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TRANSPORT RESEARCH
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COST 324
Long T erm
Performance of
Road Pavements
EUROPEAN
Final Report of the Action
COMMISSION
DIRECTORATE
TRANSPORT
HÜHMI
European Cooperation
in the Field of
Scientific and Technical
Research
COST 324
Long Term Performance

of Road Pavements
Final Report of the Action
European Commission
Directorate General Transport
LEGAL NOTICE
Neither the European Commission nor any person acting on behalf of
the Commission is responsible for the use which might be made of
the following information.
The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily
reflect the views of the European Commission
A great deal of additional information on COST Transport is available on the World Wide Web.
It can be accessed through the CORDIS server (http://www.cordis.lu/cost-transport/home.html)
Cataloguing data can be found at the end of this publication
Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 1997
ISBN 92-828-0308-2
© ECSC-EEC-EAEC, Brussels · Luxembourg, 1997
Reproduction is authorized, except for commercial purposes, provided the source is acknowl-
edged
Printed in Belgium
DEDICATION
During the course of COST Action 324, the Management Committee was twice shocked by the
sudden death of one of its members. Mr. Ray Goddard Secretary to the Committee, died in
August 1994 and Mr. Antoine Baucheron de Boissoudy, the French delegate to the Committee,
died in April of the following year.
Ray Goddard served as the European Commission (COST Transport) representative and
Scientific Secretary on the Technical Sub-Committee of COST Action 324 in the last part of the
preparatory period in 1993 and early 1994. Following the signature of the Memorandum of
Understanding in February 1994 by the founder nations, he then carried out the same duties for
the Management Committee until his untimely death in August 1994.
Ray made a huge contribution to the development of the Action as the principal link with the
European Commission, and was well known as a very efficient and hard-working individual who
was also a friend to all the Committee members. He had time for each individual, and used his
linguistic abilities very efficiently to make each member feel at home and to encourage
communication within the group.
Antoine Baucheron de Boissoudy served as the representative of the French Laboratoire Central
des Ponts et Chausséesfromthe inception of COST Action 324. As a member of the LCPC, where
he was the deputy chief of the Pavement Materials and Structures Division, he devoted 28 years to
pavement mechanics research, overseeing significant progress in pavement design and testing.
He was also one of the main initiators of the Manège de Fatigue at Nantes, the French
A ccelerated Loading Facility.
His technical knowledge and scientific rigour were appreciated everywhere and his work greatly
contributed to the Groups achievements, as evidenced in this report. The Group members, and
everyone who knew him, appreciated even more his human qualities of humility, friendliness and
humour.
It is with warm feelings of remembrance and great respect that the COST Action 324 Management
Committee dedicates this report to the memory of Ray Goddard and Antoine Baucheron de
Boissoudy.
LEGAL NOTICE
Neither the European Commission nor any person acting on behalf of
the Commission is responsible for the use which might be made of
the following information.
The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily
reflect the views of the European Commission
A great deal of additional information on COST Transport is available on the World Wide Web.
It can be accessed through the CORDIS server (http://www.cordis.lu/cost-transport/home.html)
Cataloguing data can be found at the end of this publication
Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 1997
ISBN 92-828-0308-2
© ECSC-EEC-EAEC, Brussels · Luxembourg, 1997
Reproduction is authorized, except for commercial purposes, provided the source is acknowl-
edged
Printed in Belgium
DEDICATION
During the course of COST Action 324, the Management Committee was twice shocked by the
sudden death of one of its members. Mr. Ray Goddard Secretary to the Committee, died in
August 1994 and Mr. Antoine Baucheron de Boissoudy, the French delegate to the Committee,
died in April of the following year.
Ray Goddard served as the European Commission (COST Transport) representative and
Scientific Secretary on the Technical Sub-Committee of COST Action 324 in the last part of the
preparatory period in 1993 and early 1994. Following the signature of the Memorandum of
Understanding in February 1994 by the founder nations, he then carried out the same duties for
the Management Committee until his untimely death in August 1994.
Ray made a huge contribution to the development of the Action as the principal link with the
European Commission, and was well known as a very efficient and hard-working individual who
was also a friend to all the Committee members. He had time for each individual, and used his
linguistic abilities very efficiently to make each member feel at home and to encourage
communication within the group.
Antoine Baucheron de Boissoudy served as the representative of the French Laboratoire Central
des Ponts et Chausséesfromthe inception of COST Action 324. As a member of the LCPC, where
he was the deputy chief of the Pavement Materials and Structures Division, he devoted 28 years to
pavement mechanics research, overseeing significant progress in pavement design and testing.
He was also one of the main initiators of the Manège de Fatigue at Nantes, the French
A ccelerated Loading Facility.
His technical knowledge and scientific rigour were appreciated everywhere and his work greatly
contributed to the Group's achievements, as evidenced in this report. The Group members, and
everyone who knew him, appreciated even more his human qualities of humility, friendliness and
humour.
It is with warm feelings of remembrance and great respect that the COST Action 324 Management
Committee dedicates this report to the memory of Ray Goddard and Antoine Baucheron de
Boissoudy.
CONTENTS
Page
Table of Contents 1
Executive Summary 5
Abstract 6
1. Introduction 7
2. Benefits to Different Users 11

2.1 Introduction 11
2.2 Scientific users 11
2.3 Professional users 14
2.4 End users 14
3. Inventory of Network Monitoring, Real-time Loading Testing and 17

Accelerated Loading Testing
3.1 Introduction 17
3.2 Pavement performance 17
3.2.1 Overview 17
3.2.2 Performance indicators 18
3.2.3 Relative importance of the performance indicators 19
3.3 Performance studies 21
3.3.1 Overview 21
3.3.2 General considerations 22
3.3.3 Application of the various methods throughout Europe 22
3.4 Network monitoring 23
3.4.1 Introduction 23
3.4.2 Network monitoring activities 24
3.5 Real-time loading testing 27
3.5.2 Real-time loading testing objectives 28
3.5.3 Real-time loading testing experiments 29
3.6 Accelerated loading testing 33
3.6.2 Accelerated loading testing facilities 33
3.6.3 Accelerated loading testing experiments 36
3.7 Conclusions and recommendations 39
3.8 References 39
4. Factors Affecting Pavement Performance 41

4.1 Introduction 41
4.2 Methodology 41
4.2.1 Selection and ranking of variables 41
4.2.2 Rating trees 45
4.3 Analysis of weighting values 45
4.4 Interpretation of data 47
4.6 References 48
5. Assessment of Current Performance Prediction Models 49
5.1 Introduction 49
5.2 Current performance models 49
5.3 Description of performance models 50
5.3.1 Longitudinal profile 51
5.3.2 Transverse profile 51
5.3.3 Surface cracking 52
5.3.4 Structural cracking 52
5.3.5 Structural adequacy 53
5.3.6 Surface defects 53
5.3.7 Skid resistance 53
5.3.8 Index models 54
5.4 Assessment of current performance models 54
5.5 Conclusions 55
ANNEX 5A Description of the pavement performance models 57
6. Terms Of Reference for Performance Prediction Models 67

6.1 Introduction 67
6.2 Terms of reference 67
6.3 Proposals for the improvement of models 68
6.4 Recommendations 69
7. Terms Of Reference for Traffic Data Acquisition 71
7.1 Introduction 71
7.2 Purpose of the traffic data 71
7.2.2 Traffic data as input to pavement management 71
7.2.3 Traffic data as input to the development of performance models 72
7.3 Terms of reference for traffic data acquisition 73
7.3.1 Performance modelling in general 73
7.3.2 Mechanistic analysis 73
8. Unification of Data Acquisition Procedures 75

8.1 Introduction 75
8.2 Methodology 75
8.3 Manual visual distress surveys 76
8.3.1 General 76
8.3.2 Review of distresses included in the manuals 76
8.3.3 Severity of pavement distress 81
8.4 Automated condition surveys 83
8.4.1 General 83
8.4.2 Normalisation of automated measurements 89
8.5 Selection oftest sites for future European LTPP studies 90
ANNEX 8A Distress manuals used in the investigation 92

ANNEX 8B Distress definitions 94
ANNEX 8C Severity levels for cracking 103
ANNEX 8D Reports on inter-calibration of mechanistic measurements 109
ANNEX 8E Assessment of reports on inter-calibration of deflection 111
measurements
9. Terms Of Reference For A Pavement Performance Database 119

9.1 Introduction 119
9.2 Pu rpose of the database 119
9.3 Structure of the database 120
9.3.1 Inventory 120
9.3.2 Monitoring 121
9.3.3 Traffic 121
9.3.4 Climate 121
9.3.5 History 122
9.3.6 Construction 122
9.4 Type of database 122
9.5 Data standardisation and data reduction 122
9.6 Data transfer and back-up procedures 123
9.7 Computer configuration 123
9.8 Responsibilities 123
10. Long-Term Road Pavement Performance Database 125

10.1 Introduction 125
10.2 Physical aspects of the database 125
10.3 Location of the database 125
10.4 Transfer of the data 125
10.5 Section identification 126
10.6 Analysis of data 127
11. Interpretation, Conclusions and Recommendations 133
12. Acknowledgements 137
Appendices
A FEHRL 139
Β COST Transport 141
C Technical Annex to the Memorandum of Understanding 143
D PARIS 149
E COST 324 Management Committee contact list 151
F Bibliography 157
G Exploitation and Dissemination plan 165
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Around 15 percent of the income of European citizens (about 500 billion ECU) is spent each year
on mobility. This is largely supported by the road infrastructure and will increase substantially over
the next decade and beyond. Efficient management of the road infrastructure is therefore key to
Europe's economic development.
COST Action 324 (Long Term Performance of Road Pavements) aims at integrating European
studies into the long term performance of road pavements under the influence of traffic loading and
climate. Prior to the start of the Action, the many European studies in this area were performed at
national level, with the exception of a joint study by the Scandinavian countries. Most studies were
performed in co-operation with the US Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP), and co-
operation at European level was minimal.
This lack of co-operation not only caused duplication of effort, but it also ensured that work in the
various studies and projects addressed national needs only, thereby disregarding the integration of
the European road network and the open market for pavement consultancy. These shortcomings
were recognised by the Forum of European National Highway Research Laboratories (FEHRL). In
1992, this Organisation initiated a proposal to COST for an Action aimed at integrating the work
being undertaken in the member countries. The outcome of the Action was to be the foundation of
a Europe-wide study of pavement performance, involving data acquisition and analysis. The
proposal was accepted, resulting in the set-up of COST Action 324.
The Action Technical Sub-Committee was subsequently created and a detailed programme was
agreed which addressed two main work areas. The first grouping covered an extensive inventory of
the studies under way, and of the technical background to pavement performance modelling. The
factors that affect pavement performance were assessed using the 'rating tree' approach, which
allows relative weightings to be allocated to various factors in a structured way. An overview was
made of the pavement performance models currently in use, showing clearly that each participating
country had its own individual approach. The inventory of studies under way covered the three
approaches for collecting performance data, on the road network in general, on selected sections of
the network and on specially built road sections for testing under accelerated loading conditions in
dedicated, large scale research facilities.
The second set of Work Packages focused on creating Terms of Reference for work to be carried
out within a larger European level project and on creating the basic data set for such a project.
Terms of Reference were developed for performance prediction models, taking into account their
use in pavement management systems. Terms of Reference were also specified for a database
comprising performance and traffic data for use in pavement performance analysis. Since such
analysis requires historical data covering a period of time comparable to the life-cycle of pavement
surface layers, it was realised that pan-European analysis would rely heavily on existing data sets
from the national studies underway. To allow for the use of such data, a system for unification was
developed. Finally, a data set covering over one thousand test sections across Europe was
generated. The data set comprises information on the location of road sections, pavement
construction, availability of time-history data and traffic loading.
During the course of the Action, as suggested, a second key collaborative programme began in this
area at European level, and this is proceeding with the title of Performance Analysis of Road
Infrastructure (PARIS). The work began on 1 October 1996, and, in addition to resourcing at
national level, support is being provided under the European Commission's Fourth Framework
Transport Research and Technological Development (RTD) Programme. The initial data set
developed under COST Action 324, and the results of the in-depth studies of the technical
background of pavement performance modelling, will be of significant use to this project as a basis
for the analysis. Furthermore, the methodology and the outcome of the analysis will take into
account the Terms of Reference specified by COST Action 324. Thus, the PARIS project will be
an important way of ensuring direct implementation of the results of the COST Action. These
results do, however, have a much wider field of application. The work in the technical Work
Packages and its description in this report was carried out primarily with the needs of pavement
researchers in mind, whilst specific interest was put on parallel FEHRL studies under COST and
other funding. The expected benefits of the Action to these and other users provided a prioritised
focus for the work and are specified in Chapter 2 of this report. This final report will be made
available to targeted users in a large number of countries and will also be available on the Internet.
ABSTRACT
The Report of COST Action 324 describes the work carried out to integrate national studies on
long term pavement performance for use at European level. Fifteen countries participated in this 3
year study in which the current position was assessed, and the methodology necessary to ensure
future co-operation on the topic within Europe was developed.
Firstly, an inventory of pavement performance studies and mathematical models is presented

together with an analysis of the factors believed to influence pavement performance. The inventory
includes details of the various methods being used to collect data on the condition of road
pavements in the national networks and on road test sections used specifically for long term
performance studies. Information is also provided on the large scale research facilities used for
accelerated loading testing of specially constructed test sections.
A methodology is proposed for normalising the methods used in the participating countries for
measuring pavement condition data by inspection of the distresses visible on the road surface. An
assessment is presented of the national pavement distress manuals. Terms of reference have been
developed for creating a European database for storing pavement condition data, for collecting
traffic data and for developing pavement performance models for use in European pavement
management systems.
The work of COST Action 324 Management Committee will be used as key input to a 2 year
European study in which historical and current pavement condition data will be collected and
analysed to develop pavement performance models for Europe.
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
In the European Union, some 500 billion ECU is spent yearly on mobility, which is about fifteen
percent of the income of all European citizens. The bulk of this mobility is provided by the road
infrastructure. Road traffic is increasing at a rate of four to five percent each year, leading to an
expected growth from now to the year 2020 of fifty to sixty percent. Currently, the costs of
congestion on the road network are estimated at 120 billion ECU annually.
The road network is extremely important to Europe's economic and social development and it
requires efficient management using state of the art technology. To contribute to this, the Forum of
European National Highway Research Laboratories (FEHRL, see Appendix A) published a
Strategic European Road Research Programme (SERRP 1993). This programme comprises seven
road research areas with Road Management having a central position. From this area, two research
projects were proposed as pan-European COST Actions in 1993. COST Action 325 (New
Pavement Monitoring Equipment and Methods) considered measurement techniques used to
determine the condition of the road network, whereas COST Action 324 (Long Term Performance
of Road Pavements) focused on the modelling of the deterioration of that condition. Given the
status of the condition of the elements of the network and models to forecast its future
development, Pavement Management Systems can be used to plan future maintenance and
rehabilitation activities taking into account the safety and economic requirements.
The present shortcomings of pavement management systems are caused by a lack of validated
pavement performance models. Since such models cannot be derived from theory, they should be
based on uniform and systematic measurements of the
condition of road test sections. The need for research in
this area was recognised up to forty years ago in some
European countries. The 50 million dollar Long Term
Pavement Performance Study of the US Strategic
Highway Research Programme which began in 1988 also
sparked renewed interest in several other European
countries. Although the problem of not having validated
performance models generally occurs throughout Europe,
the efforts to remedy that problem were mainly national,
with the exception of the regional research programme
carried out by the Scandinavian countries. The essence of
FEHRL's proposed project in this field was to unite
national projects across Europe into a single effort, in
order to reduce duplication of effort and to generate
sufficient critical mass and authority to tackle this
complex problem. It would further transfer knowledge
from countries experienced in this area to those still at the
beginning of research in this field or perhaps not involved
at all.
In the SERRP it was recognised that a Europe-wide study of the long term performance of
pavements would be complex, extensive and of long duration. The project was therefore by far the
largest in the FEHRL research programme, with a duration of six years and an estimated budget of
14 MECU. To ensure continued support for such an effort, FEHRL recognised the need for
support at the European level. Furthermore, the condition of the road network in Eastern Europe,
with its rapidly increasing traffic, called for membership to be extended beyond the existing
European Union countries. Whilst considering putting forward the project for financial support
from the RTDprogrammes, FEHRL recognised that COST (see Appendix B) would offer a
flexible framework for initial studies, while allowing for participation by Eastern European
countries. Therefore, a proposal was submitted to the COST Technical Committee on Transport in
September of 1992, after which the Technical SubCommittee of the Action started its work in
November of that year. The Technical SubCommittee reported to the Transport Committee in
April of 1993 and COST Action 324 was formally initiated in February of 1994, with a scheduled
duration of three years. Table 1.1 lists the fifteen participating countries and institutions.
Table 1.1 : Countries and institutions participating in COST Action 324
ISO code Country Institution Acronym
AT Austria Bundesforschungs & Prufzentrum Arsenal BPFZ
Institut flir Strassenbau und Strassenerhaltung, TU Wien ISTU
BE Belgium Centre de Recherches Routières/ Opzoekingscenlrum voor de CRRVOCW

Wegenbouw
CH Switzerland Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne EPFI.
DK Denmark Vejteknisk Institut (Danish Road Institute) DRI
ES Spain Centro de Estudios y Experimentación de Obras Publicas CEDEX
FI Finland Valtion Teknillen Tutkimuskeskus VTT
FR France Laboratoire Central des Ponts et Chaussées LCPC
GB United Kingdom Transport Research Laboratory TRL
GR Greece National Technical University of Athens NTUA
HU Hungary Közlekedéstudomanyi Intézet Rt KTIRt
Γ£ Ireland National Roads Authority NRA
NL Netherlands Dienst Weg en Waterbouwkunde DWW
PT Portugal Laboratório Nacional de Engenharia Civil LNEC
SE Sweden Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute vn

SI Slovenia Zavod Za Gradbenistvo ZAG
Druzba za Drzavne Ceste DDC
The main task of the Technical SubCommittee was to clearly identify the objectives of the Action,
in the context of the available budget and time scale. Having established the objectives, the
cummittee then devised a Work Programme, comprising seven Work Packages in two main
groupings (see Appendix C), to fully satisfy the objectives. The first grouping comprised
information gatheri. g activities. As stated, the Action aimed at unifying performance studies from
a total of fifteen European countries participating in the Action, for roads ranging from the eight
lane divided highways of the densely populated areas of Western Europe to rural roads in sparsely
populated areas in Scandinavia and Eastern Europe. In the fifteen countries participating, twelve
different languages are spoken, leading to a whole range of terms used to identify the same or
similar aspects of road pavement performance. Clearly, without an inventory of work in progress
and of terminology used, a pan-European study could not get off the ground. The inventory activi-
ties devised for COST Action 324 focused on the work in progress, on the factors that affect
pavement performance and on performance models that were available at the time of the start of
the Action.
Countries participating in COST Action 324
The second main group of activities for the Action defined the Terms of Reference for a full-scale
pan-European project on data acquisition and analysis. Recognising the time needed to properly
harmonise the ongoing national activities, actual data acquisition and analysis was considered to be
inappropriate at this stage of the project. COST Action 324 would therefore focus on bringing the
ongoing national efforts together, whilst specifying the Terms of Reference for data acquisition and
analysis. Most importantly, it would lay the foundation for the data set for the envisioned analysis.
The main consideration in creating this data set was that historical data should be available and
cover a time span which stands in reasonable relation to the life expectancy of actual pavements;
this is essential for road performance modelling. Since this time span is often more than ten years, a
pavement performance study relying on newly gathered data only would be a long term effort.
COST Action 324 would therefore develop methods for unifying historical data, and set up a
database of test sections from those participating countries having sufficient historical data. Much
of this work was seen as being the basis of further required work for European harmonisation.
Much of the additional work required will be done within the PARIS project, which began on 1
October 1996, with a scheduled duration of two years. This project is being undertaken with
support at international level and also from the European Commission Fourth Framework
Transport RTD Programme. The data set on test sections produced by COST Action 324 will be
the starting point for the analysis in PARIS (see Appendix D).
After this Introduction and consideration of the benefits of the Action, Chapters 3 through 9
describe the outcome of the seven work packages. Chapter 10 then describes the data set
produced, after which Chapter 11 deals with the overall conclusions and recommendations of the
Action. The Appendices to this report give details on FEHRL, COST Transport, the COST Action
324 Technical Annex, the PARIS project and the members of the COST Action 324 Management
Committee. Appendix F contains a general road pavement performance bibliography from each
country and Appendix G describes the methods for disseminating and exploiting the information
contained in this report.
With the studies documented in this report, COST Action 324 has met its objectives as listed in the
Technical Annex to the Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) and has carried out all the items
referred to in the Work Program of the Technical Annex, with two exceptions. The first exception
is the comparison of the performance of pavements built with new or alternative materials to that of
pavements with classical materials whilst the second involves the assessment of current pavement
design methods.
After the completion of the Technical Annex of COST Action 324, the COST Technical
Committee on Transport approved two further FEHRL-initiated COST projects, COST Action
333 Bituminous Pavement Design' and COST Action 337 'Granular Materials'. Since these two
projects were to deal with pavement design and materials in much more depth than COST Action
324 could do in its much broader scope of pavement performance and pavement management, the
COST Action 324 Management Committee decided in consultation with COST Action 333 and
COST Action 337 to not duplicate effort and leave the two subjects to the two new COST
Actions. Proper co-ordination between the three COST Actions was ensured through COST
Secretariat and the joint membership of the Actions by several persons.
10
CHAPTER 2
BENEFITS TO THE DIFFERENT USERS.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
COST Action 324 focuses on long term pavement performance models used in pavement
management. Three different categories of possible users have been identified for the products of
the Action:
• scientific users;
• professional users;
• end users
The scientific users are researchers in the field of Pavement Design and Pavement Management
across Europe. This group of users develops knowledge and prepares tools for the group of
professional users who are actually working with Pavement Management Systems, active at
national, provincial and municipal levels across Europe. The end users of the work of this Action
are the general public within Europe and the road users.
Table 2.1 gives an overview of the individual technical Chapters on which results of COST Action
324 might benefit the various users in the scientific and professional categories. Clearly, Chapter
11, "interpretation, conclusions and recommendations" will be of benefit to users in all categories.
Table 2.1 also shows which other EC projects might benefit from the results of COST Action 324;
these are discussed later.
Next, an explanatory description is given for the more obvious and clear benefits of Chapters to
users or usergroups. For some possible users the information on benefits is given in general terms
and, for others, more detail is given which is specifically related to the individual technical Chapters.
There may also be benefits to other potential users which are not considered here.
2.2 SCIENTIFIC USERS
The scientific users are expected to be researchers working mainly in the fields of pavement
performance modelling and pavement management. The researchers in the individual member
countries of the COST Action 324 as well as the researchers in this field in the countries that did
not participate in this Action, are potential scientific users. A principal benefit to them is anticipated
to be the availability of the gathered information as the result of the inventory activities. This
information helps to further develop pavement management technology by making use of the
knowledge from other countries. This information comprises:
• the pavement factors that are considered to influence the pavement performance and their
perceived level of influence (Chapter 4),
• the reasons for maintenance and the split of expenditure over those reasons (Chapter 3),
• an overview of recent and current long term pavement performance testing in the participating
countries (Chapter 3),
• the current performance models in the different countries (Chapter 5).
11
Table 2.1 Potential users who could benefit from the technical Chapters in this Report
,.. ,,_
Potential users Technical chapters
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Pavement Management and Performance Modelling
Pavement Management profession * • *

Researchers in Pavement Management * * * * * •
Researchers in Pavement Performance Modelling * * * * * * *
Transport RTD projects
PARIS (Pavement performance) * * * • * * * »

WAVE (Weigh in Motion) * «
Other Cost-Activities
COST 323 (Weigh in motion of road vehicles) * *

COST 325 (New pavement monitoring equipment and methods) * *
COST 333 (Development of new bituminous pavement design method) * * * *
COST 334 (Effects of wide single tyres and dual tyres) *
COST 336 (Falling Weight Deflectometer) * * *
COST 337 (Unbound granular materials for road pavements) *
Other FEHRL projects
PAV-ECO (Pavement economics) * * * * * *

PAV-MAINT (Pavement maintenance) * * * *
• denotes potential users who can benefit from the teclinical Cliapters
Furthermore, scientific users may benefit from the work on the different terms of reference and on
the Unification of Data Acquisition Procedures. These Chapters provide information on:
• how new pavement performance models should be developed and on what input values they are
based (Chapter 6),
• the level of detail on axle load data needed for use in pavement management (Chapter 7),
• the types of defects that occur in road pavements in the European countries and how their
monitoring might be normalised to analyse pavement performance on a common basis (Chapter
8).
This information may be of help in the further development of pavement management systems. It
should be particularly useful in countries that do not yet have pavement management systems
because information is given on how to start data collection, how to unify historical data with
newly acquired data and how to start performance modelling. Finally, scientific users could make
use of the database described in Chapter 10.
12
In the EC Transport RTD projects, the PARIS consortium will be an important scientific user of
the results of COST Action 324. The benefit of the results of this COST Action is that it will form
the starting point for the PARIS project which is designed to integrate on-going and new research
on full scale European test sections and analysis to establish European pavement performance
models. The PARIS project will be carried out under the Transport Programme of the Fourth
Framework Programme for Research and Development.
Members of other COST Actions are also potential scientific users of results from some Chapters
because of the complementary nature of the COST Action research in this area. There is, for
instance, a strong interaction between the COST Action 323 "Weigh in motion of road vehicles"
and the Terms of Reference for Traffic Data Acquisition (Chapter 7), since that Chapter provides a
reference on the level of detail of axle load data needed for use in pavement management.
For COST Action 325 "New pavement monitoring equipment and methods", the Unification of
Data Acquisition Procedures (Chapter 8) has been taken into account. In order to specify the
requirements for equipment for high speed monitoring of pavement condition, it is important to
know what performance indicators are being recorded in European countries and in particular, how
the severity of defects are assessed. Furthermore, it provides information about similarities and
differences in the current data acquisition systems of the participating countries and it helps to
develop the minimum required levels for data acquisition.
The COST Action 333 "Development of new bituminous pavement design method" is benefiting
from the work on Factors affecting Pavement Performance (Chapter 4) because this chapter
provides information on how different properties of bituminous material and construction layers
might influence the pavement performance. Furthermore, the Action will benefit from the inventory
of the Current Performance Prediction Models (Chapter 5) because more and better insight in the
current performance prediction models can be seen as one of the starting points for improving the
pavement design methods. The Terms of Reference for Performance Prediction Models (Chapter
6) could also benefit this Action because it proposes how new models should be developed and on
what input values they should be based. This information may be of help at the comparison of the
different design methods. Furthermore this Action may have benefits from the Unification of Data
Acquisition Procedures (Chapter 8) because for European structural design purposes it is important
to ensure that the condition of the pavements is assessed in a similar way or that the techniques
used in the various countries can be correlated.
The COST Action 334 "Effects of wide single tyres and dual tyres" could benefit from the
inventory of the Current Performance Prediction Models (Chapter 5), because it may be of help to
assess the effect of traffic loads on pavement deterioration.
The COST Action 336 "Falling Weight Deflectometer" as a follow up of a FEHRL initiated study,
is a potential user of the Unification of Data Acquisition Procedures (Chapter 8), because this
Chapter includes an appraisal of attempts to inter-calibrate the various methods being used in
Europe to measure pavement deflection.
Finally, the COST Action 337 "Unbound granular materials for road pavements" could benefit
from Factors affecting Pavement Performance (Chapter 4) which provides information on how
different properties of unbound granular material and construction layers are thought to affect the
pavement performance. The inventory of the Current Performance Prediction Models (Chapter 5)
13
can be of value to this COST Action as well, because it provides insight in the way the properties of
the unbound granular material influence the pavement deterioration.
The members of Permanent International Association of Road Congresses (PLARC) Technical

Committee 1 on Surface Characteristics will be able to benefit from Chapter 3 as it contains
information on network data acquisition.
To researchers in general there may be benefits from the rating tree study, carried out in Chapter
4. It illustrates a general tool to combine information to produce an overall rating value of a
product or need. Using this technique, factors can be selected (if necessary at multiple levels), that
are considered to influence the value or the performance of the product or need. Weighting values
are then assigned to these factors to express their relative importance. From the data describing the
factors in combination with the weighting values the overall rating value can be calculated.
2.3 PROFESSIONAL USERS
The professional users are believed to be predominantly people managing road networks. This
pavement management profession, comprising consultancy and the road authorities, is active at
national, provincial and municipal levels across Europe.
Pavement performance equations form the core of pavement management systems. The availability
of the gathered information about the current equations used in various countries throughout
Europe (Chapter 5) should benefit this group of users. Furthermore, they may benefit from
information about:
• the way data should be gathered to be able to make use of those models (Chapters 3, 5 and 8)
• the interrelation between performance data gathered through the various European systems
(Chapter 8).
The consultancy profession is expected to derive special benefits from this information, since it
brings together the practice of data acquisition and pavements management from across Europe
and therefore could serve as a reference for working abroad.
The availability ofinformation about performance prediction models in the other countries can help
the individual countries to improve their models or even to start using models at all. The
(improved) models can then be incorporated in the existing pavement management systems, to
establish better the future costs of delaying maintenance and thereby define for decision makers the
consequences of adopting various maintenance strategies, in terms of budgets and time of road
closures to the traffic.
In some countries the overall results of this COST Action will provide a basis for new standards or
practices in thefieldof pavement management systems.
2.4 END USERS
The end users of the results of COST Action 324 are the general public, and road users in
particular. Although they do not derive benefits directly from the individual Chapters, the total
14
Action generates an overall benefit for them. Improved knowledge on performance prediction
equations and their incorporation into pavement management systems ultimately leads to more effi-
cient road maintenance, and thus to reduced maintenance budgets, better and safer roads and less
traffic congestion at road works.
15
CHAPTER 3
INVENTORY OF NETWORK MONITORING, REAL-TIME LOADING
TESTING AND ACCELERATED LOADING TESTING
3.1 INTRODUCTION
COST Action 324 aims at integrating current European studies into the long-term performance of
road pavements. As a basis for that integration, an extensive inventory was performed of such
studies in the fifteen participating countries. Three types of studies were distinguished in this
inventory:
• Network-studies, in which performance data is gathered on a large sample of the road network.
• Real-time Loading Testing (RLT), in which time-series performance data are collected over a
number of years on a specially selected set of test sections from the road network subjected to
normal traffic.
• Accelerated Loading Testing (ALT), in which time-series performance data are collected in a
short period of time on specially built test sections subjected to accelerated loading through
large scale facilities.
This Chapter summarises the findings of this inventory. The reference date for this inventory is 1
January 1995.
3.2 PAVEMENT PERFORMANCE
3.2.1 Overview
Pavement performance is the measure by which a given pavement fulfils its principal objectives.
According to Haas et al (1994), these objectives include the following:
1. Maximum or reasonable economy, in terms of both agency and user costs

