternate distichous narrow oblong lanceolate leaves. The
herb develops several lateral shoots in clumps, which
begin to dry when the plant matures. Leaves are long and
2 - 3 cm broad with sheathing bases, the blade gradually
tapering to a point. Inflorescence solitary, lateral radical
pedunculate oblongcylindrical spikes. Flowers are rare,
rather small, calyx superior, gamosepalous, three

Figure 1. Structure of Sesquiterpene.
Figure 2. Chemical structure of zingiberene.
toothed, open splitting on one side, corolla of three
subequal oblong to lanceolate connate greenish
segments (Kawai, 1994).
Active constituents
The active ingredients in Zingiber officinale are in volatile
oil which comprising approximately 1 - 3% of its weight.
The concentrations of active ingredients vary with
growing conditions. The active ingredients in ginger are
thought to reside in its volatile oils, which comprise
approximately 1 - 3% of its weight. The major active
ingredients in ginger oil are the sesquiterpenes:
bisapolene, zingiberene, and zingiberol (Connel D).
Ginger’s active ingredients have a variety of physiologic
effects. For example, the gingerols have analgesic,
sedative, antipyretic and antibacterial effects in vitro and
in animals (Mascolo, 1989). In rats, an intravenous (i.v.)
bolus of gingerol had a half life of 7.23 min. 15; however
its relation with pharmacokinetics is not clear after oral
administration (Figures 1 and 2).
Medicinal uses
Ginger is found to possess aromatic, carminative,
stimulant to GIT, antispasmodic, digestive, stomachic,
vasodilator, appetizer, expectorant, bronchodilator,
topical and local stimulant, analgesic, antiflatulent,
aphrodisiac. Antitussive, and laxative. The pungent
compounds in ginger have analgesic effects. It has been
detected that Zingiber officinale has active influence on
the digestive enzymes of intestinal mucosa and it
Rehman et al. 345
enhanced intestinal lipase, disaccharidases, sucrase and
maltase activity. The other potential uses include relief
from the pain and inflammation of rheumatoid arthritis. In
Ayurvedic system of medicine, adrak is use to treat
stiffness, swelling, and pains that result from rheumatic
conditions due to the entrance of cold and dampness in
the body, an observation concurrent with those who
suffer from rheumatic symptoms that are intensified by
inclement weather. It is also an excellent ingredient in
arthritic formulas to counter stomach problems resulting
from the overuse of prescriptive drugs (Kiuchi et al.,
1992).
Zingiber officinale Roscoe
Tibbi Name: Adrak, Zanjbeel
English Name: Ginger
Botanical Name: Zingiber officinale Roscoe
Family: Zingiberaceae
Parts Used: Rhizome
Pharmacological activity
Ginger inhibits the production of immune-system
components called cytokines (Peng et al., 1995). These
chemicals are believed to create a long-term tendency
toward inflammation (Ojewole et al., 2006). Ginger also
stimulates blood circulation (Shoji et al., 1982). Ginger
contains very potent anti-inflammatory compounds called
gingerols (Kwang et al., 1998). Study demonstrates that
daily consumption of raw and heat-treated ginger resulted
in moderate-to-large reductions in muscle pain following
J. Med. Plants Res. 346
Figure 3. Zingiber officinale Plant.
Figure 4. Zingiber officinale rhizome.
exercise-induced muscle injury.
Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe, Zingiberacae) is a
medicinal plant that has been widely used in Chinese,
Ayurvedic and Tibb-Unani herbal medicines all over the
world, since antiquity, for a wide array of unrelated
ailments that include arthritis, rheumatism, sprains,
muscular aches, pains (Srivastava, 1989). An ethanolic
extract of the rhizomes of Zingiber officinale (Figures 3
and 4) was investigated for anti-inflammatory, analgesic,
antipyretic, antimicrobial and hypoglycaemic activities.
The growth of both gram-positive and gramne-ngative
bacteria was significantly inhibited. A dose-dependent
inhibition of prostaglandin release effect was observed
using rat peritoneal leucocytes (Mascolo et al., 1989).
