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DIRECTION refers to the orientation of its path or line of action. It is usually described PROPPED CANTILEVER BEAM (indeterminate)
by the angle that the line of action makes with some reference.
CONTINOUS BEAM
SENSE refers to the manner in which it acts along its line of action
FORCE SYSTEM
INTERNAL FORCES TYPES
COPLANAR all acting in a single plane of a vertical wall
TENSION pulls away from joint
PARALLEL all having the same direction
COMPRESSION pushes towards joint
CONCURRENT all having their lines of action intersect at a common point. SHEAR for connections
MOMENT force x distance ASTM
moment can be about any point called CENTER OF MOMENT
AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING AND MATERIALS
MOMENT ARM distance from center of moment to force
shortest or perpendicular distance from the center of moment to line of ACI
action of force. AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE
HINGED
ROLLER
FIXED/ RESTRAINED
TYPES OF BEAMS
FEATURES OF A STRAIN STRESS DIAGRAM: the property of a material that enables it to deform in response to an applied force and
to recover its original size and shape upon removal of the force
STRESS- STRAIN DIAGRAM
MALLEABILITY
a graphic representation of the relationship between unit stress values and the
the ability of a material to regain and rebound to original shape when the load is
corresponding unit strains for a specific material
released
1. PROPORTIONAL LIMIT
TOUGHNESS
maximum stress which the material springs back to the original length when
the property of a material that enables it to absorb energy before rupturing, represented
the load is released
by the area under the stress- strain curve derived from a tensile test of the material.
Ductile materials are tougher than brittle materials.
2. ELASTIC LIMIT
maximum stress below which the material does not return to its original
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
length but has incurred a permanent deformation we call permanent set
a coefficient of elasticity of a material expressing the ratio between a unit stress and the
corresponding unit strain caused by the stress, as derived from Hooke’s law and
3.YIELD POINT
represented by the slope of the straight line portion of the stress- strain line diagram.
the stress wherein the deformation increases without any increase in the load.
Also called COEFFICIENT OF ELASTICITY, ELASTIC MODULUS
The material at some portion shows a decrease in its cross section
PERMANENT SET
4. ULTIMATE STRENGTH
the inelastic strain remaining in a material after complete release of the stress producing
the maximum stress that can be attained immediately before actual failure or
deformation
rupture
YIELD STRENGTH
the stress necessary to produce a specific limiting permanent set in a material,
RUPTURE STRENGTH usually 0.2% of its original length when tested in tension. Yield strength is used to
stress at which material specimen breaks determine the limit of usefulness of a material having a poorly defined yield point.
Also called POOR STRESS.
ALLOWABLE STRESS
the maximum unit stress permitted for a material in the design of a structural member, STRAIN- RATE EFFECT
usually a fraction of the material’s elastic limit, yield strength, or ultimate strength. the behavior an increased rate of load application can cause in normally ductile material
Also called ALLOWABLE UNIT STRESS, WORKING STRESS.