2. Maximum or adequate safety
3. Maximum or reasonable pavement serviceability over the design period
4. Maximum or adequate load-carrying capacity, for both the magnitude and number of
repetitions of the loads
5. Minimum or limited physical deterioration due to environmental and traffic influences
6. Minimum or limited noise and air pollution during construction
7. Minimum or limited disruption of adjoining land use
8. Maximum of good aesthetics.
Objectives 1, 2 and 3 are of prime importance because economy and safety are paramount in order
to provide the desired level of quality to the travelling public in terms of speeds, vehicle operation
costs, user delays and comfort. The fourth and fifth objectives on adequate load-carrying capacity
and limited physical deterioration closely relate to the three prime objectives. Objectives 4 and 5
should be met in order to ensure adequate safety and serviceability in best economic balance.
17
COST Action 324 'Long Term Performance of Road Pavements' relates to the first five objectives
and does not include the environmental or aesthetic aspects of road construction. Rather than
studying economics, safety and serviceability directly, the Action focuses on the factors that
influence the performance of the pavement and thus indirectly influence economics, safety and
serviceability. These factors will be referred to in this report as performa/ice indicators, some of
which are the distresses that develop in pavements under the influence of climate and traffic, such
as ravelling and rutting. Other performance indicators are the parameters describing the texture,
skid resistance and structural adequacy of the pavement.
Road maintenance in progress
COST Action 324 and its follow-up in the Fourth Framework Programme aim at, respectively,
identifying and developing models for the performance indicators as functions of the relevant
explanatory variables. Such models are basic elements of pavement management systems, which
are used in the planning of maintenance and rehabilitation of road pavements to ensure adequate
safety and serviceability to the road user in the most economical way.
Pavement management systems use models describing performance indicators as basic elements
rather than models for serviceability which are formed by aggregating these performance indicators.
Serviceability is a function of individual indicators such as ravelling, rutting and longitudinal profile.
Since these exemplary constituents of serviceability may have separate explanatory variables, a
single model for their summation is not viable. Using individual models for each of the indicators,
however, does allow for forecasting economics, safety and serviceability by adding the indicators
with appropriate weighting factors in thefinalequation.
3.2.2 Performance indicators
COST Action 324 has established a list of seven performance indicators that together determine the
main measures of pavement performance. The seven indicators are:
18
• Longitudinal profile
• Transverse profile (rutting)
• Cracking
• Surface defects (including ravelling, bleeding, potholes, crazing and fretting)
• Skid resistance
• Texture (macro and micro)
• Structural adequacy (deflection).
The first four performance indicators refer to the distresses that develop in the pavement under the
influence of climate and traffic loading. For a newly built pavement, both the longitudinal and
transverse profile should provide a smooth and safe riding surface to the road user. With time,
differential settlement in the subgrade or layers of the pavement may cause the longitudinal profile
to deteriorate, resulting in less comfort to the road user. The transverse profile may deteriorate due
to traffic loading, resulting in wheel path rutting with severe consequences for road safety in wet
conditions. Cracking and other defects visible in the road surface such as ravelling and bleeding are
direct measures of distress. Surface layer cracking does not have a direct impact on safety and
comfort, but is does pose a threat to the integrity of the surface layer, resulting ultimately in the
disintegration ofthat layer. The remaining surface layer defects do have a direct bearing on safety
and comfort and also on the integrity of the surface layer.
Skid resistance and texture are interrelated, in the sense that texture can be considered to be one of
the explanatory variables of skid resistance. Both performance indicators have a major bearing on
road safety. Finally, structural adequacy is a measure of the pavement's ability to carry the traffic
loading over the design period. Deflection testing is used extensively to assess this performance
indicator. Pavements with insufficient structural adequacy should be strengthened before the onset
of major structural damage, which would result in substantial capital expenditure.
3.2.3 Relative importance of the performance indicators
Pavement management involves mamtaining the pavement in a safe and serviceable condition for
the road user in the most cost-effective manner. Annual or biannual surveys are carried out to
collect data on the performance indicators, and this is used in the relevant models to forecast when
maintenance for the particular indicator is likely to be required.
To form an impression about the relative importance of the various performance indicators, a
survey was held amongst the organisations participating in COST Action 324. For the fifteen
countries involved, data were gathered on the reasons for pavement maintenance and the associated
expenditures. Rather than using absolute numbers, the inventory used a relative ranking, both for
the reasons for maintenance and for the expenditures. Table 3.1 shows the outcome of the survey
for maintenance reasons. Countries were asked to rank the relative importance of the seven
performance indicators as reasons for pavement maintenance, giving a rating of 7 for the indicator
requiring maintenance most frequently and a rating of 1 for the indicator causing least frequent
maintenance. The reference date for the Table is 1 January 1995. The data given refer to the
primary network for all countries, whilst for a number of countries, data is also given for the
regional network.
19
From the data shown in Table 3.1, the following relative importance of the seven performance
indicators as causes for pavement maintenance can be deduced. For the primary network, lack of
structural adequacy is the most frequent reason for maintenance, followed by surface layer cracking
and transverse profile, surface defects, inadequate friction, longitudinal profile and texture. The
distribution across the participating countries appears fairly consistent.
Table 3.1 Reason for maintenance
Seq Country Cat Long Trans Crack Surf Skid Text Struct
la AT Ρ 2 7 5 3 4 1 ~~6 I
lb AT R 2 6 4 5 3 1 7
2 BE Ρ 2 7 3 5 4 1 6
3a CH Ρ 3 7 6 2 4 5 1
3b CH R 2 7 6 2 3 5 4
4a DK Ρ 1 2 7 6 3 4 5
4b DK R 1 2 7 6 3 4 5
5 ES Ρ 2 3 5 4 6 7
6a FI Ρ 4 7 4 3 1 4
6b FI R 4 5 6 3 1 7
7a FR Ρ 4 7 4 3 1 6
7b FR R 4 3 5 2 1 6
8 GB Ρ 1 5 4 3 7 6
9 GR Ρ 2 1 7 6 6 6
10 HU Ρ 1 4 3 7 5 6
11 IE Ρ 2 4 3 6 7 5
12 NL Ρ 3 4 7 6 2 5
13 PT Ρ 5 4 1 7 2 6
14a SE Ρ 6 7 1 2 5 4 3
14b SE R 7 4 6 3 I 2 5
15 SI Ρ 2 5 6 3 ■» 1 7
Number indicates relative ranking of predominantreasonfor maintenance:

7 is most frequent, 1 is least fréquent, referenced to 1 Jan 1995
Cat Road category (P= primary network, R=restof network)

Long Longitudinal profile (short and long wave longitudinal unevenness)
Trans Transverse profile (rutting)
Crack Surface layer cracking
Surf Surface layer defects (ravelling, bleeding, potholes, crazing)
Skid Skid resistance
Text Texture (macro and micro)
Struct Structural adequacy (fatigue cracking, deflection)
Table 3.2 shows the distribution of expenditure on maintenance for these seven performance
indicators in a relative ranking based on a percentage of the overall budget. In principle, the
distribution of expenditures on maini enance does not necessarily match the frequency of
maintenance given in Table 3.1. The reason for this is that each performance indicator may have
different consequences for the expenditures. Lack of structural adequacy, for instance, calls for
strengthening the pavement structure with overlays of asphaltic concrete, which are expensive.
Lack of skid resistance, on the other hand, can be remedied with a surface treatment, which costs
20
far less than an overlay. However, since lack of structural adequacy was shown in Table 3.1 to be
the most frequent reason for maintenance, it also appears in Table 3.2 as the performance indicator
with the highest consequences for the maintenance budget.
Table 3.2 Maintenance expenditure
Seq Country Cat Long Trans Crack Surf Skid Text Struct |
1 AT Ρ 5 20 11 13 2 1 48
2 BE ? 7 ? ? ? ? ? ? |
3 CH P,R 5 25 25 10 5 10 20
4 DK R 1 55 27 15 2 0 0
5 ES ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? J
6a FI Ρ 10 65 10 5 0 0 10
6b FI R 10 20 30 C
0 0 35
7a FR Ρ 15 40 10 5 0 0 30
7b FR R 10 7 40 3 0 0 40
8a GB Ρ 2 14 14 3 3 3 61
8b GB R 2 12 13 15 16 16 26
9 GR P,R 20 3 5 27 15 5 25
10 HU P,R 10 10 5 15 10 5 45
11 IE ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
12 NL Ρ 5 5 40 25 5 0 20
13 PT Ρ 21 21 7 7 7 7 30
14a SE Ρ 8 90 0 0 1 1 0
14b SE R 20 55 5 0 0 0 20
15 SI ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
Number indicates percentage of maintenance budget spent per performance indicator, referenced to 1 Jan 1995
? indicates no information supplied
Cat Road category ( p= primary network, r= rest of network)

Long Longitudinal profile (short and long wave longitudinal unevenness)
Trans Transverse profile (rutting)
Crack Surface layer cracking
Surf Surface layer defects (ravelling, bleeding, potholes, crazing, fretting)
Text Texture (macro and micro texture)
Struct Structural adequacy (fatigue cracking, deflection)
3.3 PERFORMANCE STUDIES
3.3.1 Overview
As indicated in the Introduction to this Chapter, data on the long term performance of pavements
can be gathered in three ways, through Network Monitoring, Real-time Loading Testing and
Accelerated Loading Testing. The three approaches are described here in more detail, and an
21
indication is given of which methods are used in the fifteen countries participating in COST Action
324 to collect data on pavement performance.
3.3.2 General considerations
The description of the three approaches is given here in the sequence of level of detail of the data
gathered. In Network Monitoring, data of limited detail is gathered on a very large number of
roads. By nature of the resulting data, its interpretation is of a statistical nature. In Real-time
Loading Testing (RLT), a much smaller sample of roads is studied in more detail. If good
experimental design is used to select the sites to be studied, the analysis may be performed on a
statistical basis. The level of detail per site allows for site-specific mechanistic studies to be carried
out. In Accelerated Loading Testing (ALT), very few or even a single test section may be studied
in great detail to gather performance data for a given set of experimental conditions. Although
statistical analysis is not usually applied, detailed mechanistic and phenomenological analyses can be
performed.
The ideal performance study would derive its prime group of data from an RLT experiment,
generating data of sufficient detail on a large enough number of test sections, backed up with
information from ALT studies. Analysis of such data would yield the general distress propagation
models describing, for instance, the development of ravelling with time. ALT experiments would
supply very detailed data for establishing relationships that cannot be obtained from RLT data. As
an example, the influence of the magnitude of the wheel load on fatigue distress should be studied
in an ALT experiment, since wheel loads cannot be controlled in RLT. Network monitoring would
be used for final validation of the models. The bulk data from the network would be used to check
the validity of the models developed from RLT and ALT. Furthermore, application of the models
on network data would ensure that they are fit for use in practice, with the level of the input data
being at the level of network monitoring.
3.3.3 Application of the various methods throughout Europe
Table 3.3 shows the application of Network Monitoring, RLT and ALT for the fifteen participating
organisations. A '+' indicates that the particular type of testing is carried out in the participating
country, while a '-' indicates that such testing is not done. More details on, for instance, the extent
of the testing will be given in later paragraphs of this Chapter.
Table 3.3. Use of Network Monitoring, ALT and RLT

1 Country AT BE CH DK ES FI FR GB GR HU Γ£ NL PT SE SI
j Network + + - + + + + + + + + + + + +
RLT
1 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
β ALT +* - + + + + + + - - - + - ··
-
The Austrian ALT is performed with the facility in Bratislava in Slovakia.

VTI, Sweden is acquiring a new ALT facility, in co-operation with VTT, Finland. Testing with the new
facility will start in 1997.
22
As shown in Table 3.3, all countries perform network monitoring with the exception of
Switzerland. It should be pointed out that most of this monitoring is done as part of regular
pavement management operations and not as an experiment to collect data for the development of
performance models.
All countries participating in COST Action 324 perform RLT. This outcome is an obvious one,
since COST Action 324 aims at integrating European studies into long term pavement
performance, of which RLT is an essential element. The fact that all participating countries do have
an RLT experiment in operation does indicate, however, that input will be available from across
Europe for the development of pavement performance models.
Eight of the fifteen countries are active in ALT research. This number is relatively low compared to
the numbers for Network and RLT research; due to the high cost of the large-scale, dedicated ALT
facilities.
In summary, all the countries participating in COST Action 324 are active in RLT. More than half
of the countries use ALT to back up the RLT data with in-depth data from accelerated loading
experiments. Almost all countries have network studies in progress, which yields the indispensable
data source for validation of performance models.
3.4 NETWORK MONITORING
3.4.1 Introduction
Network monitoring forms an essential element of pavement management. Through periodic visual
distress surveys, augmented by measurement of specific distress parameters such as the longitudinal
profile, the condition of the network is followed over the years. Deterioration of the average
condition of the whole network can indicate an inadequate maintenance budget. In principle, the
condition of each individual section of the network can be used in a Pavement Management System
to give an indication of when maintenance might be required.
In addition to this requirement for monitoring the condition of the network, the condition data can
also be used to improve performance models. Although network data may not be sufficiently
detailed to be used in model development, they can form a prime source of data for validation of
models based on data from the other methods of performance testing.
This paragraph summarises the network monitoring activities in the fifteen countries participating in
COST Action 324. It should be stressed that the network monitoring activities summarised here are
those yielding data that could be accessed by the participating organisations and therefore do not
necessarily give a full picture for each of the countries. The technical complexity of the summary
Tables and the language-barrier exclude input from non-participants in the COST Action 324 from
entering data into the project. Furthermore, the variety of data acquisition methods would be
enormous when the network monitoring activities at all levels of pavement management would be
incorporated in the summary Tables presented here.
23
3.4.2 Network Monitoring activities
Table 3.4 summarises the Network Monitoring activities of the participants in COST Action 324
and the meaning of the column headings is given in the glossary in Table 3.5.
In general terms, Table 3.4 summarises how many kilometres of the various levels of the road
network are being monitored, and when that monitoring started. Monitoring here may involve a
one-time gathering of inventory information such as layer thickness and periodic monitoring for
condition indicators such as distress and profile. Finally, the availability of data from such
monitoring activities for use by COST Action 324 and by others is indicated.
The column 'Seq' gives the sequence number in the Table. For a given country, several sequence
numbers may appear to allow for different types of Network Monitoring to be summarised in Table
3.4. As an example, DWW Rijkswaterstaat of the Netherlands carries out periodic monitoring of
2000 km of divided highways and 2600 km of primary roads. These monitoring activities started in
1980. Good inventory information is available for the lengths of the sections monitored and the
cross-profile of the sections. Less detailed information is available about the construction while
rehabilitation and maintenance are not recorded. Manual distress surveys and measurement of the
longitudinal and transverse profile are carried out once every two years. The data from the 2000
km on the divided highways is available for use by COST Action 324 and others, whereas the data
from the other type of roads is not available for such use.
Looking across Table 3.4, the enormous effort in periodic monitoring of the highway network is
striking. A total of 194 554 kilometres of road is listed as being monitored by the participants in
COST Action 324, who only represent the pavement management profession at the national level
of the countries involved. For most of these road sections, details are available on the pavement
construction, though this data may be of different levels of quality. Most organisations have a
system of keeping track of rehabilitation and maintenance, which of course has a major bearing on
the long term performance of the pavements studied. Most organisations still rely on manual
distress surveys. Where automated systems are used, manual surveys are also carried out.
Typically, distress surveys are carried out at intervals of two or three years.
Surface characteristics measurements for texture are carried out in only a limited number of
countries but skid resistance measurements are carried out in ten countries. Profile measurements
are performed by almost all organisations for both longitudinal and transverse profile. Periodic
deflection measurements using the Falling Weight Deflectometer are done in only four countries,
while five other countries perform periodic deflection measurements with other types of equipment.
Of the 14 organisations performing periodic Network Monitoring, nine state that their data could
be available for use in COST Action 324 and by others.
In all, network performance data are shown in Table 3.4 to be gathered across Europe in bulk
quantities, indicating sufficient potential data for validation of pavement performance models. The
use of the data for research purposes is more limited.
24
Table 3.4 Network Monitoring
Seq Country Cai kill Year Inventory Maintenance Distress Surface Char. Profile Deflection Availability
Length Cross Const Rehab Maint Man Auto Text Skid Long Trans FWD Other
1 AT D/P 5600 91 ~ b — — — — — 1/5 1/5 _ YES

2 BE S 100 93 8 R ~ ~ — 1/3 — — ~ 1/3 1/3 „ _ YES
i CH — — — — — — — — .. __ ani
NO
4 DK D/P 4500 74 g 8 a Ρ Ρ 1/2 — ~ 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/4 _ YES
5 ES D/P 20000 92 R a Ρ — 1/2 — ~ 1 1/3 1/3 __ .. NO
6 FI DPST 3000 89 g 8 b a a 1/3 — — — 1/3 1/3 1/3 „
YES
/ FR Ρ 30000 93 ß a a Ρ Ρ 1/3 ~ 1/5 1/5 _ 1/3 _ 1/10 YES
8a GB D/P 16000 85 R R a a a 1/3 — 1/2 1/3 1/2 1/2 m_ 1/3 NO
8b GB P/S 1260 77 ß g Ρ Ρ Ρ 1 — — __ _ NO
9 GR D/P 89 ~ a Ρ Ρ 1/3 1/3 1/2 1/2 1/3 __ 1/2 NO
10 HU P/S 30000 79 g g Ρ Ρ Ρ 1 ~ 1/3 1/3 1/3 1/3 1/5 1/5 NO
11 BE Ρ 2500 86 ~ — — — — _ 1/1 1/5 _ „
YES
12a NL D 2000 80 8 g p/b — — 1/2 — ._ __ 1/2 1/2 „
YES
12b NL Ρ 2600 80 R R p/b — — 1/2 ~ .. 1/2 1/2 —_ NO
13 PT Ρ 1900 92 8 R p/b p/b p/b 1/5 — 1/5 __ _ 1/5 NO
14a SE D 1250 82 — R a a — — 1 __ 1 1 ... YES
14b SE Ρ 8000 82 ~ R a a — — 1 1 1 „
YES
14c SE S 11000 82 ~ a a a — — 1/3 — 1/3 1/3 ™ „
YES
14d SE Τ 50000 82 Ρ Ρ Ρ — — 1/3 1/3 1/3 __ ^m YES
15a SI D 122 74 R g R R b 1/3 1/3 1/3 1/3 1/3 __ 1/3 YES
15b SI Ρ 1327 74 g R b b Ρ 1/3 1/3 _ 1/3 1/3 1/3 __ 1/3 NO
15c SI S 3395 74 g_ & b b 1/5 1/5 1/5 1/5 1/5 1/5 NO
Ρ
Table 3.5 Key to Network Monitoring Table 3.4
Cat Road category (D= divided highway, P= primary, S= secondary, T= tertiary)

Km Number of kilometres monitored
Year Year monitoring started
Inventory (g, a, p, and b)*
Length Length of section (metres)

Cross Cross-profile of section (width, number of lanes)
Const Construction details (Layer thicknesses, materials)
Maintenance (g, a, p, and b)*
Rehab Rehabilitation history

Maint Maintenance history
Good, detailed data available

a = Average data available (thickness, nature of materials known but not the actual material properties)
P = Poor data available (some data elements are lacking)
b = Bad data available (only type of road is known, e.g. flexible, rigid)
No data available
Distress (figure indicates frequency of measurements)
Man Manual distress surveys

Auto Automated distress surveys
Surface characteristics (figure indicates frequency of measurements)
Text Texture
Profile (figure indicates frequency of measurements)
Long Longitudinal profile

Trans Transverse profile
Deflection (figure indicates frequency of measurements)
FWD Falling weight deflectometer

Other Other type of deflection measurement
Availability Indicates whether monitoring data is readily available for general scientific
purposes
26
3.5 REAL-TIME LOADING TESTING
3.5.1 Introduction
Real-time Loading Testing forms the prime source of data for the development of pavement
performance models. In such testing, more detailed data is gathered than in Network Monitoring.
Data on distress, for instance, can be obtained from detailed visual distress surveys performed with
road closures, whereas in Network Monitoring distress surveys are often carried out from moving
vehicles. Deflection testing is also more detailed at the RLT level than in Network Monitoring. In
RLT research, Falling Weight Deflectometer measurements are made at short intervals between the
measurement points, whereas such detailed measurements are not made at the network level.
It should be stressed here that the detailed level of RLT is required for model development only.
Once the models have been developed, they should be put to work in pavement management at the
network level to predict future development of distress from an observation of the distress at any
given time. The models therefore should be suited for working with network-level data after having
been developed from the more detailed RLT level of data.
Another distinction between Network Monitoring and RLT lies in the selection of test sites to be
monitored. Because of the required high level of detail, the length of road to be monitored in RLT
research should be limited. Therefore, data acquisition usually is carried out on selected sections of
roads, often with a standard length of a hundred meters or multiples thereof In Network
Monitoring, the majority of the network is monitored at a level of detail sufficient for pavement
management purposes.
The selection of RLT sites is governed by the objectives of the study. If the study aims at
development of generalised performance models, a large set oftest sections is required to be able to
identify the influence of the major explanatory variables. If for instance, models for fatigue
distresses are to be developed, sections with various thicknesses of bimminous layers, various types
of bases and various levels of traffic loading may be required. Ideally, all combinations of these
explanatory variables should be represented in the test sections studied. This approach leads to
large scale RLT experiments, Healing with hundreds of test sections scattered over a wide
geographical area to allow for the influence of climate to be identified.
In RLT experiments aimed at much more defined problems, the required number of tests sections
can be lower. If for instance, the long term performance of surface dressings is the topic of study,
only the explanatory variables for that specific performance are required in the experimental design.
Sections with much and little traffic may be needed, but the total thickness of construction would
not necessarily be a parameter in the experimental design.
This paragraph summarises the RLT activities in thefifteencountries participating in COST Action
324. Although only submissions of the participating organisations will be summarised, the summary
can be expected to cover all activities in the particular countries. As RLT experiments are
expensive and require long term effort, they are usually only undertaken by national road authorities
and their affiliates. Since most of these organisations are represented in COST Action 324, the
summaries given here generally represent the national efforts in RLT research. Prior to
summarising the RLT experiments, the objectives of the national experiments will be dealt with.
27
3.5.2 Real-time Loading Testing objectives
The objectives of the RLT experiments are summarised in Table 3.6. As noted earlier, all countries
represented in COST Action 324 have one or more RLT experiments in progress.
As shown in Table 3.6, development of pavement performance models and the study of the
structural assessment of pavements are the prime objectives of RLT research across Europe. The
study of the performance of specific materials and the participation in the US S trategic Highway
Research Program are major objectives of RLT research. The SHRP programme has had a number
of spin-off projects across Europe, aimed at performing parallel RLT experiments for local
conditions.
The other possible objectives have a somewhat lower overall score. For a given country, however,
the more specific objectives may very well be the main or even the only reason for performing the
RLT experiment. The experiment in Ireland, for instance, is specifically aimed at assessing the long
term performance of a number of maintenance options.
Table 3.6 RLT Objectives
Country Design Model Struct Comp Season Alter 1 Overfay Rehab Maint SHRP [ Material Special
AT - + + - + - + - - + - -
BE - + + - + - - + + - - -
CH - - - + - + - - - - + -
DK - + - - - ■ - + + + + -
ES + - + + - + - - +
Π - + + - + - - + - -
FR + + + - - - + + - + + -
GB - + + + ■ • + + + + + +
GR + - + - - - + + - - + -
HU • + + + - + - - - - - -
IE - - - - - - - - + - + -
NL - + - - - - - + + + - -
PT + + - + + - - - - - + +
SE - + + - - - + - - + " "
SI + + + + + + + + + +■ +
.,..,:,
+ indicates "Yes", - indicates "No"
Design Development of pavement design methods

Model Development of pavement performance models
Struct S tudying structural assessment of pavements
Comp Comparison of various types of pavement structures
Season S tudying seasonal effects in pavements
Alter S tudying alternative pavement structures
Over! Development of overlay design methods
Rehab Development of rehabilitation strategies
Maint Development of maintenance strategies
SHRP Establishing overlaps with US-SHRP
Material Material studies
Special S tudy of specialties such as membranes, geogrids etcetera
28
3.5.3 Real-time Loading Testing experiments
Table 3.7 summarises the RLT experiments carried out by the participating organisations up to 1
January 1995, with Table 3.8 giving the associated glossary of terms. Table 3.7 allows for a
description of various experiments per country, as was done for Network Monitoring. For
instance, the United Kingdom had nine different RLT experiments in progress at one stage.
A distinction is made in Table 3.7 between RLT sites and sections. Data are gathered in RLT for a
large number of individual test sections. Often, a number of such sections are situated adjacent to
one another on the same road. In that case, the group oí sections is located at the same site. The
reason behind clustering a number of sections at the same site often comesfromthe objective of the
study. If, for instance, comparison of various maintenance treatments is the subject studied, it is of
course essential to compare the treatments under similar conditions. By putting the sections
adjacent to each other on the same road, they will all be subjected to the same traffic loading and
the same climatic conditions. If, on the other hand, the influence of traffic loading is the subject of
study, then the sections should not be on the same road but at a number of different sites.
The column 'length' in Table 3.7 indicates the length of the test section. This column allows for a
minimum and maximum length of the section to be listed. In most cases, the minimum and
maximum length are equal, indicating that the particular experiment works with standard section
lengths. The Austrian experiment number 1, for instance, has 12 sections with a standard length of
150 m each. In the case of the Austrian experiment, the standard length was derived from the US
SHRP, which works with test sections of 500 feet in length. In some cases, test sections of different
length are used in the same experiment. The Swiss experiment number 3b, for instance, works with
sections of either 300 or 600 m long.
Most RLT experiments involve the collection of so-called time series data, indicating that data on
the performance of the given pavement are collected over a period of several years. In doing so, the
development of the various distresses with time can be monitored for input to the model
development. To allow for data on the length of the monitoring period, the column Vear1 in Table
3.7 indicates both the year in which monitoring was begun and the year in which it was ended.
Ideally, the data acquisition should be performed over the full life of the pavement, which leads to a
monitoring period often years or more. Some of the experiments listed in Table 3.7 stretch over
such a long period, such as experiment 8c from the UK, which was carried out over a period of
fifteen years from 1978 and 1993. The other extreme is experiment 2 from Belgium, which
involved a single-shot data acquisition on a large number of test sections. The influence of the
explanatory variable 'age' can from data from such an experiment only be derived by testing
pavements of different ages in the single-shot approach. In the analysis of such data, problems may
occur because of inter-section variability in the development of distress with age.
As can be seen from the column 'Year1, most of the experiments listed are still in progress. Many of
the experiments were initiated in the early 1990's. The large effort in Long Term Pavement
Performance research, which started in 1988 in the US SHRP inspired many European countries to
embark on similar studies. As with the American experiment, these European studies are still in
progress, with the resulting data sets now reaching maturity.
29
Table 3.7 RLT Experiment
Seq Country Sites Sections Length Year Budget Construction Distress SurfChar. Profile Deflection Traffic
Min Max Asph Base Subb Subgr Man Auto Text Skid Long Trans FWD Other Vehic Truck WIM
1 AT 6 12 150 150 91- 60 + + + + — — 1 1 1 _ + + +

2 BE 30 120 500 500 91-91 130 - - - - - — - 1 _ * . .
-
3a CH 1 16 300 300 89- 200 + + + + 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2 1 — + + +
3b CH 5 17 300 600 62/81- ? + + + + 1/2 - - - 1/2 1/2 — _ + + +
4a DK 12 12 900 900 83- 8 + + + + - - 1 - — — + .
4b DK 21 ? 500 500 81- 14 + + + + - - 1 — — — + - .
4c DK 7 ? 150 150 93- 40 + + + + - - 1 1 — + . -
5 ES 1 ? 200 310 92- 100 + + + + - - - — 1 — + + +
6a Π 48 48 150 150 90- 75 + + + + - - - 1/5 — + + .
6b Π 45 1350 100 100 79- 40 + + + + - - — — — 1/10 — + + .
7a FR 22 ? 150 1000 93- 7 + + + + - 1 1 1 1 — + + .
7b FR 10 ? 200 ? 84- 7 + - - -
8a GB 15 1 500 500 83- 95 + + + + - - — 1 1 + + .
8b GB 4 1 100 100 87-89 25 + + + - - - — — 1 + + .
8c GB 7 1-3 100 100 78-93 130 + + - - - 1 1 — 1 + + .
8d GB 900 1 100 100 84-92 120 + + + - - - - — — — + . .
8e GB 4 4 100 100 87-93 35 + + + - - 1 - 1 1 + + .
8f GB 26 2 50 150 89- 250 + - - - - 1 1 — — + + .
»8 GB 3 31 100 100 91-94 30 + + + + — - — _ 1 + + .
8h GB 8 6 150 150 91- 130 + + + - — 1 — I 1 + + .
8i GB 3 4 100 100 86- 20 + + + + - - - — 1 + + .
9 GR 4 12 100 5000 89- - + + + + - - 1 - 1 — + + +
10 HU 54 67 2000 2000 91- 25 + + + + - 1 - 1 — + + .
11 E 10 33 100 2000 90- 15 - - - - - 1 1 - — + + .
12 NL 247 741 100 100 91- 500 + + + + 1 - - 1 — + + .
13a PT 11 22 150 300 91- 23 + * + + - 1 1 4/1 - + + +
13b PT 2 7 200 200 91- 7 + + + + 2/1 - 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2 1 — + + +
14 SE 55 567 100 100 84- 175 + + + + - 1 - 1 — + +
15 SI 7 13 150 150 92- 45 + + + + - 1 1 1/3 + + +
Table 3.8 Key to RLT Experiment Table 3.7
Experiment (? indicates no data supplied)
Sites Number of geographically separated locations

Sections Number oftest sections monitored individually
Length Length oftest section [m]
Min = Length of shortest section
Max = Length of longest section
Year Years of data acquisition
Budget Annual budget [1000 ecu]
Construction (+ indicates data available, - indicates data not available)
A s ph Asphalt type and thickness

Base Base type and thickness
Subb Sub-base type and thickness
Subgr Type of subgrade
Distress (figure indicates number of measurements per year, — indicates measurement

not carried out)
Man Manual distress surveys

Aut Automated distress surveys (film, video)
Surface (figure indicates number of measurements per year, — indicates measurement

characteristics not carried out)
Text Texture
Profile (figure indicates number of measurements per year, ~ indicates measurement

not carried out)

Deflection (figure indicates number of measurements per year, — indicates measurement

not carried out, * indicates single data point)
FWD Falling Weight Deflectometer

Traffic (+ indicates data available, - indicates data not available)
Vehic Number of vehicles