Currently, there is a revival of interest in ginger, and
several scientific investigations are aimed at isolation and
identification of active constituents of ginger, scientific
verification of its pharmacological actions and of its
constituents, and verification of the basis of the use of
ginger in some of several diseases and conditions in
which it has been used traditionally. The main
pharmacological actions of ginger and its isolated
compounds include immuno-modulatory, anti-
tumorigenic, anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, anti-
hyperglycemic, anti-hyperlipidemic and anti-emetic
actions. Ginger is a strong anti-oxidant substance and
may either mitigate or prevent generation of free radicals.
It is considered a safe herbal medicine with only few and
insignificant adverse/side effects. More studies are
required in animals and humans on the kinetics of ginger

and its constituents and on the effects of their
consumption over a long period of time (Amin et al.,
2006)
Cardiovascular health
Including in Ayurvedic science, ginger has been
described as great heart tonic. It helps in preventing
various heart diseases by reducing blood clotting that can
lead to plaque formation or thrombosis. It can also open
the blockage in the blood vessels thus decreasing
peripheral vascular resistance and hence blood pressure.
Ginger also may help to lower high cholesterol making
the heart healthy (Akoachere et al., 2002).
Antiplatelet activity
Srivastava et al. (1984) found that aqueous extract of
ginger inhibited platelet aggregation induced by ADP,
epinephrine, collagen and arachidonic acid in vitro.
Ginger acted by inhibiting thromboxane synthesis. It also
inhibited prostacyclin synthesis in rat aorta. The
antiplatelet action of 6-gingerol was also mainly due to
the inhibition of thromboxane formation (Guh et al.,
1995).
Powerful antioxidant
Antioxidant helps to prevent all kind of disease and it also
slower downs the aging process. There was a study of
more than 120 plant foods, published in the Journal of
Nutrition. In the report ginger was ranked number one
among the five richest food sources of antioxidants,
including berries, walnuts, sunflower seeds, and
pomegranates. Test-tube and animal researches have
shown that ginger inhibits the production of free radicals.
Ginger also enhances the body's internal production of
antioxidants (Srivastava et al., 1992).
Help for cancer patients
The only therapy available for cancer is chemotherapy.
The side effects of any chemotherapy include nausea
and hair fall. Ginger can reduce nausea that is occurring
as a major side effect from chemotherapy treatment. In
addition, test-tube studies have shown that some
favorable qualities found in ginger can even offer some
protection against cancer cells (Platel et al., 1995).
Inflammation
Ginger constituents inhibit arachadonic acid metabolism
and thus prostaglandin synthesis. This may account for
Rehman et al. 347
some of its anti-inflammatory properties. One constituent
specifically, (6)-Shogaol, (found in semi-dry, but rarely
fresh ginger), appears to interfere with the arachadonic /
inflammatory cascade. It is found to inhibits
cyclooxygenases and prevents specific prostaglandin
release in rabbits and rats. Ginger may be a stronger
inhibitor of prostaglandin synthesis than indomethacin. It
can be used either for rheumatoid or osteoarthritis.
Ginger extract is antiinflammatory on osteoarthrotic sow
cartilage in vitro (Shen et al., 2003).
Toxicity
The toxicity of ginger is generally considered to be
negligible. Oral LD 50 values in various animals of ginger
oil exceed 5 gm/Kg. In vitro microbial assays have shown
both mutagenicity and antimutagenicity for compounds
isolated from ginger. The adverse reaction profile of
ginger is benign, consonant with its use as a common
spice and food (Chen et al., 2007).
Contraindications
The German Commission E states contraindication of
Ginger in Pregnancy. There are no reports of adverse
effects due to ginger use during pregnancy, and clinical
trials have demonstrated the efficacy of ginger extracts in
relieving the nausea and emesis of pregnancy.
Conclusion
The pharmacological activities as anti-inflammatory and
for the treatment of rheumatoid and osteoarthritis has
been documented. Although it exerts effects on
cardiovascular parameters, exhibits anti-oxidant activities
and involved in cancer chemotherapy. All these are due
to the synergistic effects of zingiberene and related types
of components bring about the pharmacological impact.
In conclusion ginger has wide range of medicinal uses
and can be used either as single drug or compound
drugs to treat different ailments. It can be used as
preventive medicine due to its potential against oxidative
stress.
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