TEMPERATURE EFFECT
ELASTIC RANGE the brittle behavior low temperatures can cause in a normally ductile material
the range of unit stresses for which a material exhibits elastic deformation
STRESS RELAXATION
ELASTIC DEFORMATION the time- dependent decrease in stress in a constrained material under a constant load
a temporary change in the dimensions or shape of a body produced by a stress less
than the elastic limit of the material CREEP
STRESS-
COMPRESSIVE STRAIN EFFECTIVE LENGTH
the shortening of a unit length of material produced by a compressive stress the depth of concrete section measured from the compression face to the centroid of the
tension reinforcement
SHEAR
the lateral deformation produced in a body by an external force that causes one part of COVER
the body to slide relative to an adjacent part in a direction parallel to their plane contact. the amount of concrete required to protect steel reinforcement from fire and corrosion,
measured from the surface of the reinforcement to outer surface of the concrete section
SHEAR FORCE
an applied force producing or tending to produce shear in the body BOND STRESS
the adhesive for per unit area of contact between reinforcing bar and the surrounding
SHEARING FORCE concrete developed at any section of a flexural member
an internal force tangenial to the surface on which it acts, developed by a body in
response to shear, shearing in a vertical plane necessarily involves shearing in a HOOK
horizontal plane and vise versa a bend or curve given to develop an equivalent embedment length, used where there is
insufficient room to develop in adequate embedment length
SHEARING STRESS
the force per unit area developed along a section of an elastic body to resist a shear STANDARD HOOK
force. a 90º, 135º, 180º bend made at the end of a reinforcing bar according to standards
Also called SHEAR STRESS, TANGENIAL STRESS
ANCHORAGE
SHEARING STRAIN any of various means, as embedment length or hooked bars, for developing tension or
the lateral deformation developed in a body in response to shearing stresses, defined as compression in a reinforcing bar on each side of critical section in order to prevent bond
the tangent of the skew angle of the deformation. failure or splitting
the moment of a force system that causes or tends to cause rotation or torsion UNDERREINFORCED SECTION
a concrete section in which the tension reinforcement reaches its specified yield
TORSION strength before the concrete in compression reaches its assumed ultimate strain. This
the twisting of an elastic body about its longitudinal axis caused by two equal and is desirable condition since failure of the section would be preceded by large
opposite torques, producing shearing stresses in the body deformations giving prior warning of impending collapse
REINFORCED CONCRETE
BEAM the shearing stress developed along cross section of a beam to resist transverse shear,
having a maximum value at the neutral axis and decreasing nonlinearly toward the outer
faces
BEAM
a rigid structural member designed to carry and transfer transverse loads across spaces
HORIZONTAL SHEARING
supporting elements
the shearing stress developed to prevent slippage along longitudinal planes of a beam
under transverse loading, equal to any point to the vertical shearing stress at that point.
SPAN
Also called LONGITUDINAL SHEARING STRESS
the extent of space between two supports of a structure
FLEXURE FORMULA
CLEAR SPAN
a formula defining the relationship between bending moment, bending stress, and the
the distance between inner faces of the support of a span
cross sectional properties of a beam. Bending stress is directly proportional to bending
moment and inversely proportional to the moment of inertia of a beam section.
EFFECTIVE SPAN
the center to center distance between the supports of a span
MOMENT OF INERTIA
the sum of the products of each element of an area and the square of its distance from a
BENDING MOMENT
coplanar axis of rotation. Moment of inertia is a geometric property that indicates how
an external moment tending to cause part a structure to rotate or bend, equal to the
the cross sectional area of structural member is distributed and does not reflect the
algebraic sum of the moments about the neutral axis of the section under consideration
intrinsic physical properties of a material
RESISTING MOMENT
SECTION MODULUS
an internal moment equal and opposite to a bending moment, generated by a force
a geometric property of a cross section, defined as the moment of inertia of the section
couple to maintain equilibrium of the section being considered
divided by the distance from the neutral axis to the most remote surface.
DEFLECTION
LATERAL BUCKLING
the perpendicular distance a spanning member deviates from a true course under
the buckling of a structural member induced by compressive stresses acting on slender
transverse loading, increasing with load and span, and decreasing with an increase in
portion insufficiently rigid in the lateral direction
the moment of inertia of the section of the modulus of elasticity of the material
STRESS TRAJECTORIES
NEUTRAL AXIS
lines depicting the direction but not the magnitude of the principal stresses in a beam
an imaginary line passing through the centroid of the cross section of a beam, other
member subject to bending, along which no bending stresses occur
SHEAR DIAGRAM
a graphic representation of the variation in magnitude of the external shears present in a
BENDING STRESS
structure for a given set of transverse loads and support conditions concentrated loads
a combination of compressive and tensile stresses developed at a cross section of
produce external shears which are constant in magnitude between the loads uniformly
structural member to resist transverse force, having a maximum value at the surface
distributed loads produce linearly varying shears
furthest from the neutral axis
MOMENT DIAGRAM
CAMBER
a graphic representation of the variation in magnitude of the bending moment present in
a slight convex curvature intentionally built into beam, girder, or truss to compensate for
a structure for a given set of transverse load and support conditions. The overall
an anticipated deflection
deflected shape of a structure subject to bending can often be inferred from the shape
How is camber treated in a steel truss 25 meters and longer?
of its moment diagram
Camber shall be approximately equal to the dead load deflection
CONCENTRATED LOADS
TRANSVERSE SHEAR
produce bending moments which vary linearly between loads
an external shear force at a cross section of a beam or other member subject to
bending, equal to the algebraic sum of transverse forces on one side of the section
UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOADS
produce parabolically varying moments
VERTICAL SHEARING
POSITIVE SHEAR
a net resultant of shear forces that acts vertically upward on the left part of the structure fixed end and continuous beams are indeterminate structures for which the values of all
being considered reactions, shears and moments are dependent not only on span and loading but also on
cross sectional shape and material
NEGATIVE SHEAR
a net resultant of shear forces that act vertically downward on the left part of the HAUNCH
structure being considered the part of a beam that is thickened or deepened to develop greater moment resistance.
The efficiency of a beam can be increased by shaping its length in response to the
POSITIVE MOMENT moment and shear values which typically vary along its longitudinal axis
a bending moment that produces moment that produces a concave curvature at a
SIMPLE BEAM
a beam resisting on simple supports at both ends which are free to rotate and have no
moment resistance. As with any statistically determinate structure, the values of all
reactions, shears, and moments for a simple beam are independent of its cross
sectional shape and material
CANTILEVER BEAM
a projecting beam supported at only one fixed end
CANTILEVER
a beam or other rigid structural member extending beyond a fulcrum and supported by a
balancing member or a downward force behind the fulcrum
OVERHANGING BEAM
a simple beam extending beyond one of its supports. The overhanging reduces the
positive moment at midspan while developing a negative moment at the base of the
cantilever over the support
CONTINUOUS BEAM
a beam extending over more than 2 supports in order to develop greater rigidity and
smaller moments than a series of simple beams having similar spans and loading. Both
COLUMN the radial distance from any axis to a point at which the mass of a body could be
concentrated without altering the moment of inertia of the body about that axis. For a
structural section, the radius of gyration is equal to the square root of the quotient of the
moment of inertia and the area
COLUMN
The higher the radius of gyration of a structural section, the more resistant the section is
a relatively slender structural member designed primarily to support axial, compressive
to buckling. In determining the cross- sectional shape of a column, the objective is to
loads, applied at the member ends.
providethe necessary radius of gyration about the different axes. For an asymmetrical
cross section, buckling will tend to occur about the weaker axis or in the direction of the
least dimension
POST
a stiff vertical support especially a wooden column in timber framing
LONG COLUMN
a slender column subject to failure by buckling rather than by crushing
BUCKLING
the sudden lateral or torsional instability of a slender structural member induced by the
action of a compressive load. Buckling can occur well before the yield stress of the
SHORT COLUMN
material is reached
a thick column subject to failure by crushing rather than by buckling. Failure occurs
when the direct stress from an axial load exceeds the compressive strength of the
material available in the cross section. An eccentric load, however, can produce bending
BUCKLING
and result in uneven stress distribution in the section
the axial load at which a column begins to deflect laterally and becomes unsuitable.
INTERMEDIATE COLUMN
CRITICAL BUCKLING LOAD
a column having a mode of failure between that a short column and a long column, often
the maximum axial load that can theoretically be applied to a column without causing it
party inelastic by crushing and partly elastic by buckling
to buckle. The critical buckling load for a column is inversely proportional to the square
of its effective length and directly proportional to the modulus of elasticity of the material
and to the moment of inertia of the cross section.
ECCENTRICITY
Also called EULER BUCKLING LOAD
The amount by which an axis deviates from another parallel axis.
BIFURCATION
P-DELTA EFFECT
the critical point at which a column carrying its critical buckling load, may either buckle
An additional moment developed in a structural member as its longitudinal axis deviates
or remain undeflected. The column is therefore in a state of neutral equilibrium
from the line of action of a compressive force equal to the product of the load and the
member deflection at any point.
CRITICAL BUCKLING STRESS
the critical buckling load for a column divided by the area of its cross section
MIDDLE THIRD RULE
The proposition that a compressive load should be located within the middle third of a
horizontal section of a column or wall to prevent tensile stresses from developing in the
SLENDERNESS RATIO
section.
the ratio of the effective length of a column to its least ratio of gyration
The higher the slenderness ratio, the lower is the critical stress that will cause buckling.
A primary objective in the design of a column is to reduce its slenderness ratio by
EFFECTIVE LENGTH
minimizing its effective length or maximizing its effective length or maximizing the radius
The distance between inflection points in a column subject to buckling load. When this
of gyration of its cross section
portion of a column buckles the entire column falls.
RADIUS OF GYRATION
COMBINED STRESSES ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE
A set of tensile and compressive stresses resulting from the superposition of axial and a soil pressure acting on any structure that will tend to push the structure wherein the
bending stresses at a cross section of a structural member, acting in the same direction structure or a wall tends to move away from the soil
and equal at any point to their algebraic sum.
ACCELEROGRAPH
is an instrument which measures the velocity and acceleration of an earthquake in the
KERN ground
The central area of any horizontal section of a column or wall within which the resultant
of all compressive loads must pass if only compressive stresses are to be applied ANCHOR BOLTS
beyond this area will cause tensile stresses to develop in the section. Also called kern a round, steel bolt embedded in concrete or masonry used to hold down machinery,
area. steel columns or beam casting, shock beam plates and engine heads
BALANCED DESIGN
KERN POINT is one which both the concrete and the steel are so proportioned as to work to their full
A point on either side of the centroidal axis of a horizontal column or wall section working stresses when the member carries its full allowable load
defining the limits of the kern area.
BATTER PILES
are piles at an inclination to resist forces that are not critical. This is also known as brace
LATERAL BRACING pile or spur pile
the bracing of a column or other compression member to reduce its effective length.
Lateral bracing is most effective when the bracing pattern occurs in more than one BEARING WALL SYSTEM
plane. a structural system without a complete vertical load carrying space frame
BENDING MOMENT
is the algebraic sum of the moments of the forces acting on either side of the section of
UNBRACED LENGTH a beam about an axis through the center of the gravity of the section
the distance between the points at which a structural member is braced against buckling
in a direction normal to its length. BORED PILE (bearing pile)
a concrete pile which concreted either with a casing or without a casing at its permanent
location. This is a cast in place pile
EFFECTIVE LENGTH FACTOR
a coefficient for modifying the actual length of a column according to its end conditions CAISSON
in order to determine its effective length. Fixing both ends of a long column reduces its a watertight, cylindrical or rectangular chamber used to in under water construction to
effective length by half and increases its load-carrying capacity by a factor of 4. protect workers from water pressure and soil collapse
CEMENT GUN
is an ejector operated by compressed air to force gunite into cavities or cracks in rocks
TRUSS or cement works
COFFER DAM
a temporary dam- like structure constructed which excludes water from the site of the
METHOD OF JOINTS foundation during its excavation and construction
a method for determining member forces in a truss by considering the equilibrium of the
various joints idealized as points in free body diagrams CONSTRUCTION JOINT
the vertical or horizontal face in a concrete structure where concreting has been stopped
DEFINITION OF TERMS and continued later
COLD JOINT
formed when a concrete surface hardens before the next batch o f concrete is placed GUNITE
is a rich cement mortar which is applied by spraying under high air pressure
CREEP
he tendency of most material to move or deform over time under a constant load The GRADE BEAM
amount of movement varies enormously depending upon the material. The area that is a concrete beam placed directly on the ground to provide foundation for the
highly stressed will move the most. The movement causes stresses to be redistributed. superstructure
a short steel bar extending from one concrete element to another as for instance a
concrete foundation to a concrete column. It may or may not transfer direct stress
DRIFT BOLT JETTING
is a long pin of steel or wood, made with or without the head, driven through the timber a method of driving piles or well points into the sand in the situations where a pile
and into an adjacent timber to hold them together and to transmit stresses hammer might not be suitable owing to the risk of damage by vibration to the piles of
adjacent buildings.
EXPANSION OR CONTRACTION
POINTING STRESS
in masonry, the final treatment of joints by the troweling of mortar or putty like filler into is the cohesive force in a body, which resists the tendency of an external force to change
is a watertight pipe 300 mm to 600 mm in diameter with a flared top used in depositing BOUNDARY ELEMENