Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats supply 90% of the dry weight of the diet and 100% of its

energy. All three provide energy (measured in calories), but the amount of energy in 1 gram
(1/28 ounce) differs:

● 4 calories in a gram of carbohydrate or protein

● 9 calories in a gram of fat

These nutrients also differ in how quickly they supply energy. Carbohydrates are the
quickest, and fats are the slowest.

Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are digested in the intestine, where they are broken down
into their basic units:

● Carbohydrates into sugars

● Proteins into amino acids

● Fats into fatty acids and glycerol

The body uses these basic units to build substances it needs for growth, maintenance, and
activity (including other carbohydrates, proteins, and fats)

Carbohydrate

Carbohydrates should make up at least 55% of your total energy intake. The ​brain​ is a
special part of the body that depends primarily on glucose for its energy and requires about
100 g/day of glucose for fuel

● Slow digesting (fibrous) carbs should be the majority of your carb intake, as they will
supply a steady level of energy over the day and prevent hunger.
● Fast digesting (starchy or sugary) carbs are primarily for when you need a quick boost of
energy to rebuild muscles right after your workout.

Carbohydrates Deficiency Diseases

● Hyperglycemia
● Glycosuria
● Galactosemia
● Pentosuria
● Diarrhoea and flatulence
● Ketone
● Under weight.

Proteins
 ● For adults, the ​recommended dietary allowance​ of protein is about 0.75 g/kg body
weight per day. Animal products tend to have the highest amount of proteins,
followed by legumes (beans), ​cereals​ (rice, wheat, corn) and roots. Animal protein
(from ​meat​, eggs, fish, ​milk​) contains all the essential amino acids and is normally
referred to as ‘complete’ or ‘high biological value’ protein. Protein derived from
plants lack one or two essential amino acids. However, a good combination of
plant-based protein can be of equal value to animal protein. For example, legumes
lack methionine but have adequate amounts of lysine. Cereals, on the other hand,
lack lysine but have a lot of methionine. Therefore, a mixture of rice and beans will
supply all the essential amino acids.
● Excess protein cannot be stored in the body, so we need to consume protein daily.
Consuming too much protein is not recommended because it promotes increased
calcium excretion through ​urine​, which increases the risk of developing osteoporosis.
Additionally, too much protein intake may lead to a greater concentration of the
amino acid ​homocysteine​ in the blood, and the subsequent conversion to
thiolactone. Thiolactone is associated with increased levels
of ​atherosclerosis​ and ​endothelial​ damage.

Protein provides calories, or “energy,” for the body. Each gram of protein provides 4
calories. • Protein is a component of every cell in the human body and is necessary for
proper growth and development, especially during childhood, adolescence, and pregnancy.
• Protein helps your body build and repair cells and body tissue. • Protein is a major part of
your skin, hair, nails, muscle, bone, and internal organs. Protein is also found in almost all
body fluids.
• Protein is important for many body processes, such as blood clotting, fluid balance,
immune response, vision, and production of hormones and enzymes.
• Protein foods are also important sources of vitamins and minerals such as B vitamins (for
example, niacin, riboflavin, vitamin B6 , and vitamin B12), choline, copper, iron, phosphorus,
selenium, vitamin D, vitamin E, and zinc.

Protein Deficiency Diseases

● Abdominal enlargement, excessive loss in urine and disease to lower urinary tracts-
● Vomiting
● Diarrhea
● Nephrosis
● Lassitude
● Oedema
● Kwashiorkor (Protein malnutrition)
● Marasmic - Kwashiorkor
● Negative nitrogen balance.

Fat
Fat contributes to energy intake and helps you absorb vital vitamins; therefore a healthy
diet should always contain a certain amount of fat. The two main forms of fat are saturated,
predominately from animal sources, and unsaturated, predominately from vegetable
sources.

Because fat is a rich source of energy, you should try and eat no more than your
recommended intake. It is also important to choose unsaturated fats as much as possible,
such as those found in oily fish, nuts and seeds, avocado, and spreads made from sunflower,
rapeseed and olive oil.

The reference value for fat for an average adult is 70 grams.

Saturated Fat

Too much saturated fat can raise blood cholesterol, which can increase the risk of heart
disease. You should therefore consume no more than your recommended daily intake.

The reference value for saturated fat for an average adult is 24 grams.

Fats and oils

Polyunsaturated fatty acids​ (PUFA) have more than two hydrogen atoms missing (e.g.
linoleic acid and linolenic acid). Linoleic and linolenic acids are regarded as essential fatty
acids (EFAs) because the body cannot make them. There are two categories of EFAs:
omega-3 and omega-6. The number that comes after “omega-” represents the position of
the first double bond, counting from the terminal methyl group on the molecule. ​Omega-3
fatty acids​ are derived from linolenic acid and omega-6 from linoleic acid. Alpha linolenic
acid (ALA) is converted into eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and later into docosahexaenoic
acid (DHA) in the body. Sources of omega-3 fats include salmon, mackerel, sardines,
anchovies, tuna, flaxseed oil, walnuts, etc.
Sources of omega-6 fats include palm oil, soybean oil, canola oil, sunflower oil, nuts, etc.
Evidence from research indicates that omega-3 fatty acids reduce ​inflammation​and help
prevent certain chronic diseases such as ​heart disease​ and ​arthritis​. Omega-3 fatty acids are
highly concentrated in the brain and appear to be crucial to brain function as well as normal
growth and development. Infants who do not get enough omega-3 fatty acids from their
mothers during pregnancy are at risk of mental impairment.
Generally, saturated fatty acids raise blood cholesterol levels, whereas unsaturated fatty
acids lower them. Saturated fats are found in foods such as butter, meat and dairy
fats. ​Trans fats​ are artificially created during food processing. In the body, trans fats act in a
similar way to saturated fats and may raise cholesterol levels. These fats are considered to
be harmful to your health. Trans fats are found mainly in deep-fried fast foods and
processed foods made with margarine.
Fats are a concentrated and rich source of energy. It is recommended that your total fat
intake is no more than 30% of your energy (calorie/kilojoule) intake. Polyunsaturated fat
 should be less than 10% of energy, and saturated fat and trans fat together should be less
than 10%. The rest of your fat intake should consist of monounsaturated fat.

What It Does

● Fat provides calories, or “energy,” for the body. Fat also stores energy in excess of
what the body needs immediately, and serves as a secondary energy source once
calories from carbohydrates are used up. Each gram of fat provides 9 calories.
● Fat is a basic part of cell membranes and is necessary for proper growth and
development.
● Fat helps the body absorb important fat-soluble vitamins (vitamins A, D, E, and K).
● Fat supports key body processes, such as blood clotting, nervous system function,
reproduction, and immune response.
● Fat “cushions” internal organs and protects them from being damaged. The fat layer
below the skin also insulates the body from heat loss.
● Fat plays a vital role in maintaining healthy skin and hair.
● Fat in food provides taste and consistency and helps you feel full.

Health Facts

● Dietary fat has more than ​twice the calories​ per gram as either carbohydrate or
protein, so calories from fat can add up quickly.
● Saturated and ​trans​ fats​ can raise the levels of total cholesterol and low-density
lipoprotein (LDL or "bad") cholesterol in the blood – which, in turn, can ​increase the
risk of developing cardiovascular disease​. Cardiovascular disease is the leading
cause of death in both men and women in the U.S.
● The Dietary Guidelines for Americans​ recommends consuming ​less than 10% of
calories per day from saturated fat​ by ​replacing​ it with monounsaturated and
polyunsaturated fats. The guidelines also recommend keeping the intake of ​trans​ fat
as low as possible​ by limiting foods containing partially hydrogenated oils (a source
of artificial trans fat).
● To reduce the risk of developing chronic diseases, while maintaining adequate intake
of important nutrients, follow these ranges for total fat intake:

● Adults (ages 19 years and older): 20-35% of calories from fat

● Older children and adolescents (ages 4 to 18 years): 25-35% of calories from fat
● Young children (ages 1 to 3 years): 30-40% of calories from fat
se the ​Nutrition Facts Label​ as your tool for monitoring consumption of total fat. The
Nutrition Facts Label on packaged foods and beverages shows the amount in grams (g) and
the Percent Daily Value (%DV) of total fat in ​one serving​ of the food.

The Nutrition Facts Label also lists the types of fat that make up the total fat in a product.
This includes the amount in grams (g) per serving of saturated fat and ​trans​ fat and the %DV
of saturated fat. Food manufacturers may also ​voluntarily​ list the amount in grams (g) per
serving of monounsaturated fat and polyunsaturated fat.
The Daily Value for total fat is ​65 g per day​. This is based on a 2,000 calorie diet — your Daily
Value may be higher or lower depending on your calorie needs.
 ● When comparing foods, look at the %DV of total fat. And remember:
o 5% DV or less of total fat per serving is low
o 20% DV or more of total fat per serving is high

Vitamins
Vitamins may be defined as organic compounds occurring in small quantities in different
natural foods and necessary for the growth and maintenance of good health in human
beings and certain experimental animals.
They cannot be synthesized in the body but supplied by the diet to the human body. Plants
produce all vitamins but animal (human) stores them. Some are produced in the body e.g.
Provitamin carotene is converted into vitamin A in the body and Vit. D is produced in the
body in presence of ultraviolet radiation.

● Nutrient is defined as “a substance obtained from food and used in the body to promote
growth, maintenance, and repair of body tissues”, or simply as “a substance that provides
nourishment”.
● Broadly speaking, nutrients are classified into two groups, namely energy-producing
nutrients (also called energy-providing nutrients or macronutrients) and micronutrients.
Energy-providing nutrients include carbohydrates, fat and protein. Micronutrients often
refer to vitamins and minerals.

Nutrient Description Reference Values* Food

Sources

Protein ● Protein is mainly ● Contributes 10%-15% of ● Meat

used for growth daily energy intake.​2
and body repair. Note: ● Milk

● When there is an ● Eggs

1. Protein intake of 0.83
insufficient intake g/kg body weight per ● Legumes
of energy, protein day would be expected
would be broken to meet the
down and used as requirements of most
body fuel, which (97.5%) of the healthy
may lead to adult population.​3
protein-energy
malnutrition.
 ● One gram of
protein provides 4
kcal.

Nutrient Description Reference Food Sources

Values*

Carbohydrat ● Carbohydrate is ● Contributes Monosaccharides

e the major energy 55%-75% of daily and
source in an energy intake.​2​,​4 disaccharides:
average diet, Note:
which is also the ● Sugar
preferred fuel. 1. A lower limit
of around ● Syrup
● One gram of 50% total
carbohydrate ● Honey
energy was
provides 4 kcal. accepted in ● Molasses
the 2007 Complex
● When adequate
FAO/WHO carbohydrate:
carbohydrate is
Scientific
provided in the
Update.​4 ● Cereal, grains and
diet, protein
would be spared their products
for growth and (e.g. rice)
repair.
● Starchy
● Carbohydrate can vegetables (e.g.
be divided into potato)
three main types:
monosaccharides
, disaccharides
and complex
carbohydrate
(starches and
dietary fibres).

Nutrient Description Reference Values* Food

Sources

Total fat ● Fat is technically ● Contributes 20%-35% of ● Cooking

known as daily energy intake for fats and
triglycerides, which adults.​5 oils
is a class of lipids
● Butter
 Note:
● Fat is a ● Margarine
concentrated 1. A range of 15%-30% of
energy source, ● Salad
total energy has also
which provides 9 dressings
been recommended for
kcal for each gram preventing ● Fried
of fat. non-communicable foods
diseaseses.​2
● Fat carries
● High fat
fat-soluble
animal
vitamins, i.e.
products
vitamin A, D, E and
K.

● Fat prevents heat

loss in extreme
temperatures and
protects organs
against shock.
● Fat can be divided
into ​saturated
fat​5​ and
unsaturated fat
depending on their
chemical
structures.

● Unsaturated fat
can be further
divided to mono-
and
poly-unsaturated
fats.

● Excess fat intake

has been linked to
major health
problems,
including an
increased risk of
heart disease,
obesity,
hypertension,
diabetes and
certain types of
cancers.
Nutrient Description Reference Values* Food Sources

Saturated ● Saturated fat is ● Contributes not more ● Lard

fat one type of fats. than 10% of daily energy
intake.​2​,​5 ● Butter
● It is easily
recognised by its ● Animal fats
solid state at
● Coconut oil
room
temperature. ● Hydrogenated
vegetable oil
● Excess saturated
fat intake has
been linked to
increased risk of
heart disease.

Nutrient Description Reference Values* Food Sources

Trans ● Trans fat is also ● Contributes not more than ● Hydrogenated

fat known as "trans 1% of daily energy vegetable oil
fatty acids". intake.​2​,​5
● Margarine
● It is a specific
type of fat ● Shortening
formed when
● Foods using
liquid oils are
partially
made into solid
hydrogenated
fats, a process
vegetable oil
known as
as ingredients
"hydrogenation".
(e.g. puffy
● It is also naturally pastry)
present in small
amount in milk
and fats of sheep
and cattle.

● Excess trans fat

intake has been
linked to increase
risk of heart
disease.
Nutrient Description Reference Values* Food
Sources

Cholestero ● Cholesterol is one ● Not more than 300mg per ● Egg yolk
l of the sterols. day.​2​,​5
Sterol is a class of Note: ● Offals
lipids.
● Molluscs
1. Cholesterol in the
● It can only be blood and tissues is ● Squids
found in animal derived from two
source. sources: diet and ● Cuttlefish
endogenous
● It involves in the
synthesis.​2 ● Lard
formation of
vitamin D, bile and ● Animal
some hormones. fat
● Not all high fat
food has high
cholesterol
content.
Contrarily, some
low fat foods have
appreciable
content of
cholesterol; e.g.
eggs and squids.

Nutrient Description Reference Values* Food

Sources

Calcium ● Calcium is a ● Not less than 1000mg per ● Milk and

mineral necessary day for adults.​6 milk
for providing products
rigidity to the
skeleton. ● Green
leafy
● It also plays roles vegetables
in nerve
transmission, ● Fish with
muscle edible
contraction, and bones
blood clotting.
● Soy bean

● Beancurd
Nutrient Description Reference Values* Food
Sources

Copper ● Copper forms an ● Women: Not less than ● Seafoods

essential 1.15mg and not more than
component of 10.0 mg per day; Men: Not ● Offals
enzymes and less than 1.35 mg and not
● Legumes
proteins in the more than 12.0 mg per day.​7
human body. ● Nuts
● It also involves in
many metabolic
reactions.

Nutrient Description Reference Values* Food

Sources

Iron ● Iron is necessary ● Women: Not less than ● Liver and

for metabolic 24.5mg per day; Men: Not offal
functions such as less than 11.4mg per day.​6
oxygen transport Note: ● Beef
and storage.
● Cereals
1. The above values are
● Insufficient intake derived basing on the ● Pulses
may result in iron assumption that the
deficiency diet is consisting of
anaemia. moderate fish or meat
in two main meals daily
which is of moderate
iron bioavailability.​6

Nutrient Description Reference Values* Food

Sources

Magnesiu ● Magnesium plays ● Women: Not less than ● Green

m roles in protein 220mg per day; Men: Not vegetables
synthesis, less than 260mg per day.​6
enzyme action, ● Nuts
normal muscular
● Beans
contraction,
nerve ● Shellfish
transmission, and
 maintaining bone
health.

Nutrient Description Reference Values* Food

Sources

Potassiu ● Potassium is ● 2.7g - 3.1g (70mmol - ● Potatoes

m essential in 80mmol) per day.​2
maintaining the ● Fruit
body's electrolyte
● Vegetables
balance and
normal cellular ● Milk and
function. milk
products
● Adequate
potassium intake ● Nuts
lowers blood
pressure and
reduces risk of
stroke.

● Sufficient intake
of potassium can
be achieved
through adequate
daily consumption
of fruits and
vegetables

Nutrient Description Reference Values* Food

Sources

Sodium ● Sodium is a major ● Not more than 2,000 mg ● Salt

electrolyte in the (i.e. 5g of salt) per day.​2
body. ● Soy sauce

● It helps in ● Processed
maintaining foods
extracellular fluid
balance.

● Excess sodium
intake has been
 linked to high
blood pressure.

Nutrient Description Reference Values* Food

Sources

Zinc ● Zinc is essential for ● Women: Not less than ● Lean red
growth and 4.9mg and no more than meat
development, and 35mg per day; Men: Not less
testicular than 7.0mg and no more ● Whole
maturation. than 45mg per day. 6​​ ,​7 grain
Note: cereals
● It is also important
for neurological ● Legumes
1. The above values are
function, wound derived basing on the
healing and assumption that the
maintenance of the diet is of moderate zinc
body's immune bioavailability which is
system. characterised by mixed
diets containing animal
or fish protein.​6​,​7

Nutrient Description Reference Values* Food

Sources

Vitamin ● Vitamin C is a ● Not less than 45mg per day ● Fruits

C water soluble for adults.​6
vitamin. ● Vegetables

● Insufficient dietary
vitamin C can lead
to scurvy.

● Vitamin C helps
iron absorption.

Nutrient Description Reference Values* Food

Sources

Iodine ● Iodine is essential ● Not less than 150 μg and not ● Seaweeds
for the production more than 1,000 μg per day
of thyroid for adults.​6​,​7 ● Seafoods
 hormones which
are responsible for ● Eggs and
normal growth and egg
development. products

● Insufficient dietary ● Milk and

iodine can lead to a milk
range of adverse products
health effects,
● Iodised
including goiter,
salt
hypothyroidism,
etc..