Truck Percentage of trucks
Wim Weigh in motion
31
With the help of Table 3.8, the remaining columns of Table 3.7 are self-explanatory. In a broad
brush view across Table 3.7, most experiments are shown to have data available on the major
construction parameters such as thickness of asphalt concrete and thickness of the base layer.
Almost all sections are monitored through 'manual' distress surveys, indicating that people go out to
the sections and perform the survey while walking on the section. In two cases, also automated
distress surveys are performed in addition to the manual survey. In a single case (experiment 7a
from France), only automated surveys are used to collect the distress data. Most data acquisition is
done annually, with only Switzerland doing biannual surveys.
It should be mentioned here that although data appears to be collected in all countries for all
relevant distresses, these data are gathered through local data acquisition systems. Because of the
differences in these systems, the data from the various countries cannot be simply put together into
a single data set for analysis. For the existing data, normalisation-formulae bringing this data to a
common denominator need to be developed, whilst the existing data set should be augmented by
data collected over a period of a few years in a uniform way.
Surface characteristics are monitored in less than half of the experiments, whilst profile is measured
in almost all experiments at the same rate as the distress surveys. Deflection is monitored in almost
all experiments, with the Falling Weight Deflectometer being the most frequently used equipment.
The lowest frequency of deflection testing is applied In Finland, with experiments 6a and 6b having
frequencies of once per five and once per ten years, respectively.
Data on traffic loading are gathered for almost all experiments at the level of counts of the number
of vehicles and the percentage of trucks. Only in a limited number of experiments is Weigh-in-
Motion data gathered, using sensors built into the pavement structure.
In summary, the inventory of RLT experiments summarised in Table 3.7 has revealed that extensive
RLT level data have been collected from a large number oftest sections across Europe. The detail
of the data and the frequency at which they are collected appears to be sufficient for detailed model
development studies. Also, the number of years over which the various experiments have been
carried out appears to be sufficient to form a solid basis for a project on modelling of the
propagation of the distress per individual test section. When augmented by additional rounds of
data acquisition in a few more years, the total time over which condition data is available would be
in reasonable relation to the life cycle of pavements.
The effects of age and of traffic loading can from such data be studied for an individual test section,
which should eliminate the problem of inter-section variability mentioned earlier. Having developed
the form of the model and derived the parameters of that model for a particular test section,
variations in model parameters can be investigated in relation to the differences in explanatory
variables for other test sections being studied.
A final remark should be made on the geographical distribution of the test sections across Europe.
Although RLT data are available from all countries participating in COST Action 324 and therefore
for the whole European inference space of climatic and traffic conditions, the data in Table 3.7
show that the geographical distribution of test sections is not uniform across Europe. Large
concentrations of the data can be found in Scandinavia, in the United Kingdom and in the
Netherlands.
32
3.6 ACCELERATED LOADING TESTING
3.6.1 Introduction
Although RLT experiments yield detailed data, they do have the drawback that in such experiments
one has to work with observations, rather than with controlled experiments. If the influence of axle
loads, for instance, is the subject of study, it would be very difficult to identify RLT test sections on
the normal road network with say axle loads of 100 kN on one specific section and of 115 kN on
another. RLT test sections can be found with a high rate of traffic loading and perhaps with a more
than average percentage of trucks. Similarly, test sections for the opposite conditions could also be
found. The axle loads, however, cannot be controlled and set at predetermined levels in RLT. This
reasoning goes for other explanatory variables as well, and therefore RLT analysis relies on
observations from practice, rather than on data from controlled experiments.
Accelerated loading facilities allow for controlled experiments. Using again the example of axle
loading as the subject of study, two experiments could be run on the same pavement, one with, for
example, one million applications of a 100 kN axle load and the other with one million applications
of 115 kN. All other explanatory variables could be set at the same level, resulting in a data set that
characterises the influence of axle loading and nothing else. The disadvantage of such an approach
would be that in most ALT facilities, the two tests would have to be run consecutively and that
consequently the particular experiment would be somewhat time consuming.
Through the special possibilities offered by ALT facilities, data from ALT can augment those from
RLT. The influence of specific explanatory variables can best be studied in ALT experiments, but
such experiments cannot be used to cover the whole range of parameters that influence long term
pavement performance. The number of such parameters is so large, that mnning consecutive tests
on ALT facilities for all explanatory variables would simply take too much time. Further, time itself
can be an explanatory variable, for instance in the hardening of bitumen in pavement surface layers
which in turn influences its resistance to distresses like ravelling. Axle loading can be accelerated in
ALT, but time can not. Therefore, ALT on specially built test sections is perfectly suited for
augmenting data from practice resulting from RLT, but it cannot replace the observations on the
regular road network.
This section summarises the ALT activities in the fifteen countries participating in COST Action
324. Although only submissions from the participating organisations are shown, the summary can
again be expected to cover all activities in the particular countries. As with the RLT experiments,
ALT experiments are expensive and, in principle, only undertaken by national road authorities and
their affiliates.
Prior to summarising the ALT experiments, a description of the various facilities available at the
participating organisations is given.
3.6.2 Accelerated Loading Testing facilities
Table 3.9 gives a summary characterisation of the various ALT facilities in operation in Europe. Of
the fifteen countries participating in COST Action 324, eight have such facilities available.
Although Austria does not have an ALT facility of its own, it is able to use the facility at Bratislava
in Slovakia. Switzerland has two facilities in operation.
33
ALT facilities basically come in two types, being circular and linear facilities. In circular facilities,
the loaded wheels run unidirectionally on a circular track and can therefore be operated at a
constant speed. Circular facilities thereby allow for realistic speeds of up to 100 km/h. In linear
facilities the wheels run up and down along a straight line and therefore have to be continuously
accelerated and decelerated. The maximum constant speed over a central test section in such
facilities is therefore generally limited to 20 km/h.
Table 3.9 ALT Facilities
1 Seq JCountry Facility Type Diam Carriage Speed Load Wheel Length Section Climate
1 |AT Rundlauf, Bratislava C 30 3 30 100 A 100 6 O

CH Rundlauf, Dübendorf C 32 3 80 80 S/D 100 6 OG
É
3b
l CH Hall^F^sse, Lausanne L N/A 1 10 120 S/D/A 5 4 ITC
4 DK RTM, Lyngby L N/A 1 30 130 S/D 9 1 T
5 IES Madrid M N/A 2 60 80 D/A 25 6 OG
6 FI NESTE C 5 2 30 100 s 12 3 ITC
7 FR Manège de Fatigue, Nantes C 40 4 70 130 S/D/A/T 110 8 O
8 GB PTF, Crowthorne L N/A 1 20 100 S/D 7 10 ΓΤ
12 NL Lintrack, Delft L N/A 1 20 1 loo J S/D 3.5 8 1
Facility Name of facility

Type Type of facility (C= Circular, L=: Linear, M= Mixed)
Diam Diameter of circular facility [m] (N/A = Not applicable)
Carriage Number of load assemblies
Speed Operating speed [km/h]
Load Maximum load on assembly [kn]
Wheel Load-configuration (S= single, D= dual, A= axle, T= tandem)
Lengtii Maximum length that can be tested | in]
Section Maximum number of sections
Climate Climate control (O: Outside, I: Indoor, T: Temperature controlled, G: Ground water level controlled)
The column 'Type' of Table 3.9 shows that of the nine facilities available, four are circular and four
are linear. The facility at Madrid is a unique exception, in the sense that it combines the advantages
of circular and linear machines. This facility has the shape of a horse racing track, which permits
high-speed, unidirectional loading on test sections located on the straight part of the track.
Consequently, the loading on the test sections is in a straight line and the pavements are not
subjected to the continuous shear forces associated with circular facilities.
For the circular facilities, the column Oiam' of Table 3.9 specifies the diameter of the facility. The
column 'Carriage' specifies the number of wheel loading assemblies. The linear facilities all have
single load assemblies, but this number varies for the circular facilities. The column 'Speed' gives the
maximum speed of the load assemblies in operational testing, whilst the column TLoad' specifies the
maximum load on the wheel assembly. The column "Wheel' specifies the type of load assembly,
varying from a complete axle to a single wheel in most of the linear facilities. Most of the facilities
34
allow for mounting various types of loading assembly and thereby for studying the effect of, for
instance, single wide based tyres versus dual wheel assemblies.
iin ■
The Madrid ALT facility
The column 'Length' gives the maximum length of pavement that can be tested in the pertaining
facility. For the linear facilities, this length is where constant speed and load can be applied and is
generally limited to less than 10 m. The load assembly applying the load has to be accelerated and
decelerated for every load application and therefore travels at constant speed for only a limited part
of the test section. For the circular machines travelling at constant speed over the whole length of
the test section, the maximum length that can be tested is in principle the length of the
circumference of the facility. On that length, a number of sections can be tested simultaneously by
building the sections adjacent to one another on the circumference. For the linear facilities, the
column 'Section' also indicates the possibility of testing several sections. It should be noted,
however, that this number indicates the number of sections that can be built simultaneously in the
facility. Actual testing of these sections entails positioning the facility over the particular section
and testing it individually
Finally, the column 'Climate' indicates the climate-control in the various facilities. Because of their
size, the large circular facilities are outdoor and thus have no climatic control. The linear facilities
are all indoor, with several facilities allowing for temperature control of the pavement tested
The facility at Madrid also allows for 'indoor' testing, even though this facility is by far the largest.
Here, the facility itself is outdoor, but the test sections can be covered by means of a removable
roof This facility also allows for control of the level of the ground water, as do the Finnish and
Swiss facilities
35
3.6.3 Accelerated loading testing experiments
Table 3.10 summarises ALT experiments of the participating organisations up to 1 January 1995
with Table 3.11 containing the associated glossary of terms. As with Network Monitoring and
RLT experiments, the Table allows for several experiments per participating organisation.
The column Year1 indicates the years in which the particular experiment was performed.
Experiment la from Austria, for instance, is shown to have been carried out until the year 1994,
after which the next experiment lb was started, which was still in progress at the reference date of
1 January 1995. It should be stressed here that the listing of experiments in Table 3.10 is not a
complete list of all recent experiments carried out with the particular facility. The French Manège
de Fatigue in Nantes, for instance, has been used extensively for many testing purposes over the last
few years. The experiment listed for France in Table 3.10 is the one which is of particular interest
to COST Action 324, because this experiment aimed at the development of performance models.
Inclusion of all experiments carried out with the various facilities would have made Table 3.10 too
long and would have drawn the attention away from the focus of COST Action 324.
The remainder of Table 3.10 is self explanatory. The columns 'Construction' specify the type of
pavement construction tested in the various experiments, whilst the columns 'Measurements'
indicate the types of data acquisition performed during the testing. The column Objectives' specifies
the objectives of the particular experiment. As can be seen from this column, only experiments that
have objectives related to the work of COST Action 324 have been listed.
The column Έ,εροΓί' indicates the availability of reports on the particular experiments. The column
Tink' specifies whether or not the results of the ALT have been linked to the performance of roads
under normal traffic. As stated earlier, only the loading of the test pavements is accelerated in ALT,
whilst other parameters such as time cannot be accelerated. Further, the acceleration of loading
may have particular influences on the development of distresses. As an example, asphaltic concrete
is known to exhibit a healing effect in which the detrimental effects of wheel loading are partly
recovered in a period of no loading. Usually, such periods of no loading are shorter in Accelerated
Loading Testing and consequently the effect of healing may be less. However, there are much
longer periods of no loading when the linear facilities are testing other pavements and when they
are not running for other reasons such as maintenance. In all, the development of distresses
observed in ALT does not have a one-to-one relationship with the behaviour of pavements under
normal traffic and climatic conditions. As indicated in Table 3.10, only in a single case have
attempts been made to relate the outcome of the ALT experiment to the performance of normal
road sections
36
Table 3.10 ALT Experiments
Seq Country Experiment Construction Measurements Objectives Report Link

Year Budget Asphall Base Basetype Subbase Subgr Pit Crack Text Long Trans FWD Other Temp Resp
la AT -94 90 12-14 20 υ 30 S - - - + + + - + - Model, Comp, Struct, Mat Y Ν

lb AT 94- 100 ? ? ? ? ? ? - - + + - - + - Maint, Model, Comp, Mat Ν Ν
2a CH -94 200 8 0 Ν/Α 180 S - - - + + + - + + Mat, Design, Struct, Math Ν Ν
2b CH -94 100 4 0 Ν/Α 40 ? - + + Math Ν Ν
J DK -94 ? 6 13
υ 40 C 100 + - + + + - + + Math, Struct, Season Ν Ν
4a ES -93 ? 10-18 25
υ 0-25 S 260 + + + + + - + + Model, Comp Υ Ν
45b ES 93- 7 12-20 0-25 U.B 0-25 S 260 + + + + + - + + Model, Comp Υ Ν
5 FI 91 100 6-14 18-40 U.B 0 s 200 + - + + + + + + Model, Comp, Alter Υ Ν
6 FR 94 250 10-25 ? Β ? ? - + - + + + - + + Model Design, Overl, Rehab, Maint Ν Ν
/ GB 93- 40 4 15 Β 15 300 +
c - - + + - + + Mat, Comp Υ Υ
8 NL 93- 600 15 0 Ν/Α 0 S — + - - + + - + + Model, Design Υ Ν
Table 3.11: Key to ALT Experiment Table 3.10
Experiment
Year Year(s) in which experiment was or is performed (-94: up to 1994, 94-: since 1994)
Bud Budget for experiment [1000 ecu] (? indicates no data supplied)
Construction
Asphalt Thickness of asphalt [cm] inclusive of overlay

Base Thickness of base [cm] (? indicates no data supplied)
Basetype U= unbound, b= bound (N/A not applicable)
Subbase Thickness of sub-base [cm] (? indicates no data supplied)
Subgrade Type of subgrade (S= sand, C= clay) (? indicates no data supplied)
Pit Depth [cm] to floor oftest pit (— indicates no pit present)
Measurements (+ indicates measurements made, - indicates measurements not made)
Crack Cracking
Text Texture
Fwd Falling weight deflectometer
Temp Temperature
Resp Pavement response (stress, strain)
Objectives
Design Development of pavement design methods

Model Development of pavement performance models
Struct Studying structural assessment of pavements
Comp Comparison of various types of pavement structures
Season Studying seasonal effects in pavements
Alter Studying alternative pavement structures
Overt Development of overlay design methods
Rehab Development of rehabilitation strategies
Maint Development of maintenance strategies
Mat Material studies
Special Study of specialties such as membranes, geogrids etcetera
Math Mathematical modelling
Report Report(s) available

Link ALT results linked to actual roads
38
3.7 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This chapter gives an inventory of the work in thefieldof collecting pavement performance data in
the fifteen participating countries. This inventory was carried out for Network Monitoring, Real-
time Loading Testing and Accelerated Loading Testing as methods for data collection.
• The overall conclusion from the inventory is that much work in this area is in progress, which
should yield data of sufficient quantity and detail for a European analysis of pavement perfor-
mance. The number of RLT sections under investigation appears large enough to allow for
selection of test sections for a pan-European analysis. If monitored for a few more years, the
total time span covered by the data would stand in reasonable relation to the life cycle of
pavements. The existing data has, however, been collected through local data acquisition
systems and therefore needs normalisation prior to analysis at European level.
• For ALT data, again much work is in progress or has already been completed. Here, attention
should be paid on the translation of ALT results towards the performance of roads under normal
traffic. As shown in the inventory, this aspect has received little attention in the past.
• For Network Monitoring, extensive data could be derived from the national monitoring projects
in progress. The problem here lies again in the use of local data acquisition systems, which calls
for normalisation of the data prior to analysis. A second problem lies with the availability of the
data. As shown, this availability is limited. Effort should be put into releasing data where
possible.
3.8 REFERENCES
HAAS R, HUDSON W.R. and ZANJEWSKI J. (1994)

Modern Pavement Management - Krieger Publishing Company, Malabar, Florida 1994.
39
CHAPTER 4
FACTORS AFFECTING PAVEMENT PERFORMANCE
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this investigation is to determine to what degree individual factors are believed to
influence the performance of pavements in the countries participating in COST Action 324. The
results will provide guidance to decide which factors should be measured on the test sections used
to provide data for the development of pavement performance models.
An initial list of factors thought to influence the performance of various road layers was agreed by
the COST 324 Management Committee and a broad brush approach was used to arrange them into
a priority order. To enable decisions to be made on the selection of performance and material
factors which should be used in pavement performance studies, it was necessary to develop the list
into a structured system. An in-depth evaluation could then be carried out taking into account the
perceived level of influence that the different factors had on the structural performance of roads in
the participating countries. The results should also contribute to determining the reasons for any
regional and national differences that might emerge.
The Transport Research Laboratory (TRL) in the United Kingdom was awarded a contract from
the European Commission to investigate the use of rating trees for the analysis of the pavement
performance factors. The study was designed to analyse the input from the 15 countries taking part
in COST Action 324 and the report by Potter and Langdale (1995) was issued by COST. A brief
summary of the report is given in this Chapter.
4.2 METHODOLOGY
4.2.1 Selection and ranking of variables
First, a number of potential variables affecting pavement performance were listed based on
experience and current research results for each of the following performance indicators:
• Transverse profile
• Cracking
• Surface defects
• Skid resistance
• Texture
• Structural adequacy (deflection)
Pavement performance indicators are defined as follows:
• Longitudinal profile (unevenness, roughness) describes the profile along the length of the road in
the wheel paths of the traffic.
41
• Transverse profile describes the shape of the road at right angles to the direction of traffic
measured as the depth of rutting in the wheel paths caused by deformation produced by heavy
traffic or wear produced by studded tyres.
• Cracking is that cracking observed on the pavement surface:
• Surface defects describes other defects on the surface like ravelling, patching, potholes, etc.
• Skid resistance describes the friction between the tyre and the road surface which is in part
controlled by the road surface texture.
• Texture describes the macro texture and micro texture of the road surface.
• Structural adequacy (deflection) describes the deflections measured on the surface of the road
by Falling Weight Deflectometer, Deflectograph, deflection beam, Curviameter or other pieces
of equipment.
In the second phase, each variable was assigned a value by each participating country using criteria
which assumed that each factor was an individual variable independent from all the other variables.
The criteria were:
value 0 variable has no effect on pavement performance,

value 1 variable has a reasonable effect on pavement performance
value 2 variable has a large effect on pavement performance
Within each category, variables were ranked for every performance indicator on the basis of their
total number of points assigned. A summary of the findings is presented in Tables 4.1 and 4.2. It
should be bome in mind that the values presented are only indicative since the objective was to
produce input information for developing rating tree system. Table 4.1 summarises the returns
from all the countries for each of the seven pavement performance indicators for all of the
pavement factors. In Table 4.2, the pavement factors have been ranked in terms of importance for
each of the three materials considered. The results from the Rating Tree study provide a more
detailed ranking, taking additional factors into consideration. The results from this preliminary
study support the findings of the Rating Tree analysis.
42
Table 4.1 Summary of factors affecting pavement performance indicators
| Code Pavement factors Performance indicator
j A Asphalt mature 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Sum

Al Bulk specific gravity 6 5 7 8 5 3 11 458
A2 Maximum specific gravity 4 3 5 6 3 3 6 30J
A3 Bitumen content 10 28 25 21 18 14 14 130
A4 Mix stiffness (Resilient modulus) 12 21 25 S 0 0 26 92
A5 Tensile strength 2 2 28 12 0 1 18 63
A6 Percent air voids 10 22 18 15 8 10 13 96
A7 Degree of compaction 13 25 17 17 5 4 22 103
A8 Grading curve 11 21 14 13 13 13 15 100
A9 Bitumen penetration 9 24 20 15 6 3 15 92
AIO Bitumen viscosity 10 23 19 13 6 3 13 87
All Bitumen softening point 7 19 13 12 6 3 9 69
A12 Bitumen stiffness 9 22 20 12 5 3 16 87
A13 Voids in mineral aggregate 1 11 12 8 11 8 13 64
A14 Layer thickness 16 16 25 14 0 2 30 103
Al 5 Type of aggregates (PSV) 0 1 4 7 27 15 2 56
Β Unbound base/subbase 1 2 3 4 5 6 Sum

Bl Maximum lab. dry density 8 7 7 5 0 0 11 38
B2 Optimum lab. moisture content 9 11 10 6 0 0 14 50
B3 Percent compaction 20 21 15 9 0 0 21 86
B4 Grading curve 9 13 10 9 0 0 16 57
B5 Resilient modulus 15 16 21 7 0 0 26 85
B6 CBR 17 18 20 8 0 0 23 86
B7 Permeability 14 14 12 6 0 0 14 60
B8 Capillary rise 14 14 14 8 0 0 18 68
B9 Aggregate strength 9 11 10 5 0 0 15 50
BIO Irisitu moisture content 12 12 11 4 0 0 14 53
BU Plasticity of Fines 8 10 6 4 0 0 10 38
[ B12 Laver thickness 18 19 17 4 0 0 24 82
C Subgrade I ι 2 3 4 5 6 | Sum
Cl Grading curve 14 12 10 4 0 0 14 54Ü
C2 % by WL finer than 0.074 mm 14 13 13 6 0 0 13 59¡
C3 Liquid limit 15 14 12 3 0 0 11 55J
C4 Plasticity index 14 15 13 4 0 0 11 57
C5 Resilient modulus 16 17 20 6 0 0 20 79
C6 CBR 18 19 20 5 0 0 21 83
C7 Percent compaction 18 18 15 9 0 0 18 78
C8 Maximum Lab. dry density 8 7 5 3 0 0 10 33
C9 Optimum lab. moisture content 9 9 8 5 0 0 12 43
CIO Soil suction 16 14 14 5 0 0 13 62B
Cll Capillary rise 16 14 14 4 0 0 14 62
C12 Shear modulus 10 12 15 6 0 0 16 59
C13 Friction angle 13 13 9 5 0 0 13 53
C14 Permeability 12 11 9 3 0 0 131 48
C15 Homogeneity 17 12 10 5 0 0 13 57
C16 In situ moisture content 19 20 15 5 0 0 20 79Í
C17 In situ dry density 16 15 12 6 0 0 15 64fl
Key to pavement condition indicators: 1 = Longitudinal profile

2 = Transverse profile
3 = Cracking
4 = Surface defects
5 = Skid resistance
6 = Texture
7 = Structural adequacy
43
Table 4.2 Overall summary of factors affecting pavement performance
Pavement factors
Asphalt mixture Ranked Sum
A3 Bitumen content 130
A14 Layer thickness 103
A7 Degree of compaction 103
A8 Grading curve 100
A6 Percent air voids %
A4 Mix ■rfiffrv«^ (Resilient modulus) 9:
A9 Bitumen penetration 92
AIO Bitumen viscosity 87
AI2 Bitumen stiffness 87
All Bitumen softening point 0»
A13 Voids in mineral aggregate 64
Ai Tensile strength 63
A15 Type of aggregates (PSV) 5o
Al Bulk specific gravity 45
A2 Maximum specific gravity 30
Β Unbound base/subbase Ranked Sum

B3 Percent compaction 86
B6 CBR 86
B5 Résiliait modulus 85
B12 Layer thickness 82
B8 Capillary rise 68
B7 Permeability 60
B4 Grading curve 57
BIO In-situ moisture content 53
B9 Aggregate strength 50
B2 Optimum lab. moisture content 50
Bl Maximum lab. dry density 38
) Bll Plasticity of Fines 38
C Subgrade Ranked Sum

C6 fcBR 83
C16 [In situ moisture content 79
C5 Resilient modulus 79
C7 Percent compaction 78
C17 In situ dry density 64
C10 Soil suction 62
cu Capillary rise 62
C12 Shear modulus 59
C2 % by Wt finer than 0.074 mm 59
C15 Homogeneity 57
C4 Plasticity index 57
C3 Liquid limit 55
CI Grading curve 54
C13 Friction angle 53
C14 Permeability 48
C9 Optimum lab. moisture content 43
C8 Maximum lab. drv density 33
44
4.2.2 Rating trees
A rating tree diagram is used to combine information to produce an overall rating value of a
product or need. It has the advantage of indirectly incorporating the Bayesian approach to statistics
which allows the user to inject his engineering judgement. A rating tree comprises a series of
factors and their weighting values based on their relative importance.
The rating tree for this study was developed by building on the agreed list of factors that were
considered by the Management Committee to influence performance of flexible pavements. The
factors or explanatory variables were grouped according to road layer material: asphalt mixture,
rigid base, unbound base/subbase and subgrade. Asphalt mixture category had 15 variables,
unbound base/subbase 12 variables and subgrade 17 variables, respectively. For the rating tree
study, cracking was divided into surface cracking and structural cracking because although they are
both observed in the same manner in the pavement surface, they have markedly different origins.
Surface cracking (top-down cracking) describes cracking initiating in the surface layer of the
pavement and not in the structural layers while structural cracking (fatigue cracking) describes
cracking in the main structural element of the road for bituminous and rigid structural layers. In
addition, texture was ommitted because it was perceived as an explanatory variable for skid
resistance.
The relative importance of the various factors is governed by the type of road structure, the
thickness of the pavement layers, traffic flows and climate. In addition, when considering how the
properties of asphaltic materials influence pavement performance, the weighting values depend on
the intended use of the asphalt.
Separate rating trees were developed for each of the three types of road construction defined on the
basis of the material forming the main structural element of the road. The surface layers for all road
types was bituminous. Rating trees were produced for roads with the main structural element
being:
bituminous
rigid
granular
The representatives from each of the 15 countries participating in COST Action 324 consulted their
colleagues and assigned weighting values to the various factors in the rating trees which reflected
the actual conditions in their own country. The data supplied indicated that not all road types are in
common use in every country.
4.3 ANALYSIS OF WEIGHTING VALUES
In order to analyse the vast quantity of information supplied by the participating countries, the
rating tree data were input to a 3-dimensional spread sheet. The weighting values for the different
road types from the participating countries were combined in various ways for analysis. This output
was dynamically linked to a histogram form of presentation so that the resultant graphs were
automatically updated as information from the various countries was input to the spreadsheet.
Procedures were developed to check the consistency of the input data as part of the development
of the database.
45
Figure 4.1 Bituminous road construction, level one responses
Sum of Weighting Factors Percentage contribution

3.00
20
□ Slovenia
- 15 ■Sweden
□Portugal
□Netherlands
■Ireland
□Hungary
□Greece
10 ■Great Britain
□ France
□Spain
■Denmark
□ Switzerland
□ Belgium
■Austria
M I I M M
0.00 — — — » ™ — ' 0
Longitudinal profile Surface cracking Structural adequacy Skid resistance
Transverse profile Structural cracking Surface defects
Performance Factor
The results of the analysis were presented in the form of a series of histograms in which the
weighting values assigned to an individual factor were summed and compared to the equivalent
sums for other factors within the same pavement type as shown in the example in Figure 4.1. The
results from the participating countries for each indicator are always presented in the same
sequence as shown in the key. A tabular presentation was also provided in the report to enable the
relative importance of secondary variables to be easily assessed. Table 4.3 is an example of the
overall weighting values that were generated for the asphalt surfacing layer variables in a road in
which the main structural element is bituminous.
Table 4.3 Overall weighting values
Asphalt surfacing layer AT BE CH DK ES FI FR GB GR HU IE NL PT SE SI SUM Level

Bituminous structural element sum
L3 Elastic Stiffness 0.12 0.06 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.15 0.08 0.02 0.00 0.02 0.03 0.07 0.66
Crack resistance (fatigue) 0.05 0.04 0.20 0.04 0.05 0.00 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.27 0.06 0.40 0.03 0.02 0.07 1.55
Deformation resistance 0.10 0.09 0.11 0.03 0.11 0.00 0.11 0.23 0.00 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.05 0.50 0.06 1.53 3.7
L4 Aggregate 0.11 0.06 0.06 0.03 0.07 0.00 0.05 0.05 0.07 0.06 0.03 0.05 0.03 0.22 0.04 0.95
Compaction (VMA) 0.08 0.05 0.13 0.03 0.06 0.00 0.03 0.08 0.08 0.20 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.22 0.08 1.17
Binder 0.08 0.08 0.13 0.03 0.07 0.00 0.13 0.22 0.11 0.13 0.05 0.34 0.04 0.12 0.08 1.63 3.7
L5 Grading 0.04 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.04 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.07 0.03 0.37
Particle shape 0.04 0.02 0.04 0.01 0.04 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.07 0.01 0.34
Bulk specific gravity 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01
Max specific gravity 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Type of aggregate 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.09 0.00 0.23 0.9
Bitumen content 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.03 0.05 0.04 0.08 0.02 0.17 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.58
Rheological properties 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.05 0.08 0.00 0.03 0.01 0.11 0.01 0.08 0.02 0.51 I
Presence of modifier 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.06 0.04 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.24 1
L Age of road (curing) 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.04 0.04 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.06 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.30 1.6 |
4.4 INTERPRETATION OF DATA
A study of the Histograms and Tables indicated that all the performance indicators listed in Chapter
3 and Section 4.2.1 of this Chapter were considered to be important for assessing pavement
performance. The perceived relative importance of these indicators was found to be different for
the three road types as shown in Table 4.4 in which the individual indicators are ranked separately
for each road type.
The report by Potter and Langdale (1995), gives full details of the results and their interpretation.
47
Table 4.4. Perceived relative importance of performance indicators
Pavement Type (main structural element)

Bituminous Rigid Granular
Factor Normalised Factor Normalised Factor Normalised
weighting weighting weighting
Transverse profile 1.89 Surface cracking 2.13 Transverse profOile 1.85
Skid resistance 1.57 Transverse profile 1.58 Structural adequacy 1.60
Structural adequacy 1.50 Longitudinal profile 1.54 Skid resistance 1.60
Surface cracking 1.29 Structural cracking 1.42 Structural cracking 1.55
Structural cracking 1.29 Skid resistance 1.29 Longitudinal profile 1.35
Surface defects 1.29 Surface defects 1.25 Surface defects 1.25
Longitudinal profile 1.18 Structural adequacy 0.79 Surface cracking 0.80
4.5 C ONC LUSIONS AM) REC OMMENDATIONS
Experts from 15 European countries provided information from which the perceived level of
influence of various properties of roadmaking materials on road performance could be deduced.
Tables were generated showing the relative influence, overall, of the various properties.
• It is recommended that the following performance indicators are measured as part of a

European long term pavement performance study:
• Cracking (surface and structural)
• Surface defects
• Skid resistance
Cracking is listed as a single indicator because surface and structural cracking cannot be easily
distinguished from visual surveys.
• Pavement factors which are considered to influence these performance indicators have been
identified and ranked in order of perceived importance on the basis of the overall weighting
values. It is recommended that this information is taken into consideration when setting up
pavement performance studies to determine which pavement factors are measured.
4.6 REFEREN
C ES
POTTER J F and LANGDALE Ρ C (1995),

Rating Trees for the analysis of pavement performance factors. TRL Project Report PR/CE/151/95
(unpublished). Issued by COST DG VÜ. (1996).
48
CHAPTER 5
ASSESSMENT OF CURRENT PERFORMANCE PREDICTION MODELS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Pavement performance models form the key element in a pavement management system
(PMS). At the network level, performance models are used to predict the future condition of
roads. This information forms the basis for assessing the shortterm and longterm
rehabilitation needs of the road network. At the project level, performance models are used to
carry out economic evaluation of alternative pavement design strategies (i.e. reconstruction,
rehabilitation, maintenance) in order to find the most costeffective solution for the road.
The development of performance models began in many European countries in the 1980's
when test sections were selected from the road network for longterm monitoring purposes. In
addition, the implementation of pavement management systems in various countries requires
the condition of pavements to be measured. This information could provide data for
deterioration modelling. There are, however, some countries that do not currently have any
performance prediction models in use.
5.2 CURRENT PERFORMANCE MODELS
Pavement performance models were reported from 11 countries. The summary of the models
is presented in Table 5.1 for different condition indicators. Condition index model (I) is a
combination of corresponding condition indicators. A detailed description of each model in
the Table is given in Annex 5A.
Table 5.1 Summary of performance prediction models.

| ■ ■■■-■ in "i ■
Country 1 Longitudinal Transverse Surface Structural Structural Surface .Skid I
profil« profilt crocidìi* crackin ζ adequacy defeco resistance
AT - - - - -
··
BE I I I - I -
CH - - - - - -
DK ·· - I - I -
ES - - «I - - -
FI • - «I - I -
FR - - - - - -
GB - - • • -
··
GR - - • - - -
HU • - I • I •
IE - - - - - -
NL - • - - • -
PT - - « - - -
SE • - • I -
SI - - - - - -
Number of models = 1 I = Condition index model

Number of models > 1 = No models available
49
Most of the current performance models have been developed for flexible pavements with
unbound or bituminous bases. Only Belgium and Spain have models for predicting
performance of flexible composite pavements with rigid bases.
The largest number of models are available for predicting longitudinal profile, transverse
profile and structural cracking. In addition, six countries have developed models for predicting
a condition index that usually includes both structural cracking and surface defects.
5.3 DESCRIPTION OF PERFORMANCE MODELS
Performance models can be classified into two categories: relative and absolute models.
Relative models are those used for predicting the future performance of road based on
measured condition data. Usually, relative models have only one independent variable
consisting of either time or traffic (cumulative number of standard axle loads). The distress
predictions are updated when new condition measurement data are available for the particular
road section.
Absolute models refer to those that include independent variables that might explain pavement
deterioration process (i.e. layer thickness, moduli, asphalt characteristics, pavement response,
climate). These models can be used to predict future performance of the road and to assess
pavement performance after rehabilitation.
Computer modelling
The development and implementation of relative and absolute models depends, among other
things, on the required use of the model and whether or not data for independent variables are
available. A more detailed description of models follows regarding the use of the models (for
network and/or project level, primary and/or secondary roads) and how they were developed
(laboratory, field and/or literature studies).
50
5.3.1 Longitudinal profile
Longitudinal profile (Table 5.2) is expressed as IRI (International Roughness Index, three
models), BI (Bump Integrator, two models) and PCV (proportional change in variance, one
model). Models are available for primary and secondary roads both at the network and project
level and they are all based on field studies.
Four of the models are used to predict future roughness using among other things pavement
age, traffic and/or measured roughness value as explanatory variables. One of the models
(DK-2) assesses the effect of rehabilitation on longitudinal profile that is a function of
pavement roughness before rehabilitation. One of the models, GB (PCV), is used as an
indicator related to structural condition (deflection).
Table 5.2 Longitudinal profile models (asphalt concrete material).
Country Project Network Primary Secondary 1 Laboratory Field Literature

Model Level Level Roads Roads Study Study Study
DK-1 (ΒΓ) X X X
DK-2 (BI) X X X
FI (TRI) X X X X
GB (PCV) X X X X
HU(IRI) X X X X
SEflRI) | X X χ X
5.3.2 Transverse profile
Transverse profile reflects rut depth on the pavement surface. Transverse profile models
(Table 5.3) have been developed for primary and secondary roads both at network and project
level. Nearly all the models have been derived from field studies.
Empirical rut depth prediction models are based mainly on pavement age, traffic and/or
measured transverse profile information. There are two mechanistic models (ES, GB) in
which the number of traffic loadings to rutting failure is determined on the basis of vertical
compressive strain at the top of subgrade.
Table 5.3 Transverse profile models (asphalt concrete material).
Country Project —
— — Primary Secondary Laboratory Field Literature
Model Level Network
Level Roads Roads Study Study Study
AT X X χ χ
ES X X χ
FI X X χ χ
GB X X X χ
HU X X χ χ
NL X X χ χ
SE-1 X χ χ
SE-2 X χ χ J
51
5.3.3 Surface cracking
Cracking which progresses downwards from asphalt pavement surface to the bottom of the
layer (top-down cracking) is defined as surface cracking. This is typically found in pavements
that have a thick asphalt concrete layer, as, for instance, on national motorways. Although
this mechanism of cracking has been recognised, there is no specific model available. In the
Netherlands, a general model for cracking visible at the surface is used at network level for
primary and secondary roads (excluding national motorways) and is given in Table 5.4. It is a
relative model which predicts future surface cracking on the basis of measured cracking and
surface layer age. It should be stressed that the model is used for any cracking visible at the
surface. In the distress surveys used at network level, no distinction is made between surface
cracking and structural cracking.
Table 5.4 Cracking visible at the road surface (asphalt concrete material).
Country Project Network Primary Secondary J Laboratory Field Literature j

| Model 1 Level Level Roads Roads Study Studv Studv
NL * 1 X χ 1 X
*1
5.3.4 Structural cracking
Structural cracking describes the fatigue failure of bituminous layers (bottom-up cracking).
For bitumen bound layers most of the models given in Table 5.5 have been developed for
project level including both primary and secondary roads. Models are based on laboratory
studies, field studies (including test track) and literature studies. For asphalt concrete layers,
existing models are mechanistic and they are based on the relationship between the cumulative
number of traffic loadings and the horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of the asphalt layer.
One model type (ES-2) predicts structural cracking of cementitious materials including
compacted concrete, lean concrete, gravel cement and cement-stabilised soil.
Table 5.5 Structural cracking (asphalt concrete material).
Country Project Network Primary Secondary Laboratory Field Literature

AT-1 χ χ χ χ χ
AT-2 χ χ χ χ
ES-1 χ χ
ES-2* χ χ χ χ
FI-1 χ χ χ χ χ
FI-2 χ χ χ χ χ
GB χ χ χ χ
GR χ χ χ
PT χ χ χ
SE χ χ χ χ
Cementitious Material
52
5.3.5 Structural adequacy
Two models have been developed to predict the structural adequacy of pavements (Table 5.6).
Models that are based on field studies are applied at the network and project level for primary
and secondary roads.
Structural adequacy is described as deflection (GB) or elasticity modulus of asphalt concrete

layer (HU). Deflection is a function of cumulative number of traffic loadings and roadbase
type and elasticity modulus is presented as a function of pavement age or traffic.
Table 5.6 Structural adequacy (asphalt concrete material).
Country Project Network Primary Secondary Laboratory Field Literature

GB X X X X X
HU X X X X
5.3.6 Surface defects
Only one model is available for predicting surface defects as expressed by ravelling (Table
5.7). The model has been developed in the Netherlands to be used at the network level for
primary and secondary roads (excluding the national motorways). It is a relative model that is
based on pavement age and the amount of ravelling measured.
Table 5.7 Surface defects (asphalt concrete material).
Country Network Primary Secondary Laboratory Field Literature

Model Level Roads Roads Study Study Study
NL
5.3.7 Skid resistance
Skid resistance is a function of the micro and macro texture of pavement surface. Skid
resistance models (Table 5.8) are based on field studies and they are used at the network level
for both primary and secondary roads.
Models (HU) predicting micro and macro texture are based on pavement age or traffic.
Model GB-1 describes the relationship between braking force coefficient and texture depth
from sandpatch measurements. The model for mean summer SCRIM coefficient (GB-2) is a
function of polished stone value of surface aggregate and number of commercial vehicles per
day.
53
Table 5.8 Skid resistance (asphalt concrete material).
Country Project Network I Primary Secondary J Laboratory Literature

Code Level Level Roads Roads Studv Study
GB-1 χ X
GB-2 χ X χ
HU χ X χ
5.3.8 Index models
Index models refer to the models where the dependent variable describes the combination of
different types of distresses occurring on pavement surface and/or structural condition of
pavement. Each model is unique depending on how the index value is calculated. Index
models (Table 5.9) exist at the network and project level for primary and secondary roads.
Models are based on field studies and one (BE) is also applicable to cementitious materials.
The most common variables used to predict distress index include pavement age, traffic and
measured index value.
Table 5.9 Index (asphalt concrete material).
Country Project Network Ι Primary Secondary Laboratory Field Literature

Code Level Level Roads Roads Study Study Study
BE* χ χ χ
DK χ χ χ
ES χ χ χ
FI χ χ χ χ
HU χ χ χ χ
SE χ χ χ χ
Bituminous and cementitious Materials
5.4 ASSESSMENT OF CURRENT PERFORMANCE MODELS
Table 5.10 shows a summary of the current models given in Annex 5A, giving the number of
models reported for each indicator and the main variables used in the models ranked by the number
of nominations. This global overview gives information about the relative importance of different
deterioration models at the present time and the input variables used. It can be seen that the models
show substantial differences in form, type, scope etc therefore are not considered to be applicable
throughout the whole European inference space. New models based on Europe-wide data will
therefore need to be developed for applicability throughout Europe.
54
Table 5.10 Summary of variables used in current performance prediction models.
Variable* Longitudinal Transverse Surface Structural Structural Surface Skid

profile profile cracking cracking adequacy defects resistance
5 models 8 models 1 model 10 models 2 models 1 model 3 models
Age 3x 4x lx lx lx lx
Traffic: Number Veh lx
Pass.Car lx
Pass.Car Unit lx lx lx
Comm.Veh lx
Equ.Factor lx
ESALs lx lOx
Thickness Of Bound Layers lx
Thickness Of Asphalt H, lx
σ/ε Asphalt 8x
E-Modulus 2x
Road Base Type lx
ε Subgrade 2x
Bearing Capacity lx lx
Deflection 2x
Freezing Index (FT) lx lx
Texture Depth lx
Braking Force Coefficient lx
PSV lx
Width lx lx
* Descriptions of the variables used in each model are given in Annex 5A
5.5 CONCLUSIONS
This Chapter is an assessment of the current performance prediction models used in the
participating countries and the conclusions of this work are as follows:
• Eleven countries provided models for predicting pavement performance for the following
condition indicators:
• Surface cracking
• Structural cracking
• Structural adequacy
• Surface defects
• Skid resistance
• Most of the models have been developed for flexible pavements with unbound base/subbase
layers.
• Most models have been developed using data that are based on field studies. In addition, some
countries use models that have been derived from literature studies.
55
• Most of the models are empirical. Mechanistic models have mainly been developed for
predicting structural cracking and transverse profile.
• In the assessment of the models from different countries it was decided that they were not
applicable Europe-wide.
56
ANNEX 5A DESCRIPTION OF PAVEMENT PERFORMANCE MODELS
Country : AT Austria
TYPE PERFORMANCE PREDICTION MODELS
TRANS.PR t = a'y/Ñ
t = Rut depth (mm)

a = Factor depending on asphalt type / layer (empirical)
JV = Equivalent Standard Axle Loads, ES AL (10tons)
STRUC.CR. 16
1. * in- *
TV = 1.44* 10
OV
Ν = Number of load cycles to failure

E = Resilient Modulus
σ, = Horizontal tensile stress at the bottom of the asphalt layer
STRUC.CR ■\Ϋ2
2.

er = Horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of the asphalt layer
*, =4.6*10" 12 and k2 =5.0 for temp. = 2 Io C
57
Country : BE - Belgium
INDEX Low Volume Road:

G= A-T*B*Y
(Long.pr.+
Trans, pr. + Ajv,u)
Surf.cr.+ 2
Struc.cr.+
Surfdef.)
ν = 0.9~Σΐ*ρ
N
Í7=l
r CP
l(io* αν )J
Model validated for three functional classes of roads and two types of
surfaces (bituminous and hydraulic cement):
G = Gobai Quality Index

A = Present Index Value (obtained from road measurements)
T= Traffic Factor
Β - Parameter Linked to Maintenance
Y = Future Service (years)
V= Visual Index
U= Structural Index
/ = % of area covered by each of 9 different distresses

ρ = weight factor
CP = evenness coefficient for short wavelengths (<2.5m)
58
Country : DK - Denmark
LONGPR BI(AGE) = a * AGE2 + b * AGE + c

1.
BI(AGE) = Bump Integrator at a certain pavement age
AGE = Pavement age
a, b and c = material constants
LONGPR BI^r-BIbtfon*{\-V0BI)
2.
% s / =33.77 + 22.88*tan'(0.063*^4^ 9.214)
Bloßer = Bump Integrator number after rehabilitation

Bifore = Bump Integrator number before rehabilitation
INDEX ResUfe = K-\+K2* ResStdUfe +K3* Age + K4 * ADTesal + K5 * PCI
(Trans. pr.+ ResLife = Residual life for wearing course

S true. er. + ResStdLife = Standardised residual life
Surfdef) Age = Age of wearing course
ADTooi = Present equivalent 10 ton axle load in one direction
PCI = (ai* bleeding + a2* instability + a3* ravelling + ai* jointcracking +
a5* edgecracking + a<¡* cracking + »7* alligatorcracking +
ag* rutting) / area
Κι, K.2, K3, Id andKs = Material constants
59
Country ES - Spain
TRANS.PR
JV — 1 Ciiho-mHr- í"9rTFl Τ Ί
U80007
(proj. level)
t% = Vertical tensile strain at the top of the subgrade
STRUC.CR. log t% = -2.19093 - 0.27243 log Ν Asphalt Mixture (CEDEX)

1.
(proj. level) ει, = Horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of the asphalt layer
N= Number of load cycles to failure
STRUC.CR σ = 5.4-0.324 log Ν Compacted Concrete (TORROJA INSTITUTE)

2. σ = 3.6-0.216 log Ν Lean Concrete (TORROJA INSTITUTE)
(proj. level) σ = 1.8 -0.108 log Ν Gravel Cement (TORROJA INSTITUTE)
σ = 0.72-0.043 log Ν Cement-Stabilised Soil (TORROJA INSTITUTE)
σ= Horizontal tensile stress

N= Number of load cycles to failure
INDEX ID = (NV)a * 1&
(Structxr.) TS: a = 1.127707 , b = 1.84796

F4-6 : a = 1.397865 , b = 1.595018
(net. level) F7-11 : a = 0.995616 , b = 1.506902
F12-14 : a = 1.002189 , b = 1.445714
F15-20 : a = 1.235352 , b = 1.211474
SF21 : a = 1.90057 , b = 0.605004
SRI : a = 1.369099 , b = 0.64318
SR2: a = 1.732314 , b = 0.131917
ID = Structural distress index.

NV = Number of load vehicles.
TS = Surface dressing over granular layers.

F i-j = Asphalt mix i-j cm thic.< over granular layers.
SF21 = Asphalt mix > 20 cm tfiick over granular layers.
SRI = Asphalt mix < 18 cm thick over a layer bound with hydraulic binders.
SR2 = Asphalt mix on two layers bound with hydraulic binders or with a
thickness of 18 cm or more over one such layer.
60
Country FI - Finland
TYPE PERFORMANCE PREDIC TION MODELS
LONGPR /Λ/(ι+Ι) = 0.13 +1.03 *IRI0) (AC overlay)

IRI(ní) = 0.14 + 1.04*IRIW (cold mix overlay)
IRI(l+l) = Roughness (IRI) prediction for the next year

IRI(t) = Measured roughness (JJRJ) at year t
TRANS.PR RD_ - 2.0

RD=RDm + AGE.
p m AGE.
RD p = Predicted rut depth (mm)

RDm = Measured rut depth (mm)
AGEom = Age from last overlay year to measurement year
AGEmp = Age from last measurement year to prediction year
STRUC.CR BCAP λ
1. N,a = 5.63 + 0.00093 * BCAP 55.85 *
\Ni0yearJ
Νιο = Number of axle loads to first cracking (10 tons)
BCAP = Bearing capacity, MPa
Ν ¡o year = Number of axle loads per year (10 tons)
STRUC.CR 1
2. TV, 0 = 8.78126 * LACEPS - 3108410'
\ACEPS*Ni0year,
Νιο - Number of axle loads to first cracking (10 tons)
LACEPS = Logio tensile strain at the bottom of the asphalt layer, \xmlm
ACEPS = Tensile strain at the bottom of the asphalt layer, μιτι/πι
Νιο year = Number of axle loads per year (10 tons)
INDEX DI.
DIf = AGE„
AGEn
(Struc.cr.+
Surfdef.)
DIp = Predicted distress index (m2 /100 m)
DIm = Measured distress index (m2 /100 m)
ΑΟΕ0[η = Age from last overlay year to measurement year
AGEop = Age from last overlay year to prediction year
b = 1.6 (AC overlay) or 1.8 (cold mix overlay)
61
GB United Kingdom
PERFORMANCE PREDICTION MODELS
LONGPR. Proportional change in variance (PCV) of longitudinal profile (3 m moving average)

is related to structural condition (deflection). Used as an indicator.
PCV < 0.6 Sound PCV =1.2 2.4 Extensive distress

PCV = 0.61.2 Visible PCV > 2.4 Severe distress
TRANS.PR Structural deformation:

log^=7.213.95*loge2
Naj — Cumulative traffic in msa (8 tonne axle loads)

ζ = vertical compressive strain at top of subgrade
STRUC.CR Iog/V /fl( =9.384.16*log¿r, (DBM)

log/V^ = 9 . 7 8 432* loge, (HRA)
N ¡a = Number of load cycles to failure
r = horizontal tensile strain at bottom of bound roadbase
STRUC.AD. D = f(N,R)
D = standardised rolling wheel deflection
N = traffic in standard axles (8 tonne)
R = roadbase type
SKIDRES. Specifies texture as a surrogate for highspeed skidding.

1.
'% drop in braking forceN
coefficient (BFC) from = a, a2 (texture depth in mm)
b o t o 130 k m / h
For bituminous roads: %Δ BFC (50130) = 40 (20(td))

td = texture depth from sandpatch measurements
SKIDRES. Low speed skidding.

2.
MSSC = [0.98 * 10"2 * (PSV)] 0.664 * 10^ * q„ + 0.033
(SCRIM)
MS S C = Mean jummer SCRIM coefficient
PSV = Polished stone value of surface aggregate
qcv = Number of commercial vehicles/day
62
Country : GR - Greece
STRUC.CR.
I —
N = Number of load cycles to failure

er - Horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of the asphalt layer
kuk2=f(T>)
63
Country HU - Hungary
Ρ TYPE PERFORMANCE PREDICTION MODELS
LONGPR IRI = EXP(°*b'ACE)
IRI = EXPi"b'FORO)
TRANS.PR RUT = ΕΧΡία^Αθε)
RUT = Εχμ^"0^
STRUC.AD. EMOO = a-b*AGE
EMOD = a- b *FORG
SKIDRES. MICRO = a - o * / l G £
MICRO = a - b * FORG
M A C R O = a - b * AGE
MACRO = a - b* FORG
INDEX PSQI=a+b*AGE
(Struc.cr.+
Surfdef) PSQI=a+b*FORG
All AGE = Age of wearing course

equations: FORG = Repetition number of the vehicles expressed in passenger car units
IRI =m/km
RUT = Rut depth, mm
PSQI = Pavement Surface Quality Index (combination of cracking, bleeding,
scaling, edge defects, potholes, patching and ravelling)
MICRO = Micro texture, parameters
MACRO = Macro texture, parameters
EMOD = Ε-elasticity modulus, MPa
a, b = constants
64
Country : NL - The Netherlands
General equation:
P =1
# ■
where.
present amount of damage
ƒ> = ! -
max. possible amount of damagey
t = period between time of inspection and moment of last major

maintenance
T = period between last moment of last major maintenance and
moment when Ρ reaches a value of 0
= curvature parameter dependent of the type of defect
TRANS. PR Primary and secondary roads: (excluding the national motorways)

General equation with = 0.63 (value under revision)
CRACKING Primary and secondary roads: (excluding the national motorways).

General equation with preliminary -value (final value being developed)
SURF.DEF. Primary and secondary roads: (excluding the national motorways).

(Ravelling) General equation with preliminary -value (final value being developed)
PT - Portugal
PERFORMANCE PREDICTION MODELS
Bituminous base layers:

st =/c-|*/V - * 2
e t = Horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of the bituminous layer

Ν = Number of load cycles
For DBM-mixture with 5% void content and 4.4% binder content:
k, = 3.586*10-\k 2 = 0.201
65
Country SE Sweden
LONGPR.
IRI = 151 + 4.8 * 10~ 2 'AGE +6.97 * 1 0 4 * Fl 5.54 * 10~ 2 *W -
1.29 * 10" 3 *fft1 +139 * D900+2.39 * 10~ 3 *L4GE
TRANS.PR Asphalt Concrete:

1.
S = 13.41 + 0.11* TAGE + 8.41* 1 0 " 4 * JÂDT 0 . 8 0 * W
2.06 * 1 0 2 * thi + 0.41 * DQ +126 * 1 0 3 * Fl 0.11 * H V
TRANS.PR. Surface Treatment:

2.
A S = 0 . 8 0 + 2.3*10 2 *íAl + 3 . 5 * 1 0 3 * . F / 0 . 3 1 * 7 > i G £ +
1.31 * 10"3 * Σ ADT + 5.11 * D0 + 0.20 * HV
STRUC.CR
yV10O =3.66*10 1 3 *£ 2 ' 7 *£ < , 7 8 (l + 2.3*10"*f 5 0 , )
INDEX
(Struc.ad.) P = 29.8 + 0.20*¿r2.69*r/4G.£+6.7*10 2 *]rAn00 + 4.80*10" 2 *f7
All equations: IRI = m/km

AGE = Time since last measure, years
FI = Freezing index, °C * d
W = Width of the road, m
thi = Thickness of (bitumen) bound layers, mm
D900 = Deflection 900 mm's away from a 50 kN load applied by FWD, mm
TAGE = Total age of the road, years
S = Accumulated rut depth, mm
ADT = Accumulated number of vehicles in ONE direction, thousands
Dg = Deflection in the centre of a 50 kN load applied by FWD, mm
HV = Ratio between ADT and nr of ESALVday expr. in 100 kN's axle loads
S = Increase in rut depth between two measuring times, mm
ADT = Nr of vehicles in ONE direction between two measuring times, thousands
Ρ = Accumulated deduct points
= Tensile strain at the underside of the (bitumen) bound layers, strain
Ν100 = Accumulated ESAL's in 100 kN's axle loads in one direction, thousands
N100 = Ace. ESAL's in 100 kN's axle loads in one dir., to the initiating of cracks
E = Stiffness modulus of the bitumen bound base course, MPa
!
66
CHAPTER 6
TERMS OF REFERENCE FOR PERFORMANCE PREDICTION MODELS
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Modelling is used as a tool to predict the development of distress or the performance of the
pavement. The target of this Chapter is to propose what models should be developed and how
they should be created within a European long term pavement performance study based on the data
collected from the various test sites throughout Europe. Within Chapter 4 a review was made of
the factors affecting pavement performance. In addition, the Rating Tree study was carried out to
identify the performance factors that should be measured within long term pavement performance
studies and, within Chapter 5, a review of the current performance models used in Europe was
conducted.
There is agreement within the COST Action 324 Management Committee that separate models
should be developed for each distress based on pavement condition data from the 15 participating
countries. Although national models are available in some countries, new models would need to be
developed because it is considered unlikely that the existing models would be applicable throughout
Europe because of different pavement structures, materials and climate
6.2 TERMS OF REFERENCE
The models should be developed to predict pavement performance in terms of the change of
different distresses or types of deterioration which occur whilst the road is in service and routine
maintenance is carried out when required. These models are to be used in pavement management
systems. However, this Chapter does not discuss how the models should be used, because this is
the subject of RTD projects dealing with the economic aspects of pavement management.
In this sense it is not necessary to distinguish between network and project level. Of course, the
quality of the model(s) depends on the quality of input values (i.e. data from monitoring) and also
on the extent to which the respective network is represented by the sections from which the data
were collected. The resulting models can be used at network level and at project level if they are
accurate enough.
For the use of the models within a PMS it will be necessary to determine threshold values for
intervention (maintenance measures). However, the determination of threshold values is not the
task of COST Action 324. Nevertheless it would be useful to collect information about the
threshold values in use in the different countries in order to determine the range over which the
models should be VÍ Jid.
It is also important to make a distinction between different types of roads or road networks
(primary roads, secondary roads, rural road network etc.). The type of road network may influence
the degree of resolution or accuracy required of the model. In any case, the model to be developed
should use the quality of the data to maximum effect.
It is understood that within COST Action 324, greater emphasis is given to the main road network
carrying higher traffic volumes according to the types of test sites (including accelerated loading
67
test faciüties, ALT) monitored to provide input data. Attention should nevertheless be paid to lower
level networks whenever data are provided from monitored test sections.
Although the COST Action 324 Management Committee is not responsible for the later use of the
models, it is necessary to draw attention to the boundary conditions of the model when it is used.
Therefore it is also necessary to collect inventory data about the test sections to enable a distinction
to be drawn between different pavement types. Where required, different models should be
developed for different levels of road network.
6.3 PROPOSALS FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF MODELS
Based on the state of the art documented in Chapter 5 separate models should be developed for the
seven pavement condition indicators:
• longitudinal profile
• transverse profile
• surface cracking
• structural cracking
• structural adequacy
• surface defects
• skid resistance
each for the three different pavement types identified in the rating-tree study. These were
pavements with their main structural layer being:
• bituminous
• rigid
• granular
The required input for these 21 separate deterioration models are the relevant data from the various
test sections available throughout the participating countries. The test sections must be
representative for the relevant pavement type and the relevant network and also have a wide range
of ages. The better the quality of data, the better the models and more accurate the final result to
be expected. Also, by improving data acquisition the accuracy of the models should also be
improved by regular iteration.
The improvement of data quality and modelling could be reached through
1. More detailed data from harmonised monitoring processes and standardised data collection.
2. The use of improved modelling techniques (probabilistic methods, survival analysis

techniques).
3. The setting up of validation and normalisation procedures.
The quality of data also influences the applicable modelling techniques. Also, it could be necessary
to use different techniques to model different performance factors (pavement condition indicators).
68
In any case, new models should be developed using historical data and data collected within long
term pavement performance studies. New models should be developed rather than to try to
improve factors or parameters of existing models. If required, the results of the different
deterioration models could be combined to a global condition index. Besides the development of
new performance models, the relationship to pavement design methods should be considered. The
models could be used also to check the performance in relation to the expected design life. Thus,
observed performance of pavements could be used to validate the predictions.
It was not expedient to conduct an assessment of current pavement design methods within this
COST Action as this task is part of COST Action 333. The performance models developed
following these recommendations will facilitate the comparison of the different design models.
6.4 RECOMMENDATIONS
The following recommendations can be made with respect to the development of performance
prediction models:
• Input values (data from monitoring) should be as accurate as possible and as detailed as
necessary (models should be usable on both network level and project level)
• Data collection should be performed on sections which are representative for the respective
network, taking into account the type of network (main road network, function of roads etc.).
The monitored sections should be representative for the relevant pavement types and should
have a wide spread of age.
• If enough data is available different models for different types of road network should be
developed.
• Models should be developed separately for the seven main pavement condition factors, for each
of the three different pavement types.
• Regular self improvement of the models should be carried out as data acquisition improves.
• New models should be developed for Europe-wide applicability instead of trying to improve
factors for existing models.
• Connection between the models to be developed and rational design procedures (comparison
provided e.g. Within COST Action 333) should be made to check the expected design life and
thus to identify the best design procedures.
69
CHAPTER 7
TERMS OF REFERENCE FOR TRAFFIC DATA ACQUISITION
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Pavement performance studies require data on the traffic loading of the test sections. The
Technical Annex to the COST Action 324 MoU includes a specific Work Package on this type of
data, the purpose of which is to establish the Terms of Reference for traffic data acquisition. For
these Terms of Reference, a balance has to be struck between the desire of the researchers involved
in performance modelling to obtain all explanatory variables in great detail, and the limited
information available to the end-user of the performance models such as the road authority carrying
out pavement management. This Chapter comprises the findings of the COST Action 324
Management Committee on this item.
In the discussions that led to this Chapter, attention was paid to the work carried out in COST
Action 323, Weigh in motion of road vehicles'. This COST Action studies equipment for
collecting highly detailed data on axle loading of road pavements. When, eventually, the use of
such equipment is widespread, detailed data will be available on traffic loading for the management
of the primary road network. As this development will take a number of years and since the
application of Weigh in Motion equipment may be expected to be limited to the primary network,
this Chapter excludes weigh in motion from the Terms of Reference for traffic data acquisition. The
consequences of not having these data for pavement management is discussed in this Chapter.
7.2 PURPOSE OF THE TRAFFIC DATA
7.2.1 Introduction
To set the Terms of Reference for traffic data acquisition, the need for that data should be well
defined. In the case of COST Action 324 and European long term pavement performance studies,
the requirement is to use the data as input for the development of pavement performance models.
For that development, information on the explanatory variables in the model may be needed in the
analysis phase at a more detailed level than is generally available at the execution level of pavement
management. However, since the final model is to be used for pavement management purposes, the
input to that model should be at the level available to the practitioners of pavement management.
7.2.2 Traffic data as input to pavement management
In Chapter 5, "Assessment of Current Performance Prediction Models", an inventory of currently

available performance models was made. From this inventory it was established that for the models
describing fatigue-type distresses, the most detailed level of traffic data used is that of Equivalent
Standard Axle Loads (ESALs) or equivalent parameters. Some models use 'passenger car units',
assuming fixed percentages of trucks. Given the comprehensiveness of the COST Action 324
inventory, no pavement performance models appear to be in use in Europe that require more
detailed traffic input
71
This is a logical conclusion, since at the pavement management level ESAL's are the most detailed
level of traffic data available. This is the situation today, which may be expected to exist for a
number of years to come. Although Weigh in Motion techniques are developing rapidly,
widespread application at all levels of pavement management is not to be expected for the near
future. The end-product of the model development therefore should deal with traffic at the ESAL-
level or less detailed. In the next paragraph the role of detailed traffic data in pavement performance
models will be specified. It will be shown that this role is limited, which also indicates that such
detailed data are not required for everyday pavement management.
íúUmip
Weigh in Motion sensor
7.2.3 Traffic data as input to development of performance models
In the model developnrø^ it is desirable to have data at a more detailed level than ESAL's, in order
to examine the way in which the ESAL's are currently calculated from input data in the form of
number of vehicles, percentage of trucks, fourth power law et cetera. For a comprehensive study
on this calculation of ESAL's, extensive and very detailed traffic data may be needed. The following
considerations should, however, be made:
• COST Action 324 deals with pavement performance in general and thus with all types of
distresses. Only a proportion of these distresses are traffic induced, and of those, only part are
axle-load related.
• For the axle-load related distresses, only fatigue cracking from the bottom up can currently be
calculated with readily available software. Calculation of top-down cracking and rutting is done
in research, but not in everyday practice of road management. For other distresses like ravelling,
no mechanistic procedures are available. Therefore, if traffic data are to be gathered at more
detailed levels than ESAL's, their application is limited to only one of the distresses used in
pavement management.
72
• Focusing on fatigue cracking from the bottom up, even detailed information on axle loads is not
sufficient. In addition to the load, the loaded area is input to the mechanistic design, and to
calculate the loaded area, the tyre pressure should be known. Furthermore, the lateral wander
and the speed of the traffic should be known. Such data cannot be gathered at this time for
normal traffic on RLT sections.
• Detailed modelling of bottom-up fatigue distress can be done more effectively using ALT for
which all the items mentioned above are known and can be controlled.
In all, the role of traffic data for RLT sections at a level more detailed than ESAL's will be limited.
Fatigue models can be developed from existing ALT data, with estimates of the model form
developed from mechanistic theory. Models for other distresses can be developed from RLT data,
using ESAL's as input.
7.3 TERMS OF REFERENCE FOR TRAFFIC DATA ACQUISITION
7.3.1 Performance modelling in general
From the above mentioned considerations, the COST 324 Management Committee concluded that
COST Action 324 should not deal with Weigh in Motion-type of traffic loading data. The analysis
to be performed in future European long term pavement performance studies should be based on
traffic information obtained from the road authorities. That information should contain the
following items:
• Number of vehicles per day on the lane of the test section

• Annual percentage of growth
• Numbers of trucks on the lane of the test section
7.3.2 Mechanistic analysis
For use in mechanistic considerations, the information has to be transferred into equivalent axle
loads. This transformation may differ considerably from one country to another. Axle and wheel
configurations, for instance, vary widely across Europe. Further, the fatigue properties of the
asphalt in the lower pavement layers have a major bearing on the relative contribution of various
levels of axle load to stnictural cracking. These fatigue properties also vary widely across Europe.
The only matter that can be standardised here is the reference level for the calculation of the
ESAL's, which was set at 100 kN.
In line with other data acquisition activities in COST Action 324, the responsibility for transferring
the standard traffic data into 100 kN ESAL's should rest with the local agency participating in the
research. For a given set of standard traffic data, a different number of ESAL's may result from one
country to another. These ESAL data should not be dealt with in isolation, but always in
combination with the distress on the particular site. Since for that particular site the local
conversion to ESAL's obviously is the most appropriate, the correct input to the mechanistic
analysis is ensured.
73
7.4 RECOMMENDATIONS
• Traffic loading data as input to the development of pavement performance models for use in
pavement management should comprise:
a) Number of vehicles per day on the lane of the test section

b) Number of trucks on the lane of the test section
c) Annual percentage of growth, preferably specific for the number of trucks
d) 100 kN ESAL's
Item d) should be calculated from item a) through c) using local conversion formulae.
• With traffic data, the data quality should be specified. The following quality levels should be
used:
a) Based on Weigh in Motion

b) Based on traffic counts
c) Based on estimation.
74
CHAPTER 8
UNIFICATION OF DATA ACQUISITION PROCEDURES
8.1 INTRODUCTION
COST Action 324 aims at integrating current national studies into the long term performance of
road pavements for European roads. As part of this Action, an extensive inventory of on-going
studies in the fifteen countries participating in this work has been carried out, including real time
loading testing (RLT) and accelerated loading testing (ALT). This inventory, and the associated
terms of reference developed as part of COST Action 324 can be used as a starting point for future
European projects on long-term pavement performance (LTPP) which would involve extensive
measurement of the condition of road test sections in the participating countries. In order to
analyse such measurements and develop models of pavement performance on a European level, it is
necessary to ensure that test sites are selected on a common basis and that the methods of
measuring pavement condition in the different countries are inter-related in a consistent manner.
In this report, the methods used in the participating countries for measuring the condition of road
pavements have been reviewed. The types of distress that are measured according to the Distress
Manuals provided for this study have been evaluated and compared in order to provide a basis for
normalising the road condition measurements being made on the test sections in the participating
countries. In addition, a preliminary assessment has been made of the automated systems that are
being used to measure deflection and other pavement performance indicators. The normalisation of
road surface distress measurements should form an integral part of future European LTPP projects.
8.2 METHODOLOGY
To develop the methodology for normalisation, it is necessary to establish how the acquisition of
pavement condition data is being carried out in European countries at the present time. From this
information a methodology can be developed to identify similarities and differences in current
criteria for pavement distress measurements in order to produce a system for unifying these historic
data. In this way, existing data from past investigations in individual countries can be used in future
LTPP projects at European level.
In addressing the objectives of this Chapter, the work progressing in parallel COST Actions,
notably COST Action 325 (New Monitoring Equipment and Methods) and COST Action 336
(Falling Weight Deflectometcr) has been taken into account.
As input to research into long term pavement performance (LTPP), the focus of data acquisition
unification is for project-level monitoring of specially selected test sections in the participating
countries.
This Chapter specifically excludes the ambition of recommending ways to actually unify data
acquisition systems in the 15 countries participating in COST Action 324. Present national systems
cater to local conditions and possibilities and to integrate them into a single European procedure is
beyond the scope of this COST Action
75
The approach used in this Chapter was to first examine the distress manuals to identify all the
distresses that are measured in the participating countries and whether information was given to
assess the severity of the distresses. From this information and from the output of Chapter 4 and
the Rating Tree study, recommendations are made conœrning which distresses and structural
condition indicators should be measured in future European long term pavement performance
studies. A methodology has been developed for normalising the severity levels of the visual
distresses and a normalisation exercise was carried out for various types of cracking.
Equipment used in automated condition surveys was considered and information was collated to
provide a basis of inter-calibration for different pieces of equipment measuring pavement deflection
from which the structural condition of pavements can be derived.
Consultation within the COST Action 324 Management Committee formed the basis on which
road test sites should be selected for future European LTPP studies.
8.3 MANUAL VISUAL DISTRESS SURVEYS
8.3.1 General
In this Chapter, the information contained in the distress manuals received from the 15 participating
countries has been used to compare and contrast the similarities and differences in the distresses and
the way they are assessed. In most instances, national distress manuals for condition monitoring
were provided, but for those countries where a different manual is used for assessing the condition
of pavement test sections, this manual was taken into account in the evaluation. It is appreciated
that the purpose of most of the manuals is for general condition monitoring at the network level for
road maintenance assessment. However, the analysis of the distress manuals will provide the
starting point for the normalisation of any pavement condition data which would be an essential
component of any future European LTPP project. The distress manuals considered in this study
are listed in Annex 8A In some countries such as Austria, Finland and Portugal, the United States'
Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP) distress manual is used to monitor their pavement
test sections in order to co-operate with SHRP on long-term pavement performance.
From the distress manuals, the following has been determined:
• the distresses that are identified

• the definition of the distresses
• the units used to measure the amount of distress
• the extent to which the quantity and severity of individual distresses are considered
• a normalisation of the severity levels for various types of cracking
8.3.2 Review of distresses included in the manuals
The review was carried out to complete the inventory started at the beginning of the COST Action
324 (reported in Chapter 3) and to determine which distresses should be measured in future
European pavement performance studies. The output of Chapter 4 and the recommendations made
in the Rating Tree study were also taken into consideration in producing the recommendations.
76
Visual distress survey
Distress manuals from the 15 participating countries were examined and a comprehensive list of all
the defects that are included in any one has been produced. An assessment of whether guidance is
given to determine the severity of the defect was also made. Table 8.1 presents the results of this
investigation, separating the distresses into cracking defects, deformation defects, defects
associated with the deterioration of asphalt concrete surface course and surface dressing and finally,
'other' defects.
According to the distress manuals, severity levels are not assessed in some countries. However, the
fact that the extent of some defects is measured does provide some information on severity. For
example, the measurement of rut depth or the area of bleeding or ravelling of a wearing course
gives a far more accurate picture of severity than a general assessment of low, moderate or high.
Examination of Table 8 1 shows that nearly all 15 countries measure most of the cracking defects
with the exception of block cracking on semi-rigid roads. Only six countries include this form of
cracking in their manuals. It is also interesting to note that Hungary and Ireland do not identify
longitudinal cracking separately. Depth of rutting in the wheel paths is measured by all countries.
Local deformation of the pavement is identified separately by about two thirds of the countries
whilst only about half the countries identify edge deformation separately. Nearly all countries
measure the extent of ravelling and bleeding of the asphalt wearing course but only five countries
specify separately some of the defects that occur in roads with surface dressing
Overall, there is reasonable consistency in the identification of distresses in the manuals. However,
for many defects, particularly cracking, the assessment of severity levels in the different countries is
considerably different and it was necessary to carry out an in-depth investigation to propose a
methodology for normalising the various criteria for assessing severity in different countries
77
Table 8.1 Distresses listed in the distress manuals
Cracking
Country Longitudinal Longitudinal Transverse Alligator Crazing Block Joint Star
wheelpath non wheelpath (wheelpath) (overall) trans &
long.
Austria Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y N/N
Belgium Y/N Y/N Y/N N/N Y/N N/N
Denmark Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y N/N N/N N/N
Finland Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y N/N
France Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y
Greece Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y N/N Y/Y Y/Y N/N
Hungary N/N N/N Y/N Y/N N/N Y/N N/N
Ireland N/N N/N Y/N Y/N Y/N N/N N/N N/N
Netherlands Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y N/N Y/Y N/N
Portugal Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y N/N
Slovenia Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y N/N Y/Y N/N
Spain Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y N/N
Sweden Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y N/N Y/Y N/N
Switzerland Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y N/N ΥΛ' N/N
|U.K. Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y N/N Y/Y N/N
DEFORMATION _1
Country Rutting Local deformation Heaving Corrugation Unsatisfactory 1
Structural Non Pavement Edge Frost Surface shape
struct. heaving
Austria Y/Y N/N N/N N/N Y/N N/N Y/N
Belgium Y/N Y/N Y/N Y/N N/N N/N N/N N/N
Denmark Y/Y Y/Y N/N N/N N/N N/N
Finland Y/Y N/N N/N N/N Y/N N/N Y/N
France Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y N/N Y/Y Y/N N/N
Greece Y/Y N/N N/N N/N Y/Y YY Y/Y
Hungary Y/Y N/N N/N N/N N/N Y/N Y/N
Ireland Y/N Y/N Y/N N/N Y/N N/N N/N
Netherlands Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y N/N N/N N/N Y/Y
1 Portugal Y/Y N/N N/N N/N Y/N N/N Y/N
Slovenia Y/Y Y/Y Y/N Y/N Y/N Y/N N/N Y/N
Spain Y/Y Y/Y N/N Y/Y Y/Y YY N/N
Sweden Y/Y Y/Y N/N N/N N/N Y/Y
Switzerland Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y YY N/N
U.K. Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y N/N Y/Y N/N Y/Y
Y/Y: Defect listed, severity levels given

Y/N: Defect listed, no severity levels given
N/N: Defect not listed, no severity levels given
7S
Table 8.1 (Cont'd) Distresses listed in the distress manuals
AC Wearing Course Surface Dressing

Country Bleeding Ravelling Delam- Polishing Loss of Surface Combing Loss of Delam-
ination coated slippage particles ination
chippings
Austria Y/Y Y/Y N/N Y/N N/N Y/N N/N N/N N/N
Belgium Y/N Y/N Y/N N/N N/N N/N N/N N/N Y/N
Denmark Y/Y Y/Y N/N N/N Y/Y N/N N/N Y/Y N/N
Finland Y/Y Y/Y N/N Y/N N/N Y/N N/N N/N N/N
France Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y N/N Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y
Greece Y/Y Y/Y N/N N/N N/N Y/Y N/N N/N N/N
Hungary Y/N Y/N Y/N N/N N/N Y/N N/N N/N N/N
Ireland Y/N Y/N N/N N/N Y/N Y/N N/N Y/N N/N
1 Netherlands Y/Y Y/Y N/N N/N N/N N/N N/N N/N N/N
Portugal Y/Y Y/Y N/N Y/N N/N Y/N N/N N/N N/N
Slovenia Y/N Y/N Y/N Y/N N/N Y/N N/N N/N N/N
Spain Y/N Y/Y Y/Y N/N N/N Y/Y Y/N Y/N Y/N
Sweden Y/Y Y/Y N/N N/N N/N N/N N/N N/N N/N
Switzerland Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y N/N N/N N/N
U.K. | Y/Y Y/Y N/N N/N Y/Y N/N Y/Y Y/Y N/N 1
ΓCountry Pumping
CRACK RELATED
Edge Shoulder
POTHOLES DRAINAGE
Adverse Inadequate
REPAIR
Condition of
deterioration movement Camber Drainage patching
Austria Y/N Y/Y Y/N Y/Y N/N N/N Y/Y
Belgium N/N N/N N/N Y/N N/N N/N N/N
Denmark N/N Y/Y N/N Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y
Finland Y/N Y/Y Y/N Y/Y N/N N/N Y/Y
France Y/Y N/N Y/Y Y/Y N/N N/N N/N
Greece N/N Y/Y N/N Y/Y N/N N/N Y/Y
Hungary N/N Y/N N/N Y/N N/N N/N N/N
Ireland N/N Y/N N/N Y/N N/N N/N N/N
Netherlands N/N Y/Y N/N YY N/N Y/N N/N
Portugal Y/N Y/Y Y/N Y/Y N/N N/N Y/Y
Slovenia N/N Y/N N/N Y/N Y/N Y/N Y/N
Spain Y/Y Y/Y N/N Y/Y N/N N/N N/N
Sweden N/N Y/Y N/N Y/Y N/N N/N N/N
Switzerland Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y Y/Y N/N N/N Y/Y
U.K. N/N Y/Y N/N Y/Y Y/Y Y/N Y/Y
Y/Y; Defect listed, severity levels given

Y/N: Defect listed, no severity levels given
N/N: Defect not listed, no severity levels given
79
Based on these assessments and discussions at the COST Action 324 Management Committee
meetings, the Working Group recommend that for research into the development of pavement
performance models, the following distresses should be recorded in terms of extent and severity if
they occur on pavement test sections selected for future European LTPP projects:
longitudinal wheelpath cracking

longitudinal non-wheelpath cracking
transverse cracking
alligator cracking
crazing
block cracking
construction joint cracking (transverse and longitudinal)
structural rutting in the wheelpaths
non-structural rutting in the wheelpaths (permanent deformation of the surface layer)
rutting due to studded tyres
ravelling
bleeding
edge deterioration (including over-running and permanent deformation)
potholes
general unevenness, heaving and slippage
Definitions of these distresses and diagrammatic representations where appropriate, which have
been extracted from the new French Distress Manual, are given in Annex 8B.
Most of these distresses can be modelled, or have a direct bearing on distresses that can be
modelled. Local distresses that require immediate local maintenance are generally not considered
to be relevant for performance modelling or for network planning, and are therefore excluded here.
For LTPP studies, it is recommended that distresses should be identified in terms of extent and
severity.
When conducting visual surveys, it is important that any local maintenance that has been carried out
is noted and the extent measured. This information is essential for performance modelling and
should also be used in long term planning, since it reduces the extent of the distresses. As a
minimum requirement, the following repairs should be identified:
• patches
• routing and sealing of cracks
• overbanding of cracks
It is important to record the weather conditions on site during the distress survey because it can
influence how well the distresses and quantities can be measured. Records of weather condition
should include the moisture condition of the pavement, the air temperature during monitoring and
an indication of the sunshine (in terms of sunny, partly cloudy and cloudy).
80
8.3.3 Severity of pavement distress
In future European LTPP projects, it is recommended that the development of the performance
equations describing the deterioration of the road surface in terms of the distresses being measured
should take into account the severity of the distress as well as the extent recorded. It has been
established that the interpretation of severity levels could be different in different countries. For
example, a crack that is considered to be severe in one country might be considered to be moderate
in another or even slight in a third. It is necessary that all countries continue to measure severity of
distress by their normal methods otherwise their historical data cannot readily be taken into
account. However, for modelling of pavement performance it is essential that distresses are
recorded into a database on the same scale in order to perform statistical analyses. In order to do
this it is necessary to normalise the severity levels of the various distresses recorded in the
participating countries. The methodology to carry out this complex normalisation exercise has been
developed based on the distresses which are measured in individual countries, how they are
quantified and how severity is assessed.
The approach adopted in this Chapter was to produce a matrix for each distress, based on the
methods used to assess severity in the manuals of different countries. The severity levels; low,
moderate and severe, assigned to the cell numbers 1 to 12 in the matrix, were based on the
experience of the members of the Working Group. From the manuals, a normalisation Table for
each distress was generated by determining for each cell number what level of severity (l°w>
moderate or severe) was given. For a particular country, if a cell has not been given a severity it is
because the manual for that country does not, for example, consider that particular combination of
crack width and type of cracking.
The distress manuals have been examined to determine the individual severity levels of crack-
related distresses for the different countries. Table 8.2 shows how the severities were interpreted
from the distress manuals for longitudinal cracking in the wheelpaths. The matrix given in Table
8.2 considers three types of crack; single, single with branch and multiple for various widths of
crack. The manuals from each country were examined on this basis to produce the values in the
main part of Table 8.2.
Annex 8C contains the severity assessments for the various types of crack identified in the manuals
together with the matrices used to assign severity levels. Clearly, this approach gives a broad-brush
normalisation between different countries assuming that the pavement inspectors work exactly to
their distress manuals. In some countries, not all the distresses are included in the manuals or the
method of assessing severity used in practice might be different. The notes under the individual
Tables given in Annex 8C explain why a distress severity assessment has not been included in the
Tables for some countries. It should be borne in mind that all of this information has been derived
from the distress manuals supplied and that in practice, procedures might differ from those given in
the manuals. Definitions of cracks and units of measurement are also given in the Tables in Annex
8C.
Interpretation of the crack severity levels assigned in the different countries is not straightforward.
For most countries there are gaps in the Tables because severity is not based on the full severity
matrix proposed. For example, in Table 8.2, the Swedish, Dutch and the Danish distress manuals
assign severity levels only on the basis of crack width and no reference is made to the type of
cracking. In practice, severities are also usually assigned by inspectors to branched and multiple
cracks. According to the manuals, in 3 countries crack severity is not recorded. In Spain,
81
however, sufficient details should be recorded to enable severities to be assigned across the full
inference space.
Table 8.2 Severity assessment of longitudinal cracking in the wheel paths derived
from distress manuals
Italic » Low
Normal = Moderate
Longitudinal cracking in the wheel paths

Matrix cell number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 S 9 10 11 12
Austria ; L M L S M S M M S s s . ' ■ : $ ■ ■
Belgium
Denmark L M M M
Finland L M L S M S M M s S s S
France ; ;x^. :slfVíl ™ t S M S' L ¡ËMCi s L M s
[Greece L M L M M M M M s
Hungary
Ireland
The Netherlands :.:L : M :;.S'.Ï S
Portugal L M M s s s
Slovenia L L M M M s S S s S S s
Spain
Sweden : : L, ' L M S
Switzerland L M s s
United Kingdom L S S S
L·
Extent: The maximum length in one lane of a 100m test section is 200m. Each wheelpath is assessed
separately.
Definition: Cracks in the wheelpaths predominantly parallel to the pavement centre line.
Develops in severity from a single crack to a single crack with branches and/or multiple cracks.
Notes: Spain measures width and type of crack.

Belgium, Hungary and Ireland do not measure severity ().
Hungary and Ireland do not measure longitudinal cracking as a separate distress.
Denmark classes a severe crack to be in excess of 3cm wide.
The UK lias two severity levels, classed as low and severe.
Greece classes a single crack as severe if it is wider tlian 7.6cm.
82
The severity matrices given in the Tables in Annex 8C could form the basis of normalisation for a
European LTPP data collection and analysis project. It is recommended that the normalisation
process is validated and updated by visiting road test sections and assessing how the severity levels
and extent of distresses are recorded in practice in the different countries because the inspection of
the condition of pavement test sections may not be carried out precisely according to the manuals.
The severity matrices given in the Tables in Annex 8C could then be amended in the light of that
assessment. Using the normalisation matrices, it should be possible to normalise severity levels of
historical road performance data in order that consistent European pavement performance models
can be developed.
8.4 AUTOMATED CONDITION SURVEYS
8.4.1 General
The first stage in the assessment of automated methods for measuring road condition was to
determine which systems are being used in the different countries for network monitoring, RLT and
ALT. In Tables 8.3 to 8.5, the various pieces of equipment are identified for the automated
methods of measuring surface distress, texture depth, skid resistance, longitudinal profile, rutting
and deflection for each of the three testing regimes. Table 8.6 gives the key to the relevant
abbreviations for the preceding tables.
It can be seen that not all countries use the same equipment to measure the same parameter, and
clearly, it is important to ensure that the different methods of measurement are inter-calibrated
when they are being used within European projects in which pavement condition is being measured
in different countries operating different pieces of equipment.
For European LTPP projects, it is recommended that even if some measurements have not been
made previously on the test sections in a particular country, all measurements should be made for
the duration of the project.
The recommended measurements are those determined earlier under "Real-time load testing (RLT)
data acquisition measurements" and established in the Rating Tree study as yielding parameters that
have a significant bearing on overall pavement performance. It is recommended that the automated
condition surveys should measure:
• deflection
• rutting
• longitudinal profile
• macro-texture
• skid resistance
83
Table 8.3 Network data acquisition methods
Country Surface distress Texture Skid Longitudinal Transverse Deflection

Manual Automated Resistance Profile Profile FWD Other
Equipment Processing (rutting)
1 AT ** N/A SRM BI
— — USP D D
2 BE ** vi m ~ — APL A — C
3 CH ** - N/A A ST, SRM A, APL, V, G A, TP D B,D
4 DK ** - N/A — DK DK DK D
5 ES ** — N/A — SCRIM RST.MRM RST.MRM _ ..
6 FR ** fi m RL SCRfiM APL LP, USP — D
7 FI +* — N/A — PTM PTM K -
-
8 GB #* N/A
-ι
- HSV SCRIM HSV HSV ~ D
9 GR ** ~ N/A - ASTMST BI — K
10 **
HU - N/A RST SCRIM RST RST κ D
11 DS - vi m A SCRIM A, APL A D Dy
12 NL ** vi m A DSTD A —
A
13 PT ** - N/A ~ SCRIM APL ~ — D
14 SE - — N/A RST - RST RST _
15 SI ** vi m SFT A D D
- A
Table 8.4 RLT data acquisition methods
Country Surface distress Texture Skid Longitudinal Transverse Deflection

Equipment Processing (Rutting)
1 AT ** N/A SP SRM OL Planum D
2 BE ** vi m APL A C
3 CH ** N/A SP, A ST, SRM A APL, V, G ATP D B, D
4 DK ** m DK DK DK D
5 ES ** N/A DD? — K
6 FR ** fi m RL SCRDM APL ASTM D D
7 FI ** N/A PTM PTM D
8 GB ** vi m SP, MTM, HSV, SCRIM, HTM SCRDM HSV HSV D D
9 GR ** m,a SMDT ST BI _ K _
10 HU *» N/A RST RST RST K _
11 IE ** N/A SP SCRDM APL M _ Dy
12 NL ** vi m — — A A D
13 PT ** N/A SP M APL SE K B
14 SE ** N/A RST RST RST K _
L^ SI ** vi m ■
SFT A A D D
Table 8.5 Accelerated load testing data acquisition methods
ι -*-" "■"-■———"—~—
■ ■ —
Country Texture Skid Longitudinal Transverse Deflection

Surface distress
Equipment Processing
1 AT ** - — SP OL Planum D
3 CH ** - ~ SP BP TP TP D —
4 DK ** - ~ - - DK DK D
5 ES ** - ~ LT BP DEP, LP LP K Β, D
6 FR ** - — *" OL TP D Β, BIS
7 FI ** - ~ DIP SE D
8 GB *+ - MTMSP BP OL SE, OL D BIS
12 NL ** - a - - SE D -
Table 8.6 Key to data acquisition methods
Surface distress (- Indicates measurement not carried out)
Man ** Manual survey is carried out.

Auto/nateci Equipment: Equipment used ( fo = foto, vi = video, fi = film)
Processing: Image processing (m = manual, a = automated, 1 = on line)
Texture (- Indicates measurement not carried out

Equipment used (A= ARAN, HSV = High Speed Survey Vehicle, RL = Rugolaser, HTM = High Speed Texture Meter, SP = Sand Patch, LT =
Laser Texturometer, MTM = mini-texture meter, SMTD = laser Sensor Measured Texture Depth, RST = Road Survey Teclinology)
Skid resistance (-- Indicates measurement not carried out

Equipment used (SCRIM = Sideways force Coefficient Routine Investigation Machine, ST = SKID trailer, SFT= Saab Friction Tester, DSTD =
Dutch Skid resistance Test Device, DK = Danish Stradograph, SRM = Stuttgarter Reibungsmesser, ASTM , BP = British Pendulum, M = Mu-meter)
Longitudinal profile (- Indicates measurement not earned out

Equipment used (A = ARAN, APL = Longitudinal profile analyser, MRM = Multifunction Road Monitor, V = Viagraph, G = Goniograph, DK =
Danish Profilograph, DIP = Dipstick, RST = Road Survey Teclinology, PTM = Finnish Road Surfacing Measurements Deuce, HSV = High Speed
Survey Veliicle, BI = Bump Integrator, OL = Optical level, )
Transverse profile (-- Indicates measurement not earned out

(Rutting) .
Equipment used (A = ARAN, RST = Road Survey Technology, PTM = Finnish Road Surfacing Measurements Device, Planum, TP - Transverse
Profilometer, SE = Straight Edge, OL = Optical level, DK = Profilograph, LP = User Profilometer, ASTM, TP, MAM, HSV = High Speed Survey
Vehicle, USP = Ultrasonic profilometer)
Deflection (-- Indicates measurement not carried out

FWD Make of equipment used (D = Dynatest, K = Kuab, Ρ = Phoenix, )
Other Equipment used (B = Benkelman Beam, C = Curviameter, D = Deflectograph, Dy = Dynaflect, BIS = Built-in sensors)
To provide data for the development of analytical pavement performance models in future
European LTPP studies, the Working Group recommends that the following measurements be
made:
• Deflection:
The deflection bowl should be measured for the analysis of pavement performance. Suitable
pieces of equipment are therefore: FWD, Curviameter and the Deflectograph, if equipped for
bowl data acquisition.
• Rutting:
The average rut depth over the section length in the outer wheel path should be determined from
individual measurements at a minimum spacing of 10m. Ideally, a device that can measure the
shape of a wheelpath rut as well as depth is preferred to help distinguish between structural and
non-structural rutting. The measurement of crossfall would also be of use for safety purposes.
Danish Profilograph in action
Longitudinal profile:
m the Rating Tree study, longitudinal profile was identified as an important parameter in
pavement management. The inventory of RLT Data Acquisition established that several devices
are being used to acquire longitudinal profile data. From the inventory it was established that
the equipment used in the participating countries produces different types of output and
therefore it would be extremely difficult to normalise the data to a common denominator by
conventional normalisation techniques. It may be feasible to produce a dimensionless
longitudinal profile value by dividing by its intervention level in the individual country. It may
then be possible to develop a model based on the change in the dimensionless profile data.
88
• Skid resistance.
In the Rating Tree study, a number of countries indicated skid resistance to be important,
whereas others indicated that it was of no importance from a pavement condition viewpoint.
Clearly, for safety reasons, skid resistance is extremely important. From the RLT inventory
given in Table 8C, six countries measure skid resistance. The conclusions from the PIARC
Technical Committee 1, "Surface Characteristics", could be used to inter-calibrate the various
devices in future practical studies.
• Macro texture:
Macro texture is usually considered as an explanatory variable in performance modelling, and
not a dependent variable. It can be measured by the sandpatch method or by the use of texture
meters based on laser technology.
8.4.2 Normalisation of automated measurements
For this Chapter, reports were collected in which various pieces of equipment for measuring the
same pavement condition have been compared. These reports are listed in Annex 8D. For
deflection measurements, the Working Group recommends that deflection bowl data, rather than
just central deflection values, should be used in the analysis of pavement performance. It is likely
that much of this information will come from FWD measurements. However, historical data
available from many sites might have been obtained from the Deflectograph and the Benkelman
Beam, in which case central deflection information only will be available. In order to compare
deflections from all the different devices involved, there is a need to adjust the deflections to
standard values. At least two sets of normalisation formulae will be needed:
a) To allow historical central deflection data to be normalised to a standard deflection value;
b) To allow bowl information (historical and current) measured on the different devices to be
compared directly.
Several research projects have been conducted in different countries to evaluate the relationships
between central deflections measured by different devices. In general, the stress and frequency
dependent nature of road building materials means that it is unlikely that any two different
deflection measuring devices will record exactly the same deflection on all pavement types even
when different load levels are taken into account. Apart from load level, the main factors that have
been shown to influence measured deflections are pulse shape and duration, the method of load
application (e.g. rolling wheel or dynamic drop pulse), and the method of measurement of the
deflections.
Research has also compared bowl information from different deflection measuring devices. This
includes differences between different types of FWDs and even between seemingly identical FWDs
from the same manufacturer. Given the variety of deflection measuring devices and pavement
types to be considered, it is very likely that separate normalisation formulae will be needed for
different types of pavements. In addition, the temperature of the pavement will be a major
(external) factor on many pavements. Unification of temperature measurement methods will
therefore be of importance on those pavements that contain temperature-susceptible layers.
89
An appraisal of some of the reports on inter-calibration of deflection measuring equipment has been
made in Annex 8E of this Chapter.
8.5 SELECTION OF TEST SITES FOR FUTURE EUROPEAN LTPP STUDLES
LTPP studies have been in progress in individual countries for some years and much experience has
been gained. Based on that experience, recommendations are made for the selection of sites for a
European LTPP study. It is most important that the required information about a particular site is
available in order to analyse pavement performance and develop models that would be statistically
significant and therefore be applicable throughout Europe.
The recommended requirements for LTPP sites can be divided into two groups;
1. Test sections
• Length: 100 m (or with data normalisable to 100 m)
straight, no gradient, no intersections, no sewage systems underneath, no

• Location:
bridges etc.
homogeneous (both in length and in width) with known materials and

• Construction:
layer thicknesses
constant number and speeds along the test section (no intersections, no
• Traffic:
bends etc.)
no major rehabilitation planned for the length of the study and accessible for
• Availability:
data acquisition
2. Data
• Visual distress: detailed information per 100 m test section with sufficient points available,
measured at intervals of at least 1 year. No rehabilitation during
measuring period
• Deflection: at least 1 deflection bowl measurement available
• Traffic: number of vehicles, number of trucks to estimate cumulative standard

axles carried
• History: dates of construction, latest rehabilitation and any maintenance
90
• The distresses that develop in pavement surfaces have been identified in Tables from distress
manuals provided by participating countries and similarities and differences in the distresses
recorded by the different countries have been highlighted.
• A methodology has been developed to normalise the severity levels of the visual distresses.
Inter-calibration of crack severity has been carried out and presented in this Chapter based on
information derived from the distress manuals.
• From this study and from the output of Chapter 4 and the Rating Tree investigation,
recommendations have been made for the minimum level of monitoring pavement condition for
European long term pavement performance studies. These recommendations are aimed at
encouraging an improvement in data acquisition techniques and not to reduce the requirements
for data collection to the minimum common denominator.
• For pavement performance studies, it is recommended that all forms of cracking of the road
surface should be recorded in terms of quantity and severity. Measurements of rut depth in the
wheel paths should include an assessment of whether the rutting is structural or non-structural.
It would be beneficial if the depth and shape of ruts could be measured using automated
equipment. The condition of the asphalt wearing course should be recorded in terms of the
quantity of ravelling, bleeding, edge deterioration, localised deformation and general
unevenness.
• For deflection measurements, it is recommended that deflection bowls are measured on each test
section together with the temperature gradient within the pavement. Longitudinal profile and
macro-texture should be measured if equipment is available.
• Recommendations were made on how to select test sites for future European long-term
pavement performance studies.
91
ANNEX 8A DISTRESS MANUALS USED IN THE INVESTIGATION.
AUSTRIA. DISTRESSroENTEFICATIONMANUAL FOR THE LONG-TERM PAVEMENT

PERFORMANCE PROJECT. Strategie Highway Research Program. National Research Council.
Washington DC 1993.
BELGIUM. CATALOGUE DES DEGRADATIONS DE CHAUSSEES. Centre de Recherches

Routières. Bruxelles. 1996.
DENMARK. KATALOG OVER BELÆGNINGS SKADER - VEJLEDNING I VISUELT

EFTERSYN (PAVEMENT DEFICIENCY CATALOUGE - GUIDELINE FOR VISUAL
DNSPECTJ.ON) J.M. Jansen and A. Rosenkvist. Report No 70. Danish Road Institute. Roskilde
1992.
FINLAND. DISTRESS ffiENTIFICATION MANUAL FOR THE LONG-TERM PAVEMENT

PERFORMANCE PROJECT. Strategic Highway Research Program. National Research Council.
Washington DC 1993. NORDIC SHRP-LTPP STATUS REPORT. Statens vegvesen
Vegdirektoratet. 1995.
FRANCE. RELEVE DES DEGRADATIONS DE SURFACE DES CHAUSSEES. Laboratoire

Central des Ponts et Chaussées. 1993.
FRANCE. CATALOGUE DES DEGRADATIONS DE SURFACE DES CHAUSSEES.

Laboratoire Central des Ponts et Chaussées, (unpublished).
GREECE. MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR ALTERNATIVES PAVEMENT CONDITION

INDEX (PCI) FIELD MANUAL. Asphalt Surfaced Roads and Parking Lots. National Technical
University of Athens.
HUNGARY. CATALOGUE OF DEFICIENCIES ON ASPHALT PAVEMENTS. Dr Janos

Schvab. Budapest. 1984.
IRELAND. CATALOGUE OF PAVEMENT DEFECTS (Flexible Road Pavements). An Foras

Forbartha. 1985.
NETHERLANDS. RATIONEEL WEGBEHEER. Handleiding en Schadecatalogus Visuele

Inspectie. Stichting Centrum voor Regelgeving en Onderzoek in de Grond-, Water- en
Wegenbouw en de Verkeerstechniek. 1990.
PORTUGAL. SHRP DISTRESS MANUAL. LNEC-Proc.92/16/10725.
SLOVENIA. POSKODBENAASFALTNTHVOZISCfH. Ljubljana 1987.
SP ADN. CATALOGO DE DETERIOROS EN FIRMES. Tecnología Carreteras MOPU. 1989.
SWEDEN. BARA ELLER BRISTA. Handbok i tillstandsbedomning av belagda gator och vagar.
Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute. 1991.
92
SWITZERLAND. CATALOGUE DES DEGRADATIONS. Union des professionnels suisses de
la route (VSS)
UNITED KINGDOM. CHART 5. ILLUSTRATED SITE MANUAL FOR INSPECTORS.

Department of Transport. 1986.
93
ANNEX 8B DISTRESS DEFINITIONS
CRACKING
/ * «SÏ;;;;;!WÎÎ$O- S '
axes s' ^g^|í||¡pF^ ^ | s^

^y^^Êr^jk
Λ : ^ > ^ > :\::.'i>xföï*" . .¿»*Miè^^:w>ë.vw
s' edge
íüüi location of wheelpaths
Longitudinal cracking in the wheelpaths:

Cracking in the wheelpaths, predominantly parallel to the pavement centre line
Longitudinal cracking outside the wheelpaths:

Cracking predominantly parallel to the pavement centre line but not in the wheelpaths
Diagrams reproduced from the French distress manual
94
axes
¡¡¡¡υ location of wheelpaths
Transverse cracking:
A crack predominantly perpendicular to the pavement centre line
Ifiplli location of wheelpaths

r
\ Ì ■■i
Alligator cracking :
A series of interconnected cracks in the wheelpath
95
Crazing :
A pattern of interconnected cracks over the whole road surface
Block cracking in semi-rigid construction:

A pattern of cracks that divides the surface into approximately rectangular pieces

96
Joint cracking (transverse and longitudinal):
A crack at transverse or longitudinal construction joints
axes
location of wheelpaths
Shoulder movement:
Reduction of elevation of edge of the road (usually due to ground movement)
97
Star cracking:
Several small cracks connecting at a point
Pumping:
Seeping or ejection of water from beneath the pavement through cracks detectable by deposit of
fine material left on the pavement surface
Edge deterioration:
Cracking, ravelling or potholes within about half a metre of the edge of the carriageway, or damage
to the verge due to over-riding
98
DEFORMATIONS
Structural rutting:
Longitudinal surface depression in the wheelpath due to deformation of several of the pavement
layers
edge
. ■
:x.;_::.:niM.t:
d: rut depth
^«äwS location or wheelpaths
Non structural rutting:

Longitudinal surface depression in the wheelpath due to deformation of the wearing course only
edge
axes
d: depth of deformation
HI location of wheelpaths
Local deformation (edge):

Area of local deformation, in the vicinity of the edge of the road
99
axes edge
d: depth of deformation
Local deformation (pavement):

Area of local deformation, not near the edge
Frost heaving:
Permanent upward movement of the road due to frost
Surface heaving:
Lateral upward displacement of pavement material
Corrugation:
Washboard unevenness
Unsatisfactory shape:
Irregularities in the road surface which are sufficiently pronounced to cause bounce, wheelhop
pitch or roll.
100
DISTRESSES OF ASPHALT WEARING COURSE
Potholes:
Cavity in the pavement surface caused by loss of material
Bleeding:
Excess bituminous binder occurring on the pavement surface
Ravelling:
Loss of particles from the pavement surface
Delamination:
Local total loss of wearing course layer
Polishing:
Gradual wearing away of aggregates to form a smooth surface (loss of macrotexture and micro
texture)
Loss of coated chippings:

Loss of aggregates (chippings) which have been rolled into surfacing to improve skid resistance
Error! Switch argument not specified.
Surface slippage:
Longitudinal displacement of a localised area (usually in the wheelpath) in the pavement surface,
often accompanied by crescent shaped cracks
101
DISTRESSES SPECD7IC TO SURFACE DRESSING
Combing:
Loss of chippings in narrow multiple strips parallel to the centre line
Loss of particles:
Loss of chippings from the dressing to expose the underlying surface
Delamination:
Local total loss of surface dressing layer
DISTRESSES RELATED TO DRAINAGE
Adverse camber:
Unsatisfactory camber or crossfall or superelevation
Inadequate drainage:
Standing water at the edge of the carriageway
REPAIRS
Condition of patching:
Amount and type of distress of patched areas
102
ANNEX 8C SEVERITY LEVELS FOR C RAC KING
Longitudinal cracking in the wheel paths
Italic -■■■■ íZom

Normal = Moderate
¡Longitudinal cracking in t ie wheel paths Π

¡Matrix cell number | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
lAustrø"·
H ¡Ü¡ ÜÜ ÉSÉ & JESU Hfl i i i ÜÜ s : '-'S:i l S. V
¡Belgium
uJenrnatKrm, WÊÊ βιι "■W
■■::;: y - ■
: ■ ;
: <M·;· ■
¡Fini and L M L S M S M M S S S S
¡France'
¡Greece
Ü H Uil L WÊ
L M L M
/s L
M M
m IUI 'èSi ;;f^
M
ÜÜ
M
siS
IHungary : P _
■; ■ : : : ■■ : ■ ■ : ■
:
; i>.y;i«v.v;v '■■■ - ■ ■ ■ : ' ■
■ -
T..;..
Deland
ThèiNetherlands i ; S
ici 1 S
Portugal
üü L M M S S
^^v::/:':;:.:
s
Slovenia::' ft?;- Ufi «Él ÉHÉ MÊ ÉËË ^S>
H ^■S--r- lu lisi lui
Spain
Sweden HH M> s
HI
Switzerland L M S s
¡United Kmgdont L ¿■fc". s S ^m itili
Extent: The maximum length in one lane of a 100m test section is 200m. Each wheelpath is
assessed separately.
Definition: Cracks in the wheelpaths predominantly parallel to the pavement centre line.
Develops in severity from a single crack to a single crack with branches and/or multiple
cracks.

The UK has two severity levels, classed as low and severe.
Greece classes a single crack as severe if it is wider than 7.6cm.
103
Longitudinal cracking outside the wheel paths
Italic "Low
Normal Moderate
¡Longitudinal cracking outside the wheel paths

¡Matrix cell numberj 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
S Austria ;
L ;:Μ :: Χ.: ¡ ËÜ M ¡Ivit M usi isp HH s
¡Belgium
w& IMI ÍMÉ M¡
Finland L Μ L S M S M M s s s s
France i f i i L
:
Ä Ü •χ:: ñr\s$-;;;;M..;: i:; :s 1 1ÌÉÌ ¡ÖÄ 1 S ■ L P&$$ .'S ;
Greece ï L Μ L M M M M M S
Huhgî; : |: Ρ ^
Ireland 1
The Nether tands L M S S
fÜ
Portugal L Μ M S s s
Slovenia ■ ¡fÜ ΙΛ M lîMi ÉSH .'.S." S :,S.V:
lui ¡pli ps | β
Spain
Sweden ΐ'ϊ,:-::
■ ■
L
" : . ■ ■ "
È6Ê ; S - ■ : . · ' -
iäfli
Switzerland L M S S
United Kingdom J.ïteï ::'ïi:::' S ' S : S
Extent: Metres
Definition: Cracks predominanüy parallel to the pavement centre line but not in the wheelpaths.
Develops in severity from a single crack to a single crack with branches and/or multiple
cracks.

The UK has two severity levels, classed as low and severe.
104
Transverse cracking
Matrix
Width, mm Single Single with Multiple or
small branch spalling or loss
<2
28
815 8
mmm ■HI
>15 (¡11111 12-
vliaUcM tycWii
Normal = Moderate
Transverse cracking
Matrix cell number 1 1 1 2 3 4 5 1 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 |
Austrian va IM III S <::Sf S M ΙΑ S s ::S ■
ρp
Belgium
Derimark üü fcvil M M
Finland L M L S M S M M S S s s
France L ?'.L. M: Mi s l l i ï IM ' ■ ■ ■ : & :
M ;vs
L·
Greece L M L M M M M M s
Hungary 1 , : ; ■ . ■ · ■ . . /
: : : :: Γ: . - ■'■■:.:::*:>;:.'

Ireland
The Netherlands Lii M SV : S,i ' . ■ ' ■ . ' ■ ,
Portugal L M M S M S M M S M s s
S to vertía /Xii:' rLï: WM Ä! 'JvT-l ■*s* ; :/.S'?;: ¿m- ;#SÉ v¿£4 ma β ;
Spain
Sweden^· : V- ■■-: >-'{,'>.■ M •:S':·· s 11 S PU m^
Switzerland L M M M M M S s S s s s
United Kingdom :
: U: pvïl S :■■■. $ :
M' S :M# -m\
Extent: Length of individual cracks in metres
Definition: Crack predominantly perpendicular to the pavement centre line.

Develops in severity by width and branches.
Notes: Spam measures width and type of crack.

France has an additional condition, VS: Very Severe.
105
Alligator cracking in the wheel paths
Matrix
Mesh Not inter Interconnected Interconnected Intere. + spalling
size, cm connected < 2 mm > 2 mm + loose pieces
>30 /
1030
<10
Italic Low
Normal Moderate
¡Alligator cracking in the wheel paths

¡Matrix cell number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Austria ï;ïa& L îKL'::
*Ml· Hi HI *RT ■M.
ÜÜ Bu p5i β
Belgium
Derrrriark ws§ I » .*Üí S i*L löi üi iMl L '
Finland L L L M M M M M M S S S
France χ WLM i l k l L L ¡ β M M
»1 pg|| i S i S
Greece L L L L L L M M M S S s
Hungary f. ;-:::.;v\7 ■
;!;::·:~i /'. "':'_:.:; '. * , . '·
Ireland
The Netherlands1 V: . L ¡¡Ml MS -■S"': ;,.·...
Portugal L L L M M M M M M S s S
Slovenia1 ι 'IT :.te WEMiMi M M |M
:
S 1 Wstè s s
".iL·:
Spain
Sweden;:: ¡Ü¡ : *ife ,L IMI 1. M,; M. ¡fS| ;s;. ■ S usi psi ps
Switzerland L L L L L L M M M s s s
United Kingdorn X L ÉÉÍ i$i iSi S : S ■: s s
Extent: Square metres (max. 100 sq. m made up with 100m χ 0.5m in each wheel path).
Definition: Alligator cracking starts in the wheelpath generated by traffic. If it spreads to either side of
the wheelpath or between wheelpaths it is still classed as alligator cracking
Develops in severity from larger to smaller block size and from narrower to wider crack
width.

UK does not consider alligator cracking separately: it is noted as crazing (fine or coarse).
106
Crazing
Matrix
Mesh Not inter Interconnected Interconnected Intere. + spalling
size, cm connected < 2 mm > 2 mm + loose pieces
>30 J . sfê 7 sÄiimiÄitfT
1030 :*:wm 5 8
ν
:':ΐίχ.·ΐ··..
¡aAtï^fôÎ
<10 ,J:' 6 ο
Η^Κ^^Κ
Italic lí£wl
Normal : Moderate
Crazing
Matrix cell number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
:
:x i» Pu ' M :
:.§■■
-M"
Austria/
Belgium
X
'L·*
M
lu S S:
¡Denmark iii I K « β SV mm L ■ :s;Ü Ü L

¡Finland L L L M M M M M M s s s
iFrancô':: X ■•.X ! * ΐΧ-· X :
:X; l i l I Í Ü WM M S ::i:S:^ : . S '
Greece
:
Hungary . - . ■ ■ - ■
: - ■
·:
Ireland
The Netherlands X ïM? ívKéa " > ■ $ % .
Portugal L L L M M M M M M S s s
Slovenia ■ ■ ■ " , . r ■> \ > - :■*·
■<■ w > ■'■■■:■: :. ϊ;.\?':.{'ϊ-:::κ . : : :
- ;
' ^ ■ ; ; ■ '
! :i| ·| iiÉl ■'■■■'}'--y.iy.'.-.-:.
Spain
Sweden: ÉÉÉ ΐ:Ώΐ M M wm --s:- ■ & S - -s*- ^ p ■ S
L
X
pu L
Switzerland L L L L M M M s s ;s
United Kingdom -ï L L L . S IÎS1" S s· s · s"|
Extent: Square metres
Definition: Crazing is alligator type cracking but not generated initially by traffic; it usually occurs
generally over the pavement surface
Develops in severity from larger to smaller block size and from narrower to wider crack width.
Notes: Spain measures diagonal, length and width of cracked area: does not classify into severity level
UK does not class crazing and alligator cracking separately: Manual gives two levels of severity
(fine or coarse)
Greece does not note crazing but desenption of block cracking couldfitdescription of crazing
based on cause of cracking
SHRP manual does not specify crazing: it is assumed to be alligator/chickenwire cracking not
in the wheelpaths
107
Block cracking in semirigid structures
Matrix
Mesh Inter Interconnected Interconnected Intere. + spalling
size, m connected with branch, <2mm with branch, >2mm + loose pieces
■fiatici Low
Normal = Moderate
¡Block cracking in semirigid structures

¡Matrix cell number] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 J
Austria ¡Üt ÜÉ¡ !"MY ¡¡¡SÉ iiii L S ¡Él ■ p
Belgium
pDeninark
Finland L L M S M s L M s
France ? % \¿ r L L" ÉÉÍ É&I lÉÉ Ësil ¡Éi §sl tesi S
t$st
Greece L L M S M L s M s
Hungary
Ireland
TheNetheriandS: i
Portugal L L M s M L s M s
Slovenia;:::
Spain
Sweden \·
Switzerland
Unit ed Kingdom
Extent' Square metres
Definition: Occurs in semirigid constructions.

Appears as an approximately rectangular pattern of cracks producing large blocks.
Develops in severityfromlarger to smaller block size.
Notes: Belgium, Denmark, Hungary, Ireland, The Netherlands, Sweden, Slovenia Switzerland and
the UK do not record block cracking
France has an additional category of Very Severe: VS
108
ANNEX8D
REPORTS ON INTER-CALIBRATION OF MECHANISTIC MEASUREMENTS
CZARNECKI, K, SZPINEK, S, GODLEWSKI, D, HERITIER, Β (1993). Comparative

measurements of pavement deflections FWD-Curviametre. Proceedings of The East-West
European Road Conference, Warsaw, September 1993.
FEHRL (1996). Harmonisation of the use of the Falling Weight Deflectometer on pavements (Part
1) Harmonisation of FWD measurements and data processing for flexible road pavement
evaluation. FEHRL Report 1996/1. Crowthorne: Transport Research Laboratory.
FERNE B W (1990). Comparative trials of Falling Weight Deflectometer systems in use in the
United Kingdom. Proceedings from the 3rd Int. Conference on the Bearing Capacity of Roads and
Airfields, Trondheim, July 1990. Vol 1. Norwegian Institute of Technology, Trondheim.
FERNE, B W (1994). A comparison of FWD back-analysis methods. TRL Un published Project

Report PR/H/82/94. Crowthorne: Transport Research Laboratory.
FERNE, B W (1994). A preliminary evaluation of the Mk3 Curviameter. TRL Unpublished Project
Report PR/W83/94. Crowthorne: Transport Research Laboratory.
FERNE, B W (1994). Development of a unified deflection design method: stage 1. TRL

Unpublished Project Report PR/H/'106/94. Crowthorne: Transport Research Laboratory.
GERSHKOFF, D R (1995). 1995 evaluation of the MT15 Curviameter for use in the UK. TRL
Unpublished Project Report PR/CE/112/95. Crowthorne: Transport Research Laboratory.
GERSHKOFF, D R and FERNE, B W (1995). Improvements and extensions to FWD analysis

techniques. TRL Un published Project Report PR/CE/135/95. Crowthorne: Transport Research
Laboratory.
HOYLNCK, W T, van der LOO, J M MULDEPJ J , J and KUJJPER, R (1992). Comparative tests
of FWD and Lacroix-Deflectograph. 7th International Conference on Asphalt Pavements,
Nottingham, UK.
HOYLNCK, WT, et al (1996). Multiple comparison among 16 European falling weight

deflectometers. KOAC Pavement Consultants, The Netherlands, June 1996.
RIO ALL, A and SIMONIN, J M (1994). Qualification des Deflectographes. LCPC Nantes,
Septembre 1994 (unpublished).
SANCHEZ LOPEZ, Β and ACHLTTEGUI VIADA, F (1993). Comparación entre las deflexiones
medidas con el curviámetro MT-15 y con la viga Benkelman. Revista RUTAS, Madrid, Marzo -
Abril 1994
SIMONIN, J M, MEIGNEN, M and LEPERT, Ρ (1993). Evaluation des performances du

Curviametre MT 15. LCPC Nantes, October 1993 (unpublished).
109
SLMONLN, J M MEIGNEN, M and LEPERT, P (1993). Evaluation des performances du FWD.
LCPC Nantes, 1993 (unpublished).
VAN GURP, C A P M and DORSMAN, J (1994). Comparative Study of Falling Weight

Deflectometers. Delft University of Technology, March 1994
110
ANNEX 8E ASSESSMENT OF REPORTS ON INTERCALD3RATION OF
DEFLECTION MEASUREMENTS
Structural adequacy is considered to be one of the major factors which influence the performance
of pavements. Consequently, information on the structural condition of the test sections will be
needed in the analysis of the distress data and this can be derived from deflection measurements.
Different types of equipment are available for measuring pavement deflections and for each type
there are several different brands or makes. Table 8E. 1 shows the four types of equipment which
are currently being used in the participating countries. The most popular is the Falling Weight
Deflectometer (FWD). Other types of equipment in use are the LacroixDeflectograph, the
Curviameter and the Benkelman Beam.
Table 8E.1 Deflection equipment operated by different countries

— » » — — . . . . — — . . — — . . - I I . ... . — ■- - ι
Equipment 1 Countries
FWD 1AT, CH DK, ES, FI, EE, FR, GB, GR, HU, NL, PT, SE, SI
Benkelman Beam AT, CH ES, PT
Curviameter BE, ES, FR
LacroixDeflectograph
I AT, CH ES, FR, GB, SI
The different types of deflection equipment are described below.
Falling Weight Deflectometer
The FWD applies an impulse load to the pavement surface by dropping a weight from a preset
height onto a set of rubber buffers mounted on a circular footplate with a diameter of 300 mm. The
footplate transmits the load to the pavement. By varying the drop height the impulse load can be
varied. Usually a peak load value of 50 kN is applied. The width of the load pulse ranges from 50
to 60 ms for KUAB machines and from 20 to 35 ms for all other FWDs. The shape of the load
pulse is similar to that induced in the pavement by the rear axle of a loaded truck travelling at
normal speed although the rotation of applied stresses does not occur. The shape of the surface
deflections produced by the impulse load is measured by four to nine sensors. The first sensor is
mounted in the centre of the footplate and the remainder are positioned at various spatial distances
up to 2.5 m from the load centre. Figure 8E. 1 shows a Falling Weight Deflectometer in action.
To measure the deflection bowl, the FWD is stationary for about 2 minutes at one location. To
obtain a realistic value of the structural condition of a pavement section, measurements should be
carried out at a minimum of 10 locations.
Curviameter
The Curviameter is an instrumented twoaxle truck with twin wheels on each end of the rear axle
carrying an axle load which can be controlled within the range of 80 to 130 kN. It is a high output
device, measuring pavement deflections along the road at intervals of 5 m. Deflections are measured
111
under the right-hand twin wheel, while the test vehicle is running at a speed of 18 km/h (5 m/s).
One of the elements of the instrumentation is the elastic caterpillar, 15 m long and running in
between the two wheels of the right hand twin wheel. On the caterpillar, three sensors are fixed at a
spacing of 5 m. The sensors are placed periodically onto the pavement by the caterpillar and the
signal from the sensor in front of the loading wheel is recorded from 1 m in front of the test wheel
to 3 m behind the wheel. Three parameters of the deflection bowls are determined: the maximum
deflection, the radius of the bowl at the position of the maximum deflection and the span of the
bowl just at the height of 1/2 maximum deflection.
Figure 8E.1: Falling Weight Deflectometer in action
Lacroix-Deflectograph
The Lacroix-Deflectograph is a two-axled truck with twin wheels at the rear axle. The axle load
can be adjusted up to 130 kN. Underneath the truck is a measuring assembly which consists of a T-
shaped reference frame incorporating two measuring arms which sit between the twin wheels at
each end of the rear axle during the measuring cycle. The deflections are measured every 4-6 m
along the road, depending on the type of deflectograph, while the truck is running at a constant
speed of 3 km/h. During a measurement cycle, the reference frame is resting freely on the pavement
with the measuring arms positioned so that the measuring tips that rest on the road surface are just
in front of the twin wheels on the rear axle. When the wheels move forward the measuring tips
112
deflect with respect to the reference frame and after the maximum deflection has been recorded, the
reference frame is dragged forward at twice the vehicle speed to position it for the next
measurement cycle. The rotation of the measuring arms with respect to the reference frame is
measured by high accuracy sensors and sampled every 20 mm. There are different types of
deflectograph with different shaped measuring arms and with different wheelbase distances. The
long wheelbase deflectographs are specially designed for use on stiff semi rigid or concrete
pavements.
Benkelman Beam
The Benkelman Beam consists of a long measuring arm, pivoted in a reference frame. The arm is
placed on the pavement so that it is between the twin wheels on the rear axle of the stationary
loading truck. The load on the rear axle is generally between 63.5 and 100 kN. The measurement
begins with the tip of the measuring arm resting on the pavement in between the twin wheels at one
end of the axle. The truck is driven very slowly away from the measuring arm and the maximum
deflection under the wheels is recorded by a dial gauge or by a transducer mounted on the other
end of the measuring arm. The Benkelman Beam is a simple device which was used all over the
world but because of its low output and technical developments, it has gradually been superseded
by other types of equipment.
Interchangeability of deflection data
Deflection data depends substantially on the type of equipment that is used and to a lesser extent to
the brand or the make of the equipment. Major differences are in the shape and the duration of the
load pulse that is imparted to the pavement. The pulse duration for instance may differ from 25 ms
(FWD) to something like 25 s (Benkelman Beam). Because of the visco-elastic behaviour of
bituminous materials, the loading time can have a significant effect on the measured deflections.
Consequently, the deflection data collected by the participating countries with the different types
and makes of equipment listed in Table 8E. 1 are not simply interchangeable. To make the data
totally interchangeable, a comprehensive inter-calibration of the equipment should be carried out.
However, this would be extremely time consuming and expensive. It is therefore recommended that
the results of previous research in European countries to compare deflections measured by different
pieces of equipment should form the basis of the inter-calibration exercise for future LTPP projects.
Reports covering this topic are listed in Annex 8D.
Curviameter versus FWD Dynatest 8000
In Poland, Czarnecki et al (1993) carried out comparative measurements between a Curviameter

and a FWD The Curviameter was an older generation MT-15 with an axle load of 100 kN. The
FWD was a Dynatest 8000 with a test load of 50 kN. The measurements were conducted on 7 test
sections on flexible and semi-rigid pavements. The main aim of the project was to determine
whether the Curviameter was suitable for both the network level and the project level of pavement
management. The results of the measurements were compared on the basis of maximum deflections
only. By considering the results from six of the seven test sections, a good relationship was
established showing that the maximum deflections of the FWD were on average 10 per cent higher
then those measured by the Curviameter. No explanation was given for the deviation on the
seventh section.
113
Lacroix-Deflectograph versus FVVD Dynatest 8000
KOAC Pavement Consultants in The Netherlands use both a FWD and a Lacroix-Deflectograph
for pavement evaluation. In order to be able to translate data from both types of equipment, an
extensive testing program was conducted by Hoyinck et al (1992). Deflection measurements were
made on 97 test sections under the same conditions of temperature and groundwater level. The test
sections comprised the most frequently used flexible and semi-rigid pavement structures on sub-
primary provincial and municipal roads in the Netherlands. The FWD used in the experiment was a
Dynatest 8002 with a test load of 50 kN. The Lacroix-deflectograph used was a Swiss machine,
essentially complying with UK specifications regarding tyre prints and the reference T-frame and
measuring arms. The axle load, however, was 100 kN instead of 63.5 kN used in UK. Comparisons
were made between parameters of the deflection curves, as well as between the moduli, derived
from those curves. A good correlation was found between the maximum deflection of both
machines. Maximum deflection values from de Lacroix-Deflectograph can be translated to FWD-
values with the following equation:
l p.J 1.59 * eft?
uW- deflection measured by FWD

ά^χΓ deflection measured by Lacroix-Deflectograph
Curviameter versus Benkelman Beam
In Spain, Sanchez Lopez and Achutegui Viada (1993), conducted measurements with a
Curviameter and a Benkelman Beam. The Curviameter was a MT-15 type, latest model, with an
axle load of 130 kN. The measuring speed was 18 km/h with a measuring step of 5 m. No
information is given on the brand of the Benkelman Beam. The applied measuring step was 10 m.
The measurements were carried out on 85 test sections, each with a length of 200 m and tested
beforehand for homogeneity. The following types of pavement structure were examined:
type 1 non paved flexible structure

type 2 flexible pavement with 0.05 m asphalt
type 3 flexible pavement with 0.10 m asphalt
type 4 pavement with 0.15 m asphalt on granular base
type 5 pavement with 0.20-0 25 m asphalt on granular base
type 6 semi-rigid pavement with hydraulic-bound base or subbase
In the report on these measurements both the maximum deflection and the curvature are considered
to be important parameters to characterise deflection bowls, although only information is published
on maximum deflections. Table 8E.2 shows the results of linear regression calculations between the
average deflection values as measured by both devices. The regression lines are forced through the
origin.
114
Table 8E.2 Relationships between Curviameter and Benkelman Beam
pavement number of conversion C to BB conversion BB to C

type sections
lin. regression r2 lin. regression r2
1 14 C = 0.67 * BB 0.70 BB = 1.46* C 0.52
2 13 C = 0.76 * BB 0.82 BB = 1.31 *C 0.83
3 15 C = 0.72 * BB 0.84 BB = 1.36* C 0.87
4 13 C = 0.67 * BB 0.74 BB = 1.47* C 0.77
5 15 C = 0.74 * BB 0.83 BB = 1.33 *C 0.80
6 15 C = 0.79 * BB 0.74 BB = 1.21 *C 0.70
AH 85 C = 0.71 *BB 0.88 BB = 1.38 * C 0.89 1
In view of the relatively small differences in the conversion equations for the different pavement
types, the use of the overall equations, which are printed bold at the bottom of the Table, is
recommended.
Lacroix-Deflectograph, Curviameter and FWD Dynatest 8000 versus reference
The Laboratoire des Ponts et Chaussées (LCPC) in France has performed many measurements in
the years 1993 and 1994 to test the repeatability and the reproducibility of the various pieces of
equipment and also their accuracy by comparison to a reference deflection. A Curviameter type
MT15, a Dynatest 8000 FWD and a number of long and short frame Lacroix-Deflectographs were
involved in the experiment. Four test sections were used with the following constructions:
section 1 0.25 m CTM + 0.25 m CTM + 0.07 m AC

section 2 old flexible pavement + 0.25 m CTM + 0.06 m AC
section 3 old flexible pavement + 0.15 m BTM + 0.06 m AC + SD
section 4 UM + SD
where CTM - Cement Treated Material, BTM - Bituminous Treated Material, UM - Untreated
Material. AC - Asphalt Concrete and SD - Surface Dressing. Using the definitions of the rating tree
study in Chapter 4, sections 1 and 2 should be rated as rigid, section 3 as bituminous and section 4
as granular.
At one location in each test section, a reference system displacement transducer anchored at 6 m
depth has been installed to provide a reference deflection of the pavement at that particular
location. This reference deflection is defined as the deflection measured by this type of sensor under
the load applied by a two-axled truck with twin wheels on a single rear axle of 130 kN. The
deflection, as measured by the different pieces of equipment, was compared to the reference
deflection. The results have been reported in three unpublished documents by Simonin et al (1993a,
1993b and 1994).
115
The results characterised the repeatability and reproducibility of the different pieces of equipment.
In addition, it was concluded that there were no simple and reliable relationships between the
reference deflection and the deflection measured by the different pieces of equipment. The
equations given in Table 8E.3 have poor correlation coefficients and should be considered only as
very rough estimates and used only with considerable reservation.
Table 8E.3 Conversion equations with respect to reference deflections

(very rough estimates)
Equipment FWD FWDKUAB + Deflectograph Curviameter "

Dynatest 8000 '
Structure
semi-rigid cL = 1.0 to 1.4 d» d=1.8 to 2.6 dm0866 dr=1.08dn,(,) α\=1.2(1„

(depending on the (depending on the
pavement thickness) pavement thickness)
bituminous d T =1.0d r a d,= 1.8cL 0866 d,= 1.08d m 0 ) d, = 1.0 d»

d r =1.14d m < 2 )
granular dr=l.ldm uV = 2.0 c C 8 6 6 dr=1.08dm(,) 4=1.2(1™

d r =1.14d n , ( 2 )
d r =1.28d n , < 3 )
rl= reference deflection, tL = measured deflection
relationships valid for a load ranging between 50 and 65 kN

relationships valid for a load of 50kN on both KUAB and Dynatest 8000 FWDs
(1) results apply to extended beam long frame Deflectograph (D04) only
(2) results apply to long frame Deflectograph (D03) only
(3) results apply to shortframeDeflectograph (D02) only
The wide variability in the coefficient applicable to the FWD measurements on semi-rigid
pavements is considered to be caused by inertia effects. The deflection produced by the FWD is
approximately proportional to the test load between 25 and 65 kN. At present, relationships
between the reference curvature and the curvature provided by each piece of equipment are not
available.
Intercorrelation between FWD's of different make
The results of deflection measurements depend not just on the type of equipment but also on the
brand or the make of the device. The FWD in particular is available from several manufactures in a
variety of designs. In the Netherlands currently 9 FWD's are in use in the field of pavement
management, among which 4 Dynatest 8000 machines, 1 Dynatest 8081 machine (a heavy machine
for use on airfields), 1 Phoenix ML-10000 machine and 3 'home-made' machines. In order to get
interchangeable results from these devices, a calibration system has been set up of which one item is
116
a twoyearly side by side measurement on a number of test sites with various pavement
constructions. The applied test load is 50 kN. The participating devices have to meet standards for
repeatability and reproducibility. After excluding the extreme deflection results, the measured
deflections are averaged to get 'reference deflections'. For each participating FWD 'field calibration
factors' have been determined with which the deflection results can be converted to these reference
deflections. It should be noted that because 5 out of the 9 Dutch machines were Dynatest 8000
machines the results from this machine were used as the common reference on all test sections. Van
Gurp and Dorsman (1994) and Hoyinck et al (1996) describe the studies in detail.
In addition to the nine Dutch FWD's a number of FWD's from other countries have taken part in
the comparative measurements. Six of the FWD's listed in Table 8E.1 were present at the
comparative measurements carried out in October 1995. Conversion factors are therefore available
for these machines in relation to the Dynatest 8000 reference deflections.
Benkelman Beam versus FWD Dynatest 8000
In one of the 2yearly, side by side, calibration measurements in The Netherlands, a Benkelman
Beam HF300 has participated. The deflection results of this Benkelman Beam are compared with
the Dynatest 8000 reference deflections and the following conversion equation was derived:
FWD = 9.505 ♦ BBa}S
FWD= deflection measured by Dynatest 8000

BB = deflection measured by Benkelman Beam
Recommendations on deflection measurements for European longterm pavement

performance studies
The sensor reference deflection used by LCPC is derived from the integration of the vertical strains
to a depth of 6 m and therefore it can be used easily as a reference in mathematical models in which
absolute deflection is required. Used in this way, it simplifies the boundary conditions at the
bottom of the model in the subgrade. However, for a panEuropean LTPP project, a comparative
relationship is required between the various deflection measuring devices used by the participating
countries in order to make use of historical deflection data.
Table 8E.4 gives the correlations derived between the Dynatest 8000 central deflections and those
produced for other equipment on pavements with cemented, bituminous and granular road bases
to be studied in future European long term pavement perform ance studies.
It should be borne in mind that the relationships expressed in Table 8E.4 are very approximate and
can vary with pavement thickness and temperature. Consequently, they should be applied with care.
117
Table 8E.4 Conversion equations with respect to Dynatest 8000 FWD deflections
Equipment FWD KUAB + Deflectograph * Curviameter
Structure
semi-rigid Dyn= 1.837 KUAB 0866 Dyn = 1.08 to 0.77 Defl Dyn= 1.20 to 0.86 Curv
(depending on the (depending on the
pavement thickness) pavement thickness)
bituminous Dyn= 1.837 KUAB 08 * 6 Dyn= 1.08 Defl (1)

Dyn = Curv
m
Dyn= 1.14 Defl
granular Dyn= 1.837 KUAB 0 * 56 Dyn = 0.98 Defl (1)

Dyn = 1.09 Curv
(2)
Dyn= 1.04 Defl
(3)
Dyn= 1.16 Defl
* relationships valid for a load ranging between 50 and 65 kN

+ relationships valid for a load of 50kN on both KUAB and Dynatest 8000 FWDs
(1) results apply to extended beam long frame Deflectograph (D04) only
(2) results apply to long frame Deflectograph (D03) only
(3) results apply to short frame Deflectograph (D02) only
118
CHAPTER 9
TERMS OF REFERENCE FOR A PAVEMENT PERFORMANCE DATABASE
9.1 INTRODUCTION
The Technical Annex of COST Action 324 specifies as one of the objectives the gathering of a
comprehensive, well structured set of data on the long term performance of pavements covering the
whole European inference space with respect to traffic loading, climate and materials applied.
Although it was planned to collate the historical data, physical development and installation of a
central database to host that data was not intended. The data were to be stored in a spreadsheet
format only.
The resources of the PARIS project that have become available during the course of COST Action
324 allow for purchasing hardware and software for a central database and for the development of
that database. The joint resources of both projects should now result in a much more
comprehensive data set than originally envisioned, stored in a user-friendly database. The input
from COST Action 324 to that database will be its Terms of Reference, as specified in this Chapter.
Furthermore, COST Action 324 will deliver the basic data set in a spreadsheet format, as described
in the next Chapter.
9.2 PURPOSE OF THE DATABASE
In general terms the purpose of databases is the following;
• in a database data can be stored in an organised manner, so that

• data needed for analysis can be extracted easily by means of queries, and
• be exported to software packages for analysing the data.
For the COST Action 324 database storing data is not the main purpose, as all data has already
been stored in some way in the participating countries. Extracting data and exporting it to software
packages for analysis will be the main purposes of this database. This means that only data that will
be used in the analysis would have to be stored. Background data that are of interest in the
particular country, but not at the pan-European level need not be stored in the central database.
Only those data that have been brought to a common denominator through normalisation need to
be stored. Nevertheless, the volume of data is likely to be large because of the large number oftest
sections and the large amount of data per test section.
In summary, the Pan-European database for storing pavement performance data will be a tool for
use in data analysis. Therefore, extracting and exporting data will be the main purposes of the
database. Only the summarised data needed for the analysis should be stored in the database while
the source data should remain available in each participating country.
19
9.3 STRUCTURE OF THE DATABASE
The structure of a database depends on the type of data collected and the way in which the analysis
of the data will be carried out. Having assessed two existing databases for storing distress data, the
following structure of the database is recommended for storing European distress data
Given the expected volume of data and the available computer capacity, all data should be stored in
one database. Although there is the option of creating more than one database, for separately
storing, for example, monitoring data, climatic data and traffic data, data extraction would be much
more difficult than from a single database.
The database should consist of the following modules:
• Inventory
• Monitoring
• Traffic
• Climate
• History
• Construction
Each module should consist of one or more tables in which the data should be stored. Although full
details of each module can only be specified while the database is developed, some examples of the
recommended fields within the various modules are given below.
9.3.1 Inventory
The Inventory-module should consist of one table in which general information should be stored on
the location and the type oftest section. Some examples of field names are: Country Code, Section
Identification Code (Section JJD), local Section ID, length of section, width of section, type of
construction, maintenance status code.
The most important fields in the Inventory-module are:
Country Code : a two-digit code identifying the country (11 - 25)
Section ID : a six-digit code identifying the section; the first two digits should be similar
to the Country Code, the third digit indicates the status of the construction
(1: before rehabilitation, 2: after rehabilitation), the last three digits
represent the section number.
Local Section ID : the local Section ID represents the section number in each country. By
means of this number and the Section ID a link can be made between the
local databases and the Pan-European database.
Main structural element : 1 Flexible

2 Granular
3 Rigid
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Rehabilitation status : 0 Original construction
1 One overlay
2 Two or more overlays
The Country Code and the Section ID should be key fields in the database. All data in the database
should be linked together by means of these two fields.
9.3.2 Monitoring
The Monitoring module should consist of four tables: visual distress data, Falling Weight
Deflectometer (FWD) data, longitudinal profile data and transverse profile data. In this module only
standardised and summarised data should be stored. One example of standardised data is the visual
distress data. Examples of summarised data are FWD and profile data. The following data should
be stored in the various tables:
Visual Distress Table

Country Code, Section ED, Date, Weather Conditions, Ravelling, Bleeding, Rutting, Cracking
(alligator, longitudinal, transverse, edge), Potholes, Patching.
FWD Table
Country Code, Section ID, Date, Type of Deflectometer, Mean Deflections (wheelpath), Mean
Deflections (non-wheelpath), Load, Asphalt Temperature, Surface Temperature, Air Temperature.
Longitudinal Profile Table

Country Code, Section ID, Date, Profile information.
Transverse Profile Table

Country Code, Section ID, Date, Average Rut Depth
9.3.3 Traffic
The Traffic-module should consist of one table. In this table summarised traffic data should be
stored. Examples of field names are: Country Code, Section ID, Annual Average Daily Traffic,
Percentage of Trucks, Number of ESAL's, Growth Factor.
9.3.4 Climate
The Climate module should consist of one table, in which summarised climatic iriformation should
be stored. Some examples of field names are: Country Code, Section BD, Average Yearly Rainfall,
Number of Days Maximum Temperature above 25°C, Number of Days Minimum Temperature
below 0°C, Freezing Index.
121
9.3.5 History
The History module should consist of one table, in which data on die construction history should be
stored. Examples of field names are: Country Code, Section ID, Year of Construction, Year of
Reconstruction.
9.3.6 Construction
The Construction-module should consist of one or more tables. The number of tables should
depend on the amount of data that has to be stored. When only summarised data has to be stored,
all data should be stored in one table. Some examples of field names are: Country Code, Section
ID, Asphalt Thickness, Base Thickness, Sub-base Thickness, Type of Asphalt, Type of Base, Type
of Sub-base, Type of Subgrade, Layer Moduli.
Data from test sections should only be stored in the database when all vital data elements such as
age of the surface layer are available. Without such vital data the analysis cannot be performed and
inclusion of other data from the pertaining section is of no use. However, given the diversity of the
historical data, the lack of a non-vital data element for a section should not lead to exclusion ofthat
section from the database.
9.4 TYPE OF DATABASE
The database to be used for storing pavement performance data should meet the following
requirements:
• The database should be able to store a large volume of data.

• The database should be easy to develop and maintain. The way in which the analysis will be
carried out and the data required for the analysis have not yet been finalised, so the database
should beflexible.Adding new tables and /or field names or changing existing tables and/or field
names should be easy to do.
• A relational database should be used, which allows data from different tables to be extracted
simultaneously by means of a single query.
• The database should allow for entering of data both manually and automatically. The database
should also allow for exporting data in electronic format and on paper.
• The database should be easily compatible with the statistical software packagesto be used in the
later analysis.
• The most up-to-date version of the software package available should be purchased..
9.5 DATA STANDARDISATION AND DATA REDUCTION
Before data can be entered in the database it has to be standardised, normalised and reduced.
Standardisation of the data is necessary because the data are often collected in each country in a
different manner and format. Standardisation of the data implies, for example; standard units (SI),
standard section lengths and standard distress types. Normalisation involves bringing the distress
ratings from the various countries to the same scale. The normalisation of the data should be carried
122
out by each participating rganisation at national level because they are familiar with their own data.
Protocols for the normalisation of the data have been developed in Chapter 8.
Data reduction should also take place. For example, FWD data, profile data, traffic data and
climate data has to be reduced. All data from FWD measurements should be reduced to one mean
deflection bowl, and also moduli and strains should be calculated. This data reduction should also
be a task of the participating organisations.
Although only standardised and reduced data should be stored in the database and used in the
analysis, the source data should be available at any time in the country of origin.
9.6 DATA TRANSFER AND BACK-UP PROCEDURES
Data transfer between the participating organisations and the central database should take place by
means of electronic files. The electronic files can be sent to the database by e-mail or when no e-
mail connection is available by means of floppy disk. Protocols for the format of the files should be
finalised when the structure of the database has been developed. Appropriate back-up procedures
should be installed and regularly maintained.
9.7 COMPUTER CONFIGURATION
A powerful computer will be needed to give sufficient capacity for handling the large volume of
data to be stored. The database will be used for several years and so it is recommended that state-
of-the-art hardware and software is purchased. The database computer should be connected to the
Internet in order to send and receive data to and from participating countries.
9.8 RESPONSffiELITTES
Responsibilities for collecting and storing the data should be made clear. Agreements should be
made between the Database Manager and the participating organisations.
The Database Manager shall be responsible for:
• developing and modifying the database,

• providing protocols for standardisation and reducing data,
• storing the data,
• checking the data for missing data points,
• making backups of the data,
• transferring the data to the analysing party.
The participating countries shall be responsible for:
• collecting the data,

• safeguarding the quality of the data,
• standardising, normalising and reducing the data,
123
transferring the data to the central database,
storing the source data.
9.9 RECOMMENDATIONS
From the above, the following recommendations are summarised:
• The database should only contain data needed for the analysis
• Background data should remain available at source
• All data should be stored in a single database, rather than having separate databases for different
types of data
• The data should be grouped in the database in appropriate modules
• The database should use a state-of-the-art software package
• The database should run on a state-of-the-art personal computer
• Appropriate back-up procedures should be installed and rigorously applied
• Data transfer should only use electronic format.
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CHAPTER 10
LONG-TERM ROAD PAVEMENT PERFORMANCE DATABASE
10.1 EVTRODUCTION
As indicated in the introduction to Chapter 9, the original intent of COST Action 324 was to gather
a comprehensive set of data on the long term performance of European road test sections. Given
the lack of funding for purchasing hardware and software, that data set would be stored in a
spreadsheet format and would be available for analysis in the format as delivered. Given the
resources of the PARIS project that became available towards the end of COST Action 324, it was
agreed by the COST Action 324 Management Committee that a much more sophisticated database
should be developed for the storage of performance data within the PARIS project. COST Action
324 would, in that framework, deliver the Terms of Reference for that database and the data set.
The Terms of Reference were described in the previous Chapter, whilst this Chapter deals with the
basic data set and the physical aspects of the database and the data transfer. These physical aspects
needed consideration in COST Action 324 to allow the data set collated by COST Action 324 to
be later transferred to the PARIS database.
10.2 PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF THE DATABASE
In Chapter 9 the most important requirements for the type of database were that:
• The database should be easy to develop and maintain.

• A relational database should be used.
A database package such as Microsoft Access, which has been used successfully at VTI Sweden
for the database for the Scandinavian pavement performance study meets these and the other
specified requirements. The COST Action 324 data set is stored as a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet,
and so a database package fully compatible with that package should be used for the long-term
road performance database.
10.3 LOCATION OF THE DATABASE
The COST Action 324 data set was collated by DWW in Delft, in the Netherlands, from data
supplied by all participants in COST Action 324. The PARIS database will also be developed and
maintained at Delft.
10.4 TRANSFER OF THE DATA
The format in which the data was collected was prescribed by the database manager to be Excel
version 4.0 or 5.0. The data were transferred in Excel files using e-mail. All institutions
participating in COST Action 324 were able to handle this system of data transfer. Once it had been
set up, the transfer system proved to be efficient and user-friendly.
125
Before binary data can be transferred by e-mail, the data file has to be encoded, for which there are
several protocols. The receiving party must have a program for the decoding of the protocol used
by the sending party in order to extract the encoded files. An inventory was made of encoding
protocols used in the participating institutions. After this inventory the choice was made to use
BASE64 (MEME) as the standard for transferring data in COST Action 324 and in the follow-up
project PARIS.
10.5 SECTION LDENTTFICATION
One of the key fields in the database is the Section Identification Number (Section LD). This
Section ED is used in each table to assign data to a specific test section. In the analysis phase, the
Section LD can also be used to select specific groups of data, for example, sections from a
particular country. Also selections can be made based on the type of construction.
To allow for such selections to be made on the basis of the Section LD, the database was structured
in such a way that some general information about the test section is included in the Section LD.
This information is:
• Country code
• Type of construction
• Section number
The Section ED is a six-digit code. The first two digits represent the Country Code which was
assigned by COST Action 324 for storage of the test section data are as given in Table 10.1.
Table 10.1 : Country Codes for storage of data
Code Country Code Country
„ 1 19 Switzerland (CH)
Finland (FT)
12 Sweden (SE) 20 Austria (AT)
13 Denmark (DK) 21 Spain (ES)
14 Netherlands (NL) 22 Portugal (PT)
15 Great Britain (GB) 23 Slovenia (SI)
16 Ireland (JE) 24 Hungary (HU)
17 Belgium (BE) 25 Greece (GR)
18 France (FR)
1
The third digit in the Section ID represents the type of construction, as specified in Chapter 4.
Table 10.2 shows the codes used for indicating the types of construction.
Table 10.2: Codes used in Section ED for indicating Type of Construction
1 bituminous
2 rigid
-j> granular
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The last three digits in the Section ED represents the section number. In this way 999 sections per
country and per type of construction can be stored in the database.
Examples of Sections DD's are:
131007 Section number 7 with a bituminous main structural element in Denmark.
233015 Section number 15 with a granular base as main structural element in Slovenia.
10.6 ANALYSIS OF DATA
COST Action 324 aims at bringing together European pavement performance studies into a single
project. Part ofthat effort is to create a basic data set on RLT sections from the fifteen participating
countries. The COST Action 324 Management Committee decided that a criterion for inclusion of
test sections in this data set should be that the sections should be currently under investigation.
Although in some countries large data sets are available for test sections from completed
investigations, such sections were considered to be unsuited for the joint European project since
they would no longer allow for additional investigations on the sections. The risk of loosing such
sections because of rehabilitation was considered by the Management Committee to be too high to
allow such sections to be included in the data set. A second criterion used in selecting test sections
was that they should preferably have been under investigation for several years and the historical
performance data would be available. Using these two criteria, a data set on 1098 test sections was
gathered.
Figure 10.1 shows the distribution of the test sections over the fifteen participating countries. Three
countries stand out in terms of having delivered large numbers oftest sections to the data set, being
Sweden, the United Kingdom and the Netherlands.
Number of test sections

22fi_
AT BE CH DK ES Fl FR GB GR HU IE NL PT SE SI
Figure 10.1: Distribution oftest sections over the participating countries
127
Figure 10.2 shows the number of distress surveys that had been carried out on the sections up to
the summer of 1996. Over half of the sections are shown in figure 10.2 to have four or more
historical distress surveys. Nine sections are shown to have had over ten rounds of historical
surveys, while still being under investigation. Such sites yield prime data for pavement performance
analysis, since the available data cover a large extent of the life of the pavement.
Distress surveys
350Y
c 300-
o
u 250-
a>
ΙΛ
il
200-
150-
m
Si
el
100-
e
■3
50-
0-'
JlllJllj^^^M&^îl^.^^-
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 > 10
Number of distress surveys
Figure 10.2: Distribution of number of historical distress surveys
Figure 10.3 shows the age of the top layer of the test sections, again for the summer of 1996.
About one third of the test sections has a relatively new surface layer of less than five years old,
another one third has an intermediate age of six to ten years and the last one third of the sections
has a top layer often or more years old. The latter two groups of sections are most valuable for
analysis, since sections with a relatively new surface layer are likely to show little distress.
19%
E3 < 3 years
Π 3 - 5 years
S S - 10 years
0 1 1 - 15 years
39%
O 16 - 20 years
■ > 20 years
Figure 10.3: Age of the surface layer of the test sections
128
Figure 10.4 shows the distribution of the type of the surface layer. The bulk of the sections are
shown to have a dense asphaltic concrete surface layer, which in Europe is the most common type
of surfacing. A substantial number of sections have a surface treatment as the upper layer of the
pavement. The relatively new porous asphaltic concrete appears on only a limited number of test
sections in the data set.
Surface
treatment
17%
Figure 10.4: Type of bituminous surface layer of the test sections
Figure 10.5 shows the type of main structural element of the test sections, as defined in Chapter 4
of this report. About half of the sections were reported to have a bituminous main structural
element. For about one third of the sections, the main structural element is shown to be granular,
whereas the remaining 15% of the sections have arigidmain structural element.
Bituminous
51%
Granular
34%
Figure 10.5: Type of main structural element of the test sections
Figure 10.6 shows the amount of daily traffic on the test sections. The whole range of European
traffic intensities is shown to be covered by the COST Action 324 data set. A limited number of
sections would be classified as low volume, with an daily traffic below 1000 vehicles/lane/day. Half
of the sections available are in the intermediate range of traffic loading of 1000 - 5000
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vehicles/lane/day. One quarter of the sections is shown to have over 5000 vehicles/lane/day, with
only 3 percent being in the highest class of over 20.000 vehicles/lane/day.
11%
12%
Ξ<500
0 5 0 0 - 1000
3%
g 1000 - 5000
S 5000- 10000
54% 7% D10000- 20000
■ >20000
13%
Figure 10.6: Amount of traffic on the test sections (vehicles/lane/day)
From the data shown in figures 10.4 through 10.6, the COST Action 324 data set can be concluded
to cover the full range of European roads in terms of type of surface layer, type of main structural
element and amount of traffic. The bulk of the sites has an intermediate to high age of the surface
layer and a sufficiently large number of historical distress surveys to allow for short-term analysis of
the performance of the sections. On geographical distribution, large sets of data are available for the
northern part of Europe, but the data available for the warm climatic regions of southern Europe
are limited. S ections are available, however, for all countries participating in COS T Action 324.
Furthermore, the 61 test sections available in Hungary allow for the analysis to also include a
substantial volume of data from eastern Europe.
• One of the key elements in bringing together the European studies into the long term
performance of road pavements is to create a basic data set on test sections in the participating
countries. COST Action 324 has collated such a data set, which covers the European inference
space with regard to explanatory variables for pavement performance. The overall volume of the
data set of about 1100 sections appears large enough to allow for analysis at the European level.
The data set is, however, somewhat skewed in terms of the geographical location. Most of the
available sections are located in the moderate and cold regions of northern and central Europe,
with more limited data being available for the warm climates in the southern regions.
• The data set collected in COS T Action 324 is stored in Excel spreadsheet format. It is
recommended that prior to analysis of the data, a more sophisticated database is developed to
store the data, thereby allowing for automated data selection for specific analysis purposes. It is
recommended that a compatible software package such as Microsoft Access be used as the
standard for such a database, which would allow for easy import of the COST Action 324 data
set.
130
It is recommended to use the Section ED as developed by COST Action 324 in future analysis.
The structure of the Section DD allows for selection of test sections for geographical location
and type of main structural element. It is further recommended that the data transfer system
developed under COST Action 324 be used for future data transfer in joint European effort on
pavement performance analysis. The transfer system using e-mail for sending data in Excel
format to the Database Manager has proved to be most efficient, whilst all fifteen participating
institutions have the required hardware and software facilities.
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CHAPTER 11
INTERPRETATION, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Over the past few years, a large investment has been made in European countries into research in
the field of Long Term Pavement Performance (LTPP). Pavement performance studies aim at a
better understanding of the behaviour of pavements under the influence of traffic, climate, age and
other factors. This is done through monitoring the evolution in time of a set of performance
indicators that are considered to represent the performance of pavements, given their main function
of providing an appropriate surface for traffic circulation. Pavement Performance studies result in a
large volume of data from pavement monitoring, which are generally stored in a database for
further analysis.
One of the major goals of pavement performance studies is the development of pavement
performance models, which allow for the prediction of the future pavement condition from a given
present condition by using either time or traffic as an independent variable (relative models), or on
the basis of explanatory variables such as layer thickness, stiffness moduli, climate etc. (absolute
models).
Pavement performance models form the core of Pavement Management Systems (PMS), allowing
to predict when it is necessary to perform rehabilitation of a certain pavement, and to perform life-
cycle cost analysis to compare different rehabilitation solutions for a given pavement. Life cycle
cost analysis often yields considerable economic savings in pavement maintenance and rehabilitation
and contributes to improvements in road safety and reductions in delays at roadworks.
COST Action 324 started in 1994, with the participation of experts from 15 European countries,
representing state laboratories and other organisations involved in research activities in LTPP
studies. The aim of the Action was to integrate current research studies throughout Europe in the
field of pavement performance.
In a first phase of the work the factors affecting pavement performance were identified and ranked,
according to their level of influence, as perceived by the COST Action 324 members. This initial
phase also comprised an inventory of the current work being done in the field of pavement
performance studies, as well as an inventory of the current performance prediction models existing
in the 15 countries.
The second phase of COST Action 324 concentrated on establishing the terms of reference for
future collaborative projects in Pavement Performance research. Terms of reference were agreed
for the development of new improved performance prediction models for use throughout Europe,
traffic data acquisition, unification of data acquisition procedures (pavement monitoring), and the
set up of a central database to store LTPP data.
The inventory of activities undertaken in the field of collecting pavement performance data in the
15 European countries identified three approaches for collecting such data: Network Monitoring,
Real-time Loading Testing (RLT) and Accelerated Loading Testing (ALT).
RLT experiments, which are being carried out in every participating country, will provide the prime
group of data for the development of pavement performance models. The number of sections
inventoried is considered to be large enough for statistical analysis and, on the other hand, as having
133
sufficiently detailed information. However, the monitoring techniques and methodology used in
such experiments differ from one experiment to another, depending on locally available equipment
and on the specific objective of the experiment. As a result, the data will need to be normalised
prior to performing any joint analysis.
ALT experiments, providing very detailed results, will be useful to the study of specific topics.
Extensive Network Monitoring is being performed in most part of the participating countries, as
part of national monitoring projects in progress. The results from network monitoring can be very
useful for validation of the applicability of the models developed. However, some of these data are
not available for use by third parties at present, therefore it is recommended that some effort is
input into releasing it.
The following performance indicators were selected as the most appropriate for describing
pavement performance:
• Surface cracking
• Structural cracking
• Surface defects
• Skid resistance
Although surface and structural cracking are considered separately, they cannot easily be
diffentiated in visual surveys
As a result of this study, it is recommended that all the above performance indicators are monitored
in RLT sections, as part of long term pavement performance studies to produce models that can be
used in pavement management and design systems.
It was considered that the existing models are not applicable Europe-wide and that, therefore, new
models should be developed rather than adapting existing models to pan-European conditions.
The information gathered from the 15 European countries participating in this COST Action about
the relative influence of pavement factors in the performance indicators and about current
performance models, should be taken into consideration in pavement performance studies in order
to determine which pavement factors must be measured and selected as explanatory variables for
new pavement performance models to be developed.
These models should be developed using state-of-the-art modelling techniques, and the accuracy
and completeness of the data on which they are based should be closely safeguarded. The sections
monitored for developing such models must be representative for the relevant pavement types, and
cover a wide spread of climatic regions and age.
Traffic loading data, as input to the development of pavement performance models, should be
expressed in numbers of Equivalent Standard Axle Loads (ESAL's). The level of quality of the
data supplied should also be specified.
134
It is acknowledged that it would not be possible to use standard measurement techniques for
monitoring test sections around Europe, in the present conditions, since use must be made of
locally available equipment. Recommendations were made for the minimum level of monitoring
pavement condition for European LTPP studies. A review of reports on intercalibration of different
types of testing equipment was made, and this will provide the basis for normalisation of monitoring
data from different countries. A methodology was developed to normalise the severity levels of
visual distresses. This work is a step towards the establishment of common procedures for the
acquisition of pavement performance data throughout Europe.
The terms of reference for setting up a central European database for recording results from
pavement monitoring, traffic data and historical data were defined. Protocols for data storage, data
transfer and back-up procedures were set up.
The database implemented will form a comprehensive, well-structured set of data on long term
performance of pavements, covering the whole European inference space. The data stored in this
database will form the basis for the development of new performance prediction models, to be used
in pavement management systems and in new pavement design methods.
Taking into consideration the results of this COST Action, the following recommendations are
made for future work related to Pavement Performance studies:
• Existing performance models were reported from 11 of the 15 participating countries, for the
seven performance indicators considered. The majority of these models were developed from
field studies on fully flexible pavements. It is recommended that, as part of future joint research
in this field, existing models are taken into account when developing new models.
• The inventory on current pavement performance studies throughout the participating countries
showed that there is a large concentration of RLT sections in The Netherlands, Scandinavian
countries and UK, and a considerably lower number oftest sections in warmer climates. Even if
the existing sections are considered enough for the development of performance models, some
additional research effort should address pavement performance studies in Southern European
countries.
• Skid resistance was considered to be an important performance factor by a number of countries.

However, since this performance indicator is not being measured in many of the RLT
experiments that are being carried out, the members considered that it is not feasible to develop
European models for skid resistance at this stage because insufficient data is available.
• Most of the existing performance models reported by the members were developed for fully
flexible pavements, with very few models developed for pavements with a cement bound
base/subbase. Future research in the development of pavement performance models should
include this type of pavement.
• Pavement monitoring is an essential part of pavement performance studies. Monitoring methods

and equipment used throughout Europe differ from country to country, and a methodology was
set up for the unification of data gathered in different countries. It is recommended that further
research be carried out within the European Community, with the goal of harmonisation and
standardisation of data acquisition procedures.
135
• As a follow-up of the work initiated with COST Action 324, a new set of improved pavement
performance models is intended to be developed for use in Pavement Management Systems
throughout Europe. It is recommended that some effort will be put into promoting the future
use of such models under 4th Framework Programme Funding. Although these types of model
are not directly used in pavement design, they should be taken into account in future
investigations conærning analytical pavement design methods.
• Policy makers, legislators and standards organisations at National and European level should be
encouraged to use the results of this Action.
The work performed in COST Action 324 is a major advance in the reduction of duplication of
research effort in the field of pavement performance. It has generated sufficient "critical mass" to
undertake a European-wide study in this field, integrating the activities of 15 research
organisations. A basis for a full-scale European research project on pavement performance,
comprising the actual gathering and analysis of pavement performance data has been set up.
The work initiated within COST Action 324 will be followed by a project funded by the European
Commission (PARIS - Performance Analysis of Road Infrastructure), where pavement monitoring
will be performed in sections located throughout 15 European countries. The resulting data will be
stored in a common database for analysis. The project is intended to lead to the development of
new improved pavement performance models with Europe-wide applicability.
The use of these pavement performance models in pavement management systems throughout
Europe will contribute to the cost-effectiveness of road infrastructure and will open new
possibilities for European pavement construction and management industry.
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CHAPTER 12
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
At the conclusion of the Action, the COST Action 324 Management Committee consisted of the
following members;
Harald Augustin BFPZ, Austria

HansLitzka ISTU, Austria
Michel Gorsld CRR, Belgium
Hans Etman Larsen DRL Denmark
Heikki Jämsä Vice Chairman VTT, Finland
François Brillet LCPC, France
Andreas Loizos NTUA, Greece
László Gaspar KTiRt, Hungary
Tom Jermyn NRA, Ireland
Leo Dohmen DWW, Netherlands
Govert Sweere Chairman DWW/CROW, Netherlands
Maria de Lurdes Antunes LNEC, Portugal
AlesHocevar DDC, Slovenia
Bojan Leben ZAG, Slovenia
Francisco Sinis CEDEX, Spain
Lars-Göran Wagberg VTL Sweden
Jean-Claude Turtschy EPFL, Switzerland
John Potter TRL, United Kingdom
Andrew Stimpson Secretary DG VTJ European Comm
The COST Action 324 Management Committee wish to acknowledge the help of their colleagues
listed below who contributed to the work at national level and attended Committee meetings
occasionally as required:
Dr Michael Fuchs Austria

Dr Manfred Zieger Austria
Mr Bjarne Schmidt Denmark
Mr Nikolaos Michas Greece
Mr Nils-Gunnar Göransson Sweden
Prof. André-Gilles Dumont Switzerland
Mr Peter Langdale UK
The Management Committee wish to thank Philippe Lepert and Joop van Zwieten for their work
on the unification of data acquisition procedures and Peter Langdale for producing the electronic
version of the report from the contributions of the working groups and for helping to edit the final
version of the report.
The Management Committee wish to acknowledge the valuable contribution and the organisation
of the meetings provided by the previous secretaries, Mr Alfaro, Mr Stalins and Mr Goddard from
the European Commission, Directorate General for Transport DG VHE.2.
137
APPENDIX A
FEHRL
FORUM of EUROPEAN NA VON AL HIGHWA Y RESEARCH
LABORA TORIES
Address: c/o Transport Research L aboratory

Old Wokingham Road
Crowthorne
UK - BERKSHIRE RG45 6AU
Tel (44) 1344 77 02 41
Fax ( 4 4 ) 1 3 4 4 77 03 56 E-mail RodA@H.trl.co.uk
Secretary General Mr. Rod ADDIS
Status Established in 1989 for EU and EFTA countries, based on the application of a
Memorandum of Understanding.
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF FEHRL
The Forum of European National Highway Research L aboratories (FEHRL ) was formed in 1 9 8 9 by
the national highway research laboratories In EU and EFTA countries. A t present, the Forum
comprise, as full members, the national laboratories in all member states of the Union, and in EFTA
countries. L aboratories in the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania and Slovenia are
admitted as Associate members.
The purpose of FEHRL is to encourage collaborative research between European L aboratories and
Institutes in the field of highway engineering infrastructure, leading t o the provision of relevant
knowledge and advice to governments, the European Commission, the road industry and road
users.
he objectives of collaborative research are :

to provide Input to EU and national government policy on highway infrastructure
to create and maintain an efficient and safe road network in Europe
t o increase the competitiveness of European road construction and road-using industries
to improve the energy efficiency of highway construction and maintenance
to protect the environment and improve quality of life
THE PROFESSION AL FIELDS COVERED BY MEMBERS ARE : ■ Geotechnics ■ Pavement

Engineering ■ Bridge Engineering ■ Construction Materials ■ Maintenance Management ■
Environmental Issues ■ Traffic loading ■ Safety at roadworks
ORGANISATION OF FEHRL
The operation of the Forum is based on the application of a Memorandum of Understanding that
all members are required to sign. The Memorandum specifies the rights and responsibilities of
members and associates, and describes the organisational arrangements.
Together, the full members of FEHRL constitute the Board, from w h o m a President is elected t o
serve for a half-year term. The Board meets t w i c e per year to conduct the business of FEHRL ,
and to ensure that the objectives are being vigorously pursued.
The day-to-day business of FEHRL is carried out by the FEHRL Executive Committee (FEC), under
a Chairman elected by the members of the Board. The FEC is responsible for ensuring t h a t the
decisions of the Board are carried out, that any information requir&J by the Board is made
available, that all possibilities for pursuing FEHRL objectives are identified and exploited, and that
contacts w i t h other appropriate organisations are encouraged and maintained.
Both the Board and the FEC are served by a Secretariat, funded from the contribution from
members.
139
FEHRL MEMBERS
Austria BVFA Bundesversuchs und Prüfzentrum Arsenal
Belgium CRR Centre de Recherches routières

OCW Opzoekingscentrum voor de Wegenbouw
Denmark DRI Danish Road Institute
Finland VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland
France LCPC Laboratoire Central des Ponts et Chaussées
Germany BASt Bundesanstalt für Strassenwesen
Greece KEDE Central Public Works Laboratory
Iceland PRA Public Roads Administration
Ireland NRA National Roads Authority
Italy ANAS Centro Sperimentale Stradale
Luxembourg INRR Institut National de Recherche Routière
Netherlands DWW Dienst Weg- en Waterbouwkunde Rijkswaterstaat
Norway NRRL Norwegian Road Research Laboratory
Portugal LNEC Laboratório Nacional de Engenharia Civil
Spain CEDEX Centro de Estudios y Experimentación de Obras Publicas
Sweden VTI Statens våg- och transportforskningsinstitut
Switzerland LAVOC Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne
United TRL Transport Research Laboratory

Kingdom
ASSOCIA TES :
Czech
Republic CDV Centrum Dopravního Vlyzkumu
Transport Research Centre
Hungary KTI Institute for Transport Sciences Ltd.
Poland RBI Road and Bridge Institute
Romania CESTRIN Centre for Road Engineering
Slovenia ZAG Za vod za gradbenistvo-ZRMK

(National Building and Civil Engineering Institute!
140
APPENDIX Β: COST TRANSPORT
COST Transport is one of 17 domains existing in COST at the present time.
This domain was already considered as one of the priorities in the late sixties, when the
Council of Ministers of the six Member States of the Community was considering the launch
of what would later be known as COST. It was to be one of the seven areas seen as best suited
for this new form of collaboration, which was officially set up by a Ministerial Conference in
November 1971.
The Transport area lends itself particularly well to the COST framework, both because it
combines aspects from a number of disciplines, and because of the need for harmonisation at
European level. Liaison with the Transport Ministries and Administrations in the various
countries is a key element of these COST Actions.
The COST Transport Secretariat is located within the Directorate General for Transport of the
European Commission. The location with the staff managing the Fourth Framework
Transport RTD Programme, as well as the proximity with the Common Transport Policy
Directorates, enables close collaboration between Transport Research activities and serves as
a basis for further political action.
COST Transport Actions are authorised and supervised by the COST Technical Committee
on Transport (TCT) which, in turn, reports to the COST Committee of Senior Officials
(CSO). Both of these decision making bodies comprise representatives of the national
governments of the COST countries.
COST-Transport Actions Underway
COST 318 Interactions between high speed rail and air passenger transport
COST 319 Estimation of pollutant emissions from transport
COST 321 Urban goods transport
COST 323 Weigh in motion of road vehicles
COST 326 Electronic marine chart display
COST 327 Motorcycle safety helmets
COST 328 Integrated strategic infrastructure networks in Europe
COST 329 Models for traffic and safety development and interventions
COST 330 Teleinformatics links between ports and their partners
COST 331 Requirements for pavement markings
COST 332 Transport and land-use policies
COST 333 Development of new bituminous pavement design method
COST 334 Effects of wide single tyres and dual tyres
COST 335 Passengers accessibility of heavy rail systems
COST 336 Falling weight deflectometer
COST 337 Unbound granular materials for road pavements
141
COST-Transport Completed Actions
COST 30: Electronic aids to traffic on major roads

COST 30bis: Same aim as COST 30 but with demonstration action
COST 33: Forward study of passenger transport requirements between major European
conurbations
COST 301: Shore based marine navigation aid systems
COST 302: Technical & economic conditions of the utilisation of electric road vehicles in
Europe
COST 303: Technical and economic evaluation of dual-mode trolleybus national
programmes
COST 304 Alternative fuels for road vehicles
COST 305 Data system for the study of demand for inter-regional passenger transport
COST 306 Automatic transmission of data relating to transport
COST 307 Rational use of energy in inter-regional transport
COST 308 Maintenance of ships
COST 309 Road weather conditions
COST 310 Freight transport logistics
COST 311 Simulation of maritime traffic
COST 312 Effects of the Channel Tunnel on traffic flows
COST 313 Socio-economic cost of road accidents
COST 314 Express delivery services
COST 315 Large containers
COST 317 Socio-economic effects of the Channel Tunnel
COST 320 Effects of E.D.I, on transport
COST 322 Low Floor Buses
COST 324 Long term performance of road pavements
COST 325 New pavement monitoring equipment and methods
COST-Transport Actions in Preparation
COST 338: Information overload in the field of traffic signs

COST 339: Technical and economic conditions for the use of small containers (logistic
box) at European level
COST 340: Towards a European Intermodal Transport Network : What does History teach
us?
142
APPENDIX C: TECHNICAL ANNEX TO THE MEMORANDUM OF
UNDERSTANDING
EUROPEAN COOPERATION
IN THE FIELD OF SCIENTIFIC AND
TECHNICAL RESEARCH
TECHNICAL SUB-COMMITTEE
COST 324
(Long Term Performance of Pavements)

(Performance à Long Terme des Chaussées)
(Langzeitverhalten von Strassen)
SUBJECT: Report to the Technical Committee
April 1993
143
The Technical SubCommittee held three meetings on:
13 November 1992
26 January 1993
20 April 1993
The participating countries were:
Austria (dr. H. Augustin; prof. H. Litzka)

Belgium (dr. M. Gorski)
Denmark (H. Ertman Larsen)
Finland (H. Jämsä)
France (J.F. Corté; Α. Baucheron de Boissoudy)
Greece (dr. A. Loizos)
Hungary (dr. L. Gaspar)
The Netherlands (L. Dohmen, dr. G.T.H. Sweere)
Portugal (A. Pinelo)
Spain (Jr. Sinis)
Sweden (B. Simonsson)
Switzerland (prof. A.G. Dumont)
Chairman : dr. G.T.H. Sweere (NL)
Secretary : J.L. Alfaro (DG VII)
144
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT
1. INTRODUCTION
The COST 324 project "Long Term Performance of Pavements" aims at integrating current
European studies into the long term performance of road pavements under the influence of
traffic loading and climate. The integrated European study should yield a well structured
set of data on long term pavement performance, which set of data is to serve as the basis
for development of new pavement design and management techniques.
The initiative for this project was taken by the Forum of European National Highway
Research Laboratories FEHRL. The project forms part of FEHRL's Strategic European
Road Research Program SERRP. Two other projects from SERRP were submitted to COST
by FEHRL for consideration simultaneously with COST 324. These closely related projects
are COST 323 (Weighing in Motion of Road Vehicles) and COST 325 (New Pavement
Monitoring Equipment and Methods).
This document gives a technical description of the COST 324 project "Long Term Perfor-
mance of Pavements".
SCOPE OF THE STUDY
State of the art
The European pavement engineering profession is well ahead of the world-wide competiti-
on in the development and use of analytical techniques for the design of new pavements and
for pavement management. Full implementation of this knowledge in practice is, however,
severely hampered by lack of co-ordinated performance data from European pavements.
The results of work done outside Europe, particularly in the USA (AASHO and SHRP) and
by the World Bank, are of limited use in Europe, since conditions with respect to
materials, traffic and climate differ from those in Europe.
Recognising the need for well structured, comprehensive data on the long term performance
of pavements, a number of European countries have started research projects to collect such
data. This is on the one hand done in so-called "Real-time Loading Testing" (RLT), in
which the performance of pavements is studied on test sections on roads under the influence
of climate and normal traffic loading. Complementary to such Real-time Loading Testing is
so-called "Accelerated Loading Testing" (ALT), in which specially built test sections are
subjected to accelerated traffic loading using dedicated facilities. The advantage of such
Accelerated Loading Toting is that it yields the required pavement performance data faster
than does Real-time Loading Testing and that the data can be gathered under much more
specified conditions with respect to climate and magnitude of loading. Real-time Loading
Testing has the advantage of yielding pavement performance data under the actual
conditions that normal roads are submitted to. Through an appropriate selection of the test
sites, the long term performance of pavements can be studied in a relatively short period of
time.
145
The current European efforts in collecting pavement performance data in RLT and ALT
investigations are by all means substantial. An inventory performed in 1992 of these
activities amongst the EC and EFTA countries showed that the total budget spent on such
testing is 2 million ECU per year. However, the inventory also showed that the European
co-operation in this field of research is limited. For RLT research, co-operation within
Europe is lacking, although a number of European countries work with the USA in the
Strategic Highway Research Program. In ALT-research, the FORCE project carried out in
1988-1990 at LCPC, Nantes under the auspices of OECD was a prime example of
international co-operation in pavement research.
Motivation
The highway network in the European Community will have to carry large traffic volumes
and increasing axle loads in the years to come. Improved pavement design and management
based on observed pavement performance will result in a more cost-effective road network
with reduced traffic congestion due to maintenance operations. Premature failure of
pavements will be avoided and necessary maintenance will be performed with such timing
that destruction of the large investment in the road infrastructure is excluded.
3. OBJECTS
The objects of the COST 324 project are:
to establish common procedures for the acquisition of pavement performance data.
to gather a comprehensive, well structured set of data on the long term performance
of pavements covering the whole European inference space with respect to traffic
loading, climate and materials applied. The data gathered will form the basis of
performance prediction models to be used in pavement management systems and in
the development of new pavement designs.
to compare the performance of pavements built with new or alternative materials to

that of pavements built with classical materials.
to reduce duplication of research efforts in the fields of Real-time Loading Testing

and Accelerated Loading Testing and to optimise current efforts in such research.
to generate sufficient "critical mass" to undertake the required Europe-wide study

of pavement performance by integrating the activities of a large number of
European laboratories, realising that the effort envisaged is too large to be
undertaken by a single institution.
to form a solid basis fer a full scale European project on actual gathering and
analysis of pavement performance data. This project will entail integrating the
current European researcn efforts into a single project. With additional funding, the
project could be expanded to cover those areas of Europe where currently no RLT
or ALT research is performed.
146
to ultimately contribute to the cost-effectiveness of the European road infrastructure
and to through timely application of necessary maintenance prevent destruction of
the large investment in the road infrastructure and reduce traffic congestion due to
maintenance operations.
to open new possibilities for the European pavement construction and management
industry by contributing to the harmonisation of their activities.
4. WORK PROGRAM
Given the large efforts in RLT and ALT research already underway in the participating
countries and given the financial restrictions under which the COST 324 project will have
to run, the activities within the COST 324 project focus on bringing the current European
research in RLT and ALT to a common standard. Once harmonised, the European research
in this field may then be integrated into a single project within the Strategic European Road
Research Program. The activities to be performed within the COST 324 project are as
follows:
WP 100 INVENTORY ACTIVITIES
WP 110 Assessing factors affecting pavement performance.
Based on experience and current research results the factors affecting the
development of the various types of pavement distress should be assessed.
From this assessment the pertinent parameters needed (necessary and

sufficient) for development of pavement management and design systems
should be identified.
WP 120 Making a detailed technical inventory of recent and current RLT and ALT
work in the participating countries.
The current research activities should be inventoried. It should be es-

tablished what is already available, what is being done and what is needed
extra.
WP 130 Assessing current performance prediction models.
Models developed in the various countries should be assessed for their

Europe-wide applicability.
WP 200 TERMS OF REFERENCE
WP 210 Establishing terms of reference for performance prediction models.
The performance prediction models to be developed should be assessed for

required input, necessary output and level of detail.
147
Assessing current pavement design methods for identifying those that
provide the best performance.
WP 220 Establishing terms of reference for a central data base to store the perfor-
mance data.
It should be decided whether the data base to be developed should be "data

warehouse" containing all available information at the most detailed level
or whether the data base should only contain summarised information
which are of direct relevance to performance modelling.
WP 230 Establishing terms of reference for data acquisition on traffic and axle
loads.
The traffic data acquisition in COST 324 should be made consistent with
the work of COST 323 (Weighing in Motion of Road Vehicles).
WP 240 Unification of data acquisition procedures.
The way in which test sites are allocated to performance studies and the
follow-up procedures should be standardised.
Criteria should be set as to the level of accuracy and aggregation of data in

terms of statistical reductions.
Data acquisition on pavement performance should be performed in a way

that allows for exchange of data with the COST 325 project (New Pave-
ment Monitoring Equipment and Methods).
5. DURATION
The estimated duration of this action is three years.
6. ESTIMATED COSTS
The estimated cost of this action is 6 million ECU.
148
APPENDLXD: PARIS
(Performance Analysis of Road Infrastructure)
GENERAL
The PARIS project focuses on development of pavement performance models, the key-element of
Pavement Management Systems. The project is carried out by a Consortium of 16 organisations
from 15 European countries, under the auspices of the Forum of European National Highway
Research Laboratories. Fifty percent of the funding for PARIS is provided through the Transport
Programme of the Fourth Framework Programme for Research and Development of the European
Commission. The remainder is provided by the participating countries.
OBJECTIVES
The general objective of PARIS is to develop pavement performance models for European roads
for use in pavement management systems. Without robust European pavement performance
models, road maintenance cannot be managed effectively and the potential social and financial
benefits for Europe of such effective management cannot be realised. The present shortcomings of
pavement management systems are caused by a lack of validated performance models derived from
uniform and systematic measurements of the condition of road test sections. The PARIS project
will provide a data base of the in-service performance of European road test sections, gathered in
so-called Real Time Loading Testing (RLT). These data will be extended with informadon obtained
from Accelerated Loading Testing (ALT) of pavement sections using dedicated research facilities.
Ultimately, the PARIS project will give road managers the tools needed for cost-effective
management of the European road infrastructure.
In more detail, PARIS has the following objectives:
• To produce uniform definitions, data acquisition systems and analysis methods to interpret road
pavement performance.
• To develop a central research database for road condition data gathered in the participating
countries.
• To develop a coherent set of pavement performance models, applicable for different traffic
conditions, climates and materials. These models will be based on real-time data from all
participating countries and additional data from accelerated loading tests.
• To validate the pavement performance models developed.
• To initiate implementation of the models.
WORKPLAN
The PARIS project will start with an elaboration of project tasks, yielding a detailed plan for the
execution of the project. This plan will focus on the analysis methodologies to be applied and
develop from that methodology the detailed data requirements. Next, the normalisation of data
acquisition methods used to record the condition of road pavement test sections in the participating
countries will be carried out. Existing data sets will be assessed for their applicability in the project
149
and two years of data acquisition on the test sites of the project will be carried out (1997 and
1998). The data will be stored in a format suitable for analysis in a computer data base specially
developed for the project. The analysis system to be used will be developed using a sample of the
data in pilot studies. Next, the whole data set will be analysed to yield the performance models. For
participating countries with limited pavement condition data, validation of the models will be
carried out through distress rating of additional road test sections.
TIMEFRAME AND BUDGET
The PARIS project started on 1 October 1996, with a scheduled duration of two years. The
complex matter at hand can only be dealt with in such a short timeframe thanks to the sound
engineering basis that was laid in COST Action 324 Long Term Performance of Road Pavements'.
The overall budget for PARIS is 2.3 million ECU, with an EU-contribution of 48%.
150
APPENDIX E: COST 324 MANAGEMENT COMMITTEE CONTACT LIST
AUSTRIA
Dr. Harald AUGUSTIN

Bundesforschungs- und Priifzentrum Arsenal
Geotechnisches Institut
Faradaygasse 3 / Postfach 8
A-1031 WIEN 3
Tel 43/1.79.74.74.61
Fax 43/1.79.74.75.92
E-mail
Prof. Dr. J. LITZKA

Institut fur Straßenbau und Straßenerhaltung
TU-Wien
Gußhausstraße 28/233
A-1040 WIEN
Tel 43/1.588.01 Ext. 4013
Fax 43/1.504.42.09
E-mail jlitzka@istu.tuwien.ac.at
BELGIUM
Dr. Michel GORSKI

Centre de Recherches routières
Research and Development Department
Boulevard de la Woluwe, 42
B-1200 BRUXELLES
Tel 32/2.766.03.80
Fax 32/2.767.17.80
E-mail brrc@pophost.eunet.be
DENMARK
Mr. Hans ERTMAN LARSEN

Danish Road Institute
National Road Laboratory
P.O. Box 235 - Elisagaardsvej 5-7
DK-4000 ROSKILDE
Tel 45/46.30.01.00
Fax 45/46.30.01.05
E-mail hje@vd.dk
FINLAND
Mr. Heikki JÃMSÃ

Technical Research Centre of Finland
Communities and Infrastructures, Road Engineering and Geotechnology
Lampömiehenkuja 2A, P.O. Box 19031
FIN-02044 VTT
Tel 358/2.0.456.49.65 or 358/2.40.502.62.38
Fax 358/2.0.46.32.51
E-mail heikki.jamsa@vtt.fi
151
Mr. Harri SPOOF
VTT, Technical Research Centre of Finland
Communities and Infrastructures, Road Engineering and Geotechnology
Lampömiehenkuja 2A, P.O. Box 1903 1
FIN-02044 VTT
Tel 358/2.0.456.46.80 or 358/2.50.5 11.45.61
Fai 358/2.0.46.32.51
E-mail harri.spoof@vtt.fi
FRANCE
M. François BRÜLLET
Laboratoire Central des Ponts et Chaussées
Centre de Nantes
B.P. 19
F-44340 BOUGUENAIS
Tel 33/2.40.84.58.47
Fax 33/2.40.84.59.98
E-mail brillet@inrets.fr
M. Jean-Louis GOURDON
Laboratoire Central des Ponts et Chaussées
Centre de Nantes
B.P. 19
F-U340 BOUGUENAIS
Tel 33/2.40.84.58.05
Fai 33/2.40.84.59.99
E-mail gourdon@.inrets.fr
GREECE
Dr. Andreas LOIZOS

National Technical University of Athens
Faculty of Civil Engineering
Dept. of Transportation planning and engineering
5, Iroon Polytechniou Str.- Zografou Campus
GR-15773 ATHENS
Tel 30/1.772.13.41
Fax 30/1.807.86.92
E-mail aloizos@central.ntua.gr
HUNGARY
Dr. Laszló GASPAR

Institute for Transport Sciences Ltd
Temesvár u. 11-15
H-1116 BUDAPEST
Tel 36/1.204.79.86
Fax 36/1.204.79.79
E-mail kttuh@mail.matav.hu
152
¡REIEND
Dr. Tom JERMYN

National Roads Authority of Ireland
Pottery Road
Dun Laoghaire,
IRL- Co. DUBLIN
Tel 353/1.285.21.22
Fax 353/1.285.17.66
THE NETHERLANDS
Mr. Leo DOHMEN

Ministry of Transport,
Directorate-General of Public Works and Water Management
Road and Hydraulic Engineering Division
P.O. Box 5044
NL-2600GA DELFT
Tel 31/15.269.93.76
Fax 31/15.261.13.61
E-mail M.J.Eijbersen@DWW.RWS.minvenw.nl
Dr. Govert SWEERE

Ministry of Transport,
Directorate-General of Public Works and Water Management
Road and Hydraulic Engineering Division
P.O. Box 5044
NL-2600GA DELFT
Tel 31/15.269.93.80
Fax 31/15.261.13.61
E-mail M.J.Eijbersen@DWW.RWS.minvenw.nl
PORTUGAL
Dr Maria de Lurdes ANTUNES

Laboratório Nacional de Engenharia Civil
Av. do Brasil, 101
P-1799 LISBOA CODEX
Tel 351/1.848.21.31
Fax 351/1.849.76.60 or 840.15.50
E-mail mlantunes@lnec.pt
SLOVENIA
Mr Alei HOCEVAR
Druzba za Driavne Ceste - D.D.C.
Trzaáka 19a
1000 LJUBLJANA
Tel 386/61.178.83.80
Fax 386/61.178.83.78
153
Mr. Bojan LEBEN
ZAG
Zavod za Gradbenistvo - ZRMK
Dimiceva, 12
SI-61000 LJUBLJANA
Tel 386/61.188.85.06
Fax 386/61.348.369
E-mail bojan.Ieben@zag.si
SPAIN
M Francisco SENIS
Centro de Estudios y Experimentación de Obras Públicas
Centro de Estudios de Carreteras
Autovía de Colmenar, km. 18,2
E-28790 El Goloso MADRID
Tel 34/1.335.78.23 ou 335.78.00 (Central)
Fax 34/1.335.78.22
E-mail fsinis@cedex.es
SWEDEN
Mr. Lars-Göran WAGBERG

Swedish National Road and
Transport Research Institute
Olaus Magnus väg 37
S-58195 LINKÖPING
Tel 46/13.20.40.00 or 20.43.17
Fax 46/13.14.14.36 or 20.40.40
E-mail lars-goran.wagberg@vti.se
SWITZERLAND
M. Jean-Claude TURTSCHY
Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne
Laboratoire des voies de circulation (LAVOC)
LavocEPFL
CH-1015 LAUSANNE
Tel 41/21.693.23.43/-45
Fax 41/21.693.41.53
E-mail jean-cIaude.turtschy@lavoc.dgc.epfl.ch
UNITED KINGDOM
Mr. John POTTER

Transport Research Laboratory
Old Wokingham Road
Crowthorne
GB- BERKSHIRE RG45 6 AU
Tel 44/1344.77.02.50 or 77.31.31
Fax 44/1344.77.03.56 or 77.06.86
E-mail johnp@h.trl.co.uk
154
EUROPEAN COMMISSION
Mr. Andrew STIMPSON

European Commission
Directorate General for Transport
DG VII.E.2 - COST Transport
BU-31 5/41
200, rue de la Loi
B-1049 BRUXELLES
Tel 32/2.299.19.14
Fax 32/2.296.37.65
E-mail Andrew.Stimpson@dg7.cec.be or
COST-Transport@dg7.cec.be
Mr. Luc WERRING

Commission des Communautés Européennes
DG VII - Directorate General for Transport
BU31 06/87
200, rue de la Loi
B-1049 BRUXELLES
Tel 32/2.296.84.51
Fax 32/2.296.83.54
Mr. Rene BASTIAANS

European Commission
Directorate General for Transport
DG VII-E.3
BU 31 - 5/82
200, rue de la Loi
B-1049 BRUXELLES
Tel 32.2.299.41.15
Fax 32/2.296.83.50
155
APPENDIX F. BIBLIOGRAPHY
AUSTRIA
LITZKA J. and LANGER VV.

Untersuchung von langfristig bewährten Straßenkonstruktionen (Investigation of longterm proved
Road sections). Series "Straßenforschung", Rep No393, Fed. Min. for Economic Affairs, Vienna
1991.
AUGUSTIN H. and LITZKA J.

SHRP Österreichische Untersuchungsstrecken (SHRP Austrian Test Sections) Internal Reports
1993 and 1996 to the Austrian Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs, Road Section, Vienna,
Austria (Unpublished).
AUGUSTIN H. and LITZKA J.

Austrian LTPP test sections. In: SHRPLTPP International Participation: Five Year Report.
Strategic Highway Research Program, National Research Council, SHRPP389, Washington
D.C., 1994.
BFPZ Arsenal: Griffigkeitsmessungen im Bundesstraßennetz Österreichs (Skid resistance

measurements on the Austrian Federal Road Network). Measuring campaign 1991 and 1993/94.
Internal report to the Austrian Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs, Road Section, Vienna,
Austria. (Unpublished)
BELGIUM
GORSKI M. B., VERVENNE P. J. and VEVERKA V. (in French).

Un système de gestion intégrée des réseaux secondaires. Symposium LNRR "Aménagements
routiers et sécurité", juin 1989, Luxembourg.
VEVERKA V., GORSKI M. B., and VERVENNE P. J. (in French).

Un système de gestion intégrée des réseaux secondaires du Centre de Recherches routières
belge. Colloque International "Route et Informatique", Paris, 1315 mars 1990.
VEVERKA V., GORSKI M. B. and VERVENNE P. J.

Maintenace Management of Secondary Road Networks in Theory and in Practice. Belgian
Road Research Centre, May 1990.
DENMARK
KRARUP J.
Bearing Capacity and Water, Part ΠΙ : Measured Pavement Performance,
Danish Road Institute, Notes 249, 1994
Deterioration Models, Flexible Roads, Report of the Committee, XXth World

Road Congress, Montreal, 39 Sept. 1995.
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Early results from the Nordic LTPP program.
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JÄMSÄ H., SPOOF H , WÅGBERG L-G, MYRE J. and SCHMIDT B.

Nordic SHRP-LTPP status report, 1995.
JÄMSÄ H., HÄMÄLÄINEN O. and KURKI T.

Probability modelling of pavement failure.
Nordic Road & Transport Research, 1994.
RUOTOISTENMÄKI, A.
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FRANCE
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The structura] design of bituminous roads. TRRL Report LR 1132. The Transport Research
Laboratory, Crowthorne, 1984.
POTTER J. F. and MERCER J.

Long term pavement performance trials and accelerated testing of hot-mix recycling in the UK.
Proc. Int. Conf Road safety in Europe and Strategic Highway Research Program, Prague. VTL
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POTTER J. F., KERALIH. R, BURTWELL M. H. and AWAD K. R

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LOIZOS A. and KONDOU M.

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LOIZOS A.
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Management of Motorway Pavements in Hungary. 1996 IRF AsiaPacific Regional Meeting.
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Assessing the performance of bituminous pavements. Environmental research unit, Report RC.
350, Dublin 1990.
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Measurement of the fatigue life of bituminous mixes. Environmental research unit. Report RC. 351,
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NETHERLANDS
GROENENDIJK J., VOGELZANG C. H, MIRADI A, MOLENAAR A. A A. and DOHMEN

L. J. M.
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and DE BEER M.
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Paper submitted for 8th International Conference on Asphalt Pavements, Seattle, WA, 1997
PORTUGAL
QUARESMA L., PRATES M. and PLNELO A

"IP 5 Lanço Celorico da Beira / Guarda. Secções piloto em pavimento semirigido, concepção,
preparação e execução" (EP5 Section Lanço Celorico da Beira / Guarda" (Test sections in
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"Metodologia da observação de trechospiloto em pavimentos flexíveis" (Performance evaluation
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QUARESMA L.
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composite pavement). Report JAE/LNEC Proc. 92/16/10725, Lisboa, 1996.
ANTUNES M.L.
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monitoring equipment), study for Ministry for Transportation and Communications, 1990
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Gospodarjenje ζ vozisci kot del gospodarjenja s cestami (Pavement Management). 2 slovenski
kongres o cestah in prometu. Zbomik refaratov, DRC, Ljubljana, 1994.
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First test on the CEDEX test track. Record publicado por el Transportation Research Board
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La pista de ensayo de firmes del CEDEX. Experiencias realizadas. ΧΠ Congreso Mundial IRF
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Variation of deflection with the measuring equipment and with the load speed in a test track.
Record publicado por el Transportation Research Board National Research Council número 144P.
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SWITZERLAND
SCAZZIGAI.
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DUMONT A.-G., SAHLI Α., RECORDON E., and GUEYE I.
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Forschungsbericht EVED/ASB Nr. 196, Juli 1990.
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163
APPENDIX G: EXPLOITATION AND DISSEMINATION PLAN
Exploitation
The participants in COST Action 324 were the national highway research laboratories of
Europe, most being members of the Forum of European National Highway Research
Laboratories, FEHRL. Through their status as national highway research laboratories and
their close affiliation with national road authorities, the participants in COST Action 324 are
in the position to bring the results of the Action directly into practice . During the course of
the Action, the scientific results of COST Action 324 have already filtered through to the
practitioners of pavement management in the fifteen participating countries through their
close links with the participants of the Action. In this way, the results of the Action are
already being exploited by participants and their colleagues, and will continue to do so for
years to come.
A second avenue of exploitation is provided by the follow-up of the Action in the PARIS
project, funded under the Fourth Framework Programme of the European Commission.
Having started on 1 October of 1996, this project is already exploiting the results of the
Action in great detail. The PARIS project will gather performance data on the set of test
section created in COST Action 324. The required normalisation of data will be done using
the methodology developed by the Action and the PARIS database will be set up along the
specifications made by the Action. Lastly, and most importantly, the outcome of the PARIS
project will be directed towards the Terms of Reference for European pavement performance
models agreed upon during the Action.
Dissemination
To reach the pavement engineering profession beyond the participants and their affiliates, a
dedicated dissemination plan was developed by the Action. The three main vehicles for
dissemination identified are this Final Report of the Action, the Concluding Seminar and
papers submitted for the major pavement engineering conferences of 1997 and 1998.
On the Final Report, the dissemination plan calls for distribution of the printed version of the
report to key people in the fifteen participating countries and beyond. Each participant
provided names of at least fifteen administrators and researchers in the field of pavements in
their country. In addition, key persons at the US Transportation Research Board and the
World Bank were identified for inclusion in the distribution list of the Final Report.
Participants were further asked to identify key technical libraries in their country where the
Final Report could be sent directly. Finally, the Final Report will be put on the Internet
through the facilities of the European Commission.
To increase the accessibility of the Final Report to the European public, participants were
invited to explore the possibilities of translation by their institutes to the local language.
During the course of the Action, the Austrian participants expressed his desire to translate the
Final Report into German, whereas a similar interest for the French language was expressed
by the French representative.
165
The Final Seminar of COST Action 324 will take place in May of 1997, as part of the first
European Road Infrastructure and Safety Conference 'RISC '97'. In a dedicated session, the
results of the Action will be presented and an outlook on its follow-up under the Fourth
Framework Programme will be given.
To reach the world-wide pavement engineering profession, two major conferences were
selected for presentation of the results of the Action. The first conference is the Eighth
International Conference on Asphalt Pavements, to be held in Seattle, USA in August of
1997. At this conference, an invited paper on the results of the Action and the PARIS project
will be presented. The paper will be incorporated in the last volume on the Conference
Proceedings, to be published after the Conference. The second major conference identified is
the Fourth International Conference on Managing Pavements, to be held in Durban, South
Africa in May of 1998. .An abstract of a paper on the results of the Action and on the PARIS
project was accepted for this conference. The full paper will be incorporated in the
Conference Proceedings, to be published prior to the Conference.
166
European Commission
EUR 17546 — COST 324 — Long Term Performance of Road Pavements
Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities
1997 — 168 pp. — 17,6 χ 25,0 cm
ISBN 92-828-0308-2
Price (excluding VAT) in Luxembourg: ECU 19
The Report of COST Action 324 describes the work carried out to integrate national studies on
long term pavement performance for use at European level. Fifteen countries participated in
this 3 year Action in which the current position was assessed, and the methodology necessary
to ensure future co-operation on the topic within Europe was developed.
Firstly, an inventory of pavement performance studies and mathematical models is presented

together with an analysis of the factors believed to influence pavement performance. The
inventory includes details of the various methods being used to collect data on the condition
of road pavements in the national networks and on road test sections used specifically for long
term performance studies. Information is also provided on the large scale research facilities
used for accelerated loading testing of specially constructed test sections.
A methodology is proposed for normalising the methods used in the participating countries for
measuring pavement condition data by inspection of the distresses visible on the road surface.
An assessment is presented of the national pavement distress manuals. Terms of reference have
been developed for creating a European database for storing pavement condition data, for col
lecting traffic data and for developing pavement performance models for use in European
pavement management systems.
The work of the COST Action 324 Management Committee will be used as key input to a 2
year European study in which historical and current pavement condition data will be collected
and analysed to develop pavement performance models for Europe.
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Transport Research: Hühmi

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Long Term Performance

Final Report of the Action

2. Benefits to Different Users 11

3. Inventory of Network Monitoring, Real-time Loading Testing and 17

4. Factors Affecting Pavement Performance 41

ANNEX 5A Description of the pavement performance models 57

6. Terms Of Reference for Performance Prediction Models 67

8. Unification of Data Acquisition Procedures 75

ANNEX 8A Distress manuals used in the investigation 92

9. Terms Of Reference For A Pavement Performance Database 119

10. Long-Term Road Pavement Performance Database 125

11. Interpretation, Conclusions and Recommendations 133

12. Acknowledgements 137

Firstly, an inventory of pavement performance studies and mathematical models is presented

Table 1.1 : Countries and institutions participating in COST Action 324

ISO code Country Institution Acronym

AT Austria Bundesforschungs­ & Prufzentrum Arsenal BPFZ

Institut flir Strassenbau und Strassenerhaltung, TU Wien ISTU

BE Belgium Centre de Recherches Routières/ Opzoekingscenlrum voor de CRRVOCW

CH Switzerland Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne EPFI.

DK Denmark Vejteknisk Institut (Danish Road Institute) DRI

ES Spain Centro de Estudios y Experimentación de Obras Publicas CEDEX

FI Finland Valtion Teknillen Tutkimuskeskus VTT

FR France Laboratoire Central des Ponts et Chaussées LCPC

GB United Kingdom Transport Research Laboratory TRL

GR Greece National Technical University of Athens NTUA

HU Hungary Közlekedéstudomanyi Intézet Rt KTIRt

Γ£ Ireland National Roads Authority NRA

NL Netherlands Dienst Weg­ en Waterbouwkunde DWW

PT Portugal Laboratório Nacional de Engenharia Civil LNEC

SE Sweden Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute vn

Druzba za Drzavne Ceste DDC

Countries participating in COST Action 324

2.2 SCIENTIFIC USERS

Pavement Management and Performance Modelling

Pavement Management profession * • *

Transport RTD projects

PARIS (Pavement performance) * * * • * * * »

COST 323 (Weigh in motion of road vehicles) * *

Other FEHRL projects

PAV-ECO (Pavement economics) * * * * * *

The members of Permanent International Association of Road Congresses (PLARC) Technical

2.3 PROFESSIONAL USERS

2.4 END USERS

3.2 PAVEMENT PERFORMANCE

1. Maximum or reasonable economy, in terms of both agency and user costs

Road maintenance in progress

3.2.2 Performance indicators

3.2.3 Relative importance of the performance indicators

Table 3.1 Reason for maintenance

Number indicates relative ranking of predominantreasonfor maintenance:

Cat Road category (P= primary network, R=restof network)

Table 3.2 Maintenance expenditure

Cat Road category ( p= primary network, r= rest of network)

3.3 PERFORMANCE STUDIES

3.3.2 General considerations

3.3.3 Application of the various methods throughout Europe

Table 3.3. Use of Network Monitoring, ALT and RLT

The Austrian ALT is performed with the facility in Bratislava in Slovakia.

3.4 NETWORK MONITORING

1 AT D/P 5600 91 ­ ~ b — — — — — 1/5 1/5 _ YES

Cat Road category (D= divided highway, P= primary, S= secondary, T= tertiary)

AT Austria Bundesforschungs & Prufzentrum Arsenal BPFZ

NL Netherlands Dienst Weg en Waterbouwkunde DWW

1 AT D/P 5600 91 ~ b — — — — — 1/5 1/5 _ YES