CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Human society is a complex system, and both individuals and groups have different needs,

aspirations, hopes, goals, opinions, views, and values, stretching across social, economic,

religious, psychological or political realms. In times of increasing economic hardship, social

and religious conflict, terrorism and kidnappings, and a rapidly changing and evolving

society, it is little wonder therefore that certain groups can become restive with discontent

(Abraham, 2011). This is especially true of youths who, in their prime, find their lives

disrupted, their hopes and aspirations blocked, and their expectations unfulfilled. Cultism

among youth globally, like those in Nigeria, has become a behavioural pattern which has

degenerated into a topical issue, portraying a negative side of social development, and

presenting a security challenge facing contemporary society. Lives and properties worth

millions naira have already been lost, vandalised, or razed down by cultist; they constitute

themselves into a protection group that fights and advance the rights and privileges of their

members including rigging elections, passing exams (the students cultist), acquiring babes,

accommodation and so on. The possible effect of cultism on the society, youth activities and

learning process cannot be exhausted as both intra and inter-cult clashes negatively affect the

society in stupendous proportions (Adesope, Odurukwe, Ugwoke & Amaji, 2004).

Cultism in Nigeria dates back to Professor Wole Soyinka’s college days when he organized a

cult group named Pirate Confraternity. The aim of the cult was to bridge the gap created by

ethnicity and tribalism, but along the along the line, youths hijacked this purpose and started

using it for negative agenda (Udoh & Ikezu, 2015). Cultism in Rivers State has made life

unsafe and meaningless for both indigenes and non-indigenes as youths who refuse the

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amorous advances of cult members are manhandled, teachers and lecturers who insist on

merit for passing exams are openly attacked and disgracefully beaten up or sometimes killed,

paving way for the free reign of fear, violence and a palpable feeling of insecurity. In various

Local Government Areas in Rivers State, as well as other states, cult groups overlap with

street gangs, criminal syndicates, youth associations, and other militias. From the more

notorious Deebam, Deywell, Greenlanders and Icelanders, to the lesser known Doctor’s

Squad, Italians, Blood Hunters, Junior Vikings, Bermudas and others, cult groups have

proliferated in Rivers State with reach into the communities of Gokana, Emohua, Ikwerre,

Khana, Ogba Egbema Ndoni, Ahoada and the Kalabari and Okrika villages (Niger Delta

Partnership Initiative, 2015).

At this stage, one could wonder what the purpose of adult education could be. In view of this,

one must critically evaluate the diverse functions of adult education with reference to recent

changes in educational policies around the country. Adult education is a practice in which

adults engage in systematic and sustained self-educating activities in order to gain new forms

of knowledge, skills, attitudes, or values. It can mean any form of learning adults engage in

beyond traditional schooling, encompassing basic literacy to personal fulfilment as a lifelong

learner (Bishop, 2009). Adult education is rooted in lifelong learning which involves the

pursuit of knowledge either for personal or professional reasons. The aim of adult education

is to involve everyone in life-long learning as it not only enhances social inclusion, active

citizenship and personal development but also competitiveness and employability (Ezeaku,

1979). The implication of this is that adult education is for all; whether having special needs

or not. It also implies that learning is not confirmed to childhood, classroom or persons

without special needs but to everyone (Fafunwa,, 1974).

Principally, adult education functions as a means of socialisation and social control. It helps

to encourage the young to develop into “good citizens” and prepares people for employment

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and for productive contributions to society (Ololube, 2012). It can be a way of reducing

social inequality or a way of reproducing social inequalities. When executed with excellence,

it benefits the individual, society and the economy (Ololube, Agbor & Uriah, 2013).

Adult education is one dynamic arm of education that can contribute in many ways in curbing

cultism in Nigeria. Onyekpe (2007) listed these ways of curbing cultism to include:

Introduction of skill acquisition programmes for the youth, enlightenment campaigns against

cultism, ensuring that the citizens have formal literacy programs, agricultural education and

rural development, vocational and technical education, adequate parenting of children (family

Learning), religious education, good governance, among others.

Adult education in corroboration with educational institutions in Nigeria and other parts of

the world could create access to functional vocational education for Nigerian youths. The

World Bank advocates a three lens approach to youth empowerment, namely; engaging in life

learning skills, leadership education and environmental education. These “three-lens

approach” would provide hope to the young people as well as the incentives to positively re-

shape their destinies (Ushe, 2014). Life skills are education for adaptive and positive

behaviour that enable humans to deal effectively with the demands and challenges of life.

This concept is also termed as psychosocial competency. The subject varies greatly

depending on social norms and community expectations but these skills function for well-

being and aid individuals to develop into active and productive members of their

communities.

Investment in youths, especially during the five life transitions of youth will develop,

safeguard and put in place proper human capital. As the youth undergo each transition from

learning, family and citizenship, this can determine their directions and prevent them from

going off-track, especially when there are economic crises and markets do not provide

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sufficient economic opportunities (Aghara, 2010). Amnesty programme and education for

repentant militant can create a productive working life in the youths by assisting them to

acquire the necessary skills through apprenticeship programme. This can be done by

implementing programme that involves pragmatism and functionalism to benefit the entire

repentant cultist. In doing this, both the State and the Federal Government have to be

involved (Aghalino, 2012).

With the poor quality and high cost of formal education in the Rivers State, most youths lack

the requisite preparation to compete for more prestigious job placements in oil companies and

related multinational companies working in and around their communities. They settle for the

menial jobs, when available. It is the practice of multinational oil companies to set highly

demanding recruitment tests which the ill-prepared Rivers State youths readily fail, and hence

lose out in the quest for employment and thus frustrating them into restive activities like

cultism and militancy (Briggs, Ololube, Kpolovie, Amaele & Amanchukwu, 2012). But with

the advent of adult education programs such as apprenticeship training, vocational education,

agricultural education and learning of life skills, unemployed youth can sustain meaningful

employment and earn a living thereby restraining them from participating in cultist activities

(Adesope, et al., 2004).

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Cultism is undeniably one of the social vices setting the hand of the developmental clock of

Nigeria backwards. Various government and nongovernmental organizations such as NGOs,

religious organizations etc. have device strategies and divers ways in reducing cultism but

have lead to very little or no result. In view of this, the study shall describe how adult

education can reduce cultism in Gokana Local Government Area of Rivers State.

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The government seem to have lost focus in reducing cultism in Rivers State, moreso, many

adults have been morally abused into cultism activities by politician and public servants. The

effort to reduce the rate of cultism activities in Gokana Local Government Area by the

Chairman and State Governor have failed; the study shall reveal adult education tools and

strategies that needs to be implemented in Gokana Local Government Area to combat

cultism.

Cost of education in Rivers State of which Gokana Local Government Area is inclusive can

best be described to be exorbitantly high. Being predominantly rural with outright absence of

social amenities such as potable water, electricity and safe access (by road), coupled with the

daunting aquamarine terrain, teachers refuse posting to schools in most parts of the region.

Not much has been done however, by the Federal and state Government to ensure that

qualified teachers are attracted and retained in good numbers in schools located in rural

Gokana government communities. Hence, this study shall reveal how vocational education,

agricultural education, apprenticeship training and learning of life skills can be well thought

to unemployed youth to reduce or possibly eradicate the menace of cultism.

1.3 Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to investigate adult education programs as an instrument for

reducing cultism in Gokana Local Government Area of Rivers State.

Specifically, the study shall seek to;

1. Determine the extent to which apprenticeship training reduce cultism in Gokana Local

Government Area of Rivers State.

2. Determine the extent to which vocational education reduce cultism in Gokana Local

Government Area of Rivers State.

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 3. Determine the extent to which agricultural education reduce cultism in Gokana Local

Government Area of Rivers State.

4. Determine the extent to which learning of life skills reduce cultism in Gokana Local

Government Area of Rivers State

1.4 Research Questions

From the objectives stated above, the following research questions were formulated;

1. To what extent does apprenticeship training reduce cultism in Gokana Local

Government Area of Rivers State?

2. To what extent does vocational education reduce cultism in Gokana Local

Government Area of Rivers State?

3. To what extent does agricultural education reduce cultism in Gokana Local

Government Area of Rivers State?

4. To what extent does learning of life skills reduce cultism in Gokana Local

Government Area of Rivers State

1.5 Research Hypotheses

1. There is no significant difference in the response on how apprenticeship training

reduces cultism in Gokana Local Government Area of Rivers State.

2. There is no significant difference in the response on how vocational education

reduces cultism in Gokana Local Government Area of Rivers State.

1.6 Significance of the Study

The study will be beneficial to all the youths, it is expected that this study will expose the

general public on issues of cultism activities which will enable the youth to know the

importance adult education programs; to understand the contribution of education programs

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to cultism reduction and will also enable the youths to know some important roles of the

knowledge and skills derived from these programs.

This study is very useful as the findings will enable stakeholders and relevant authorities

appreciate the need of creating the enabling adult education programs for learning by

providing the necessary facilities and resources to make these programs successful. The

findings of this study will enable the government and other organizations who own exist in

rural communities, to see the need of increasing its funding and intervention programs so that

the necessary facilities and resources can be provided to teach programs that will curb

the menace of cultism. The findings of this study are also beneficial to current and

future researchers by serving as a reference guide to them.

1.7 Scope of the Study

The conceptual scope of this study is adult education programs for reducing cultism. The

geographical scope is Rivers State and the unit of analysis covers selected youth associations

in Gokana Local Government Area. This research focus on adult education programs which

include; vocational education, agricultural education, apprentice training and learning of life

skills.

1.8 Definition of Terms

The following terms have been defined to avoid ambiguity;

Adult Education: Adult education is a practice in which adults engage in systematic and

sustained self-educating activities in order to gain new forms of knowledge, skills, attitudes,

or values

Apprentice Training: Apprenticeship is a combination of on-the-job training (OJT) and

related classroom instruction under the supervision of a journey-level craft person or trade

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professional in which workers learn the practical and theoretical aspects of a highly skilled

occupation

Learning of Life Skills: Life skills are abilities for adaptive and positive behaviour that

enable humans to deal effectively with the demands and challenges of life.

Vocational Education: Vocational education is education that prepares people to work as a

technician or in various jobs such as a trade or a craft.

Agricultural Education: Agricultural Education is the teaching of agriculture, natural

resources, and land management.

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 Chapter 2

Review of related literature

This chapter focus on reviewing several literatures that is related to the study. The chapter is

presented under the following sub-headings;

Concept of Adult Education

Cultism

Apprenticeship Training and Cultism

Vocational Education and Cultism

Agricultural Education and Cultism

Learning of Life Skills and Cultism

Summary of Literature Review

2.1 Concept of Adult Education

Adult education is a practice in which adults engage in systematic and sustained self-

educating activities in order to gain new forms of knowledge, skills, attitudes, or values. It

can mean any form of learning adults engage in beyond traditional schooling, encompassing

basic literacy to personal fulfilment as a lifelong learner. The concept of adult education is

defined by many institutions and people in different ways (Duman, 2005).

Adults with their specific developmental characteristics also differ in their learning

characteristics. For this reason, the content of adult programs should be prepared according to

adult learning characteristics.

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The Organization for World Economic Cooperation (OECD) (2015) defines adult education

as:

Adult education encompasses activities and programs organized for this purpose to meet the

learning needs and interests of those who have been out of compulsory schooling and whose

main occupation is no longer to go to school at any stage of their lives.

In general, we look at adult education as a process of adult education that allows adult

thinkers to improve their skills, improve their knowledge, improve their technical or

professional competence, and change attitudes and behaviours both in terms of personal

development and in participation in balanced and independent social, economic and cultural

development.

Bülbül, summarizes these learning characteristics of the adult at the following points:

1. The adult waits to answer their needs from their educational programs.

2. The adult does not like being a passive viewer during training.

3. Adults are generally heterogeneous groups in terms of their learning needs and personal

characteristics that influence the learning process (Bülbül, 1987, 37).

In particular, adult education reflects a specific philosophy about learning and teaching based

on the assumption that adults can and want to learn, that they are able and willing to take

responsibility for that learning, and that the learning itself should respond to their needs.

Driven by what one needs or wants to learn, the available opportunities, and the manner in

which one learns, adult learning is affected by demographics, globalization and

technology. The learning happens in many ways and in many contexts just as all adults' lives

differ. Adult learning can be in any of the three contexts, i.e.:

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 Formal – Structured learning that typically takes place in an education or training

institution, usually with a set curriculum and carries credentials;

 Non-formal – Learning that is organized by educational institutions but non credential.

Non-formal learning opportunities may be provided in the workplace and through the

activities of civil society organizations and groups;

 Informal education – Learning that goes on all the time, resulting from daily life activities

related to work, family, community or leisure (e.g. community baking class).

Educating adults differs from educating children in several ways given that adults have

accumulated knowledge and work experience which can add to the learning experience. Most

adult education is voluntary, therefore, the participants are generally self-motivated, unless

required to participate, by an employer. The science and art of helping adults learn, the

practice of adult education is referred to as andragogy, to distinguish it from the traditional

school-based education for children pedagogy. Unlike children, adults are seen as more self-

directed, rather than relying on others for help.

Adults are mature and therefore have knowledge and have gained life experiences which

provide them a foundation of learning. An adult's readiness to learn is linked to their need to

have the information. Their orientation to learn is problem-centered rather than subject-

centered. Their motivation to learn is internal.

Adults frequently apply their knowledge in a practical fashion to learn effectively. They must

have a reasonable expectation that the knowledge they gain will help them further their goals.

Adult education content means that adults considered as adult learners are required to

improve their skills, improve their knowledge, improve their technical or professional

competence, or take advantage of this ability, regardless of the content, level and method of

adult education, whether the extension of primary education applied in schools, universities

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or apprenticeship is considered, knowledge and competencies and to change their attitudes

and behaviours both in terms of personal development and in participation in a balanced and

independent social, economic and cultural development.

2.2 Cultism

Cultism is a system or practice of a cult. Cult on the other hand is a group of people with a

religious philosophical or cultural identity sometimes viewed as a sect, often existing on the

margins of society or exploitative towards its members. Cultism Popularly called in the

neighbourhood as Secret Cult can be said to be an organisation of which people come

together to pledge their allegiances under an oath and have a social bond of commitment and

dedication for the good of the organisation. This set of people carry out their meetings when

people are not aware of, especially during the odd hours (Midnight) and far away from

residence (in the bush most often time). This individuals keep their activities secret from non-

members and people in the society.

The history of cultism can be traced back to 1952 when the Nobel Laurel Price Winner,

Professor Oluwole Akinwande Soyinka and six others formed the ‘Pyrate Confraternity’

(a.k.a See Dogs). At that time various school of thought are developed, surrounding the actual

aim and objective of founding the cult group. The pioneer and its members said it is a

platform for the fight of human right and justice (activism) and it is void of evil. After some

years, various other cult groups emerged such as Black Axe, Jezebel Daughters, Black Eye,

Black Beret, Black Bra, Supreme Eiye, Vikings, Aro Mates, Buccaneers amongst others

whose activities suggest nothing but evil in the society.

These cults groups share some features in common which are initiation of new members,

ritual practices, oaths taking, inscription of marks on their bodies, use of sign, symbols and

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colours. Their activities involves frequent violent clash among different cults groups which

always lead to death or end in casualties, constant abuse of drugs, armed rubbery, sexual

assault, vandalization, forceful intimidation of lecturers, examination malpractices,

harassment and bullying of fellow course mate, assassination to mention a few. Cultism is so

rampant in schools all over the world, it is known to be at its peak in tertiary institutions but it

is no more news that it has expanded it territories to secondary schools and even primary

schools as we speak. This social vice is really eating up the moral and educational standard of

the country. As a matter of fact, innocent students are being lured into the act and all other

social vices. The problems associated with cultism cannot be overemphasised, despite the

effort of the government and school authorities to put an end to cultism in the country proved

abortive. Cultism in Nigeria is caused by different factors and the most common causes are;

 Quest for power or social identity

 Poor parental training

 Peer pressure/peer group influence

 Revenge

 Emotional instability

 Wealth

 Loneliness

 Use of cultists by politicians

 Drug abuse

 poverty

 Search for protection

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Nigeria as a nation has greatly suffered the negative effects of cultism. The split-tribal culture

made it a ‘join us or die’ thing. The various groups and their strife for dominance is the big

deal.

2.3 Apprenticeship Training and Cultism

Apprenticeship may be considered as a system of learning whereby an individual learns a

professional skill in a practical way through a structured program of on-the-job training. It usually

involves acquiring knowledge, mechanical skills and the development of an attitude or discipline for

a particular job. Craig and Bittel (1967) opined that: apprenticeship is a combination of on-the-job

training and related technical instruction in which workers learn the practical and theoretical aspects

of a skilled occupation, craft or trade. Anyanwu (1981) expatiated further that apprenticeship may

also take the form of helping new employees to relate their previous education to the requirement

of their new job. Apprenticeship also incorporates a system of guidance and counselling as most

apprentices are required to live with their masters so as to acquire through a process of

acculturation the necessary altitude, diplomacy and decorum required for the job. It is the

combination of these depositions that make graduates of apprenticeship training entrepreneurs

instead of job seekers. Apprenticeship as a means of thoroughly learning the intricacies of a trade

has been well adapted to modern industries to meet work force needs. Even with innovations in

industry, experience has shown that the learner masters a skilled trade only by diligently repealing

job operations under capable supervision until they are fully mastered.

Unemployment has become chronic and intractable and it is the brain behind youth restiveness in

State. This is because of a common saying that “an idle man is the devils workshop”. The acquisition

of a certificate or degree was considered a sure passport to a paid employment either in the private

or public sectors of the economy. Gloomy labour market situation has now been the case as young

school leavers and university graduates that were expected to get it easy (employment) are stranded

and taken to crime in Rivers State. Youths have taken to crime as a means of getting their own share

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of the National cake, giving rise to chrome cases of youth restiveness in virtually the entire Rives

State. Ndibio (2004) asserts that three youths were reported killed in Bodo city and twelve in Okirika

both in Rivers State.

2.4 Vocational Education and Cultism

Morestill, is the high pace of youth restiveness to demand for employment in the multinational oil

companies in their region, Gbosi (1993). Idle minds in Rivers State prior to this time according to

Diejomoah and Orimalada (1991), Falae (1971), and Robinson (2001) committed this crime on

subsistence level. Just to take advantage of an ignorant man, but today, militants in the Niger Delta

especially in Rivers State have camps and leaders that dialogue constantly with the government.

They kidnap and come out from the creeks (hideouts) to collect their ransoms without putting masks

on their faces. This is a height of its sophistication. Momba (1983), Anyanwu (1992) and Angaye

(1995) are of the view that: … youths take to crime and restiveness as the last resort after seeing

corrupt politicians looting the nation’s wealth with impunity. Youths graduate and stay at home as

much as five, six or even several years without jobs. Therefore, they see criminality as the only way

to break the vicious circle of poverty in their families.

2.5 Agricultural Education and Cultism

Occupationally, Rivers State were farmers and fishermen. But because of the activities of

multinational oil companies especially oil spillage, most of those primary economic activities are no

longer been appreciated. They no longer see most of these businesses as suitable jobs for their

social status either as university graduates or oil producing communities, hence they now take to

youth restiveness, crime, prostitution and other forms of anti-social ices. Jhingan (opcit). These

youths, with the guise of unemployment have remained a great threat to political stability as they

are consistently involved in creating a hostile socio-economic and political environments for the oil

industry and government. Armed robbery attacks are persistent, youths forming various gang

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2.6 Learning of Life Skills and Cultism

Prior to this time, people viewed youth restiveness as a persistent demand or struggle for the

liberation of the oil rich region which has suffered long periods of total neglect by past and present

administration in the area of granting them their due percentage of the derivation fund, Ecological

fund and provision of infrastructural developments. The idle aggrieved youths have taken to crime

pointing accusing fingers to unemployment caused by high level of injustices in the Niger Delta, and

corrupt politicians etc, Jhingan (2008).

2.7 Summary of Literature Review

References

OECD. (2015). Learning Opportunities for Adults: General Report. Paris. OECD.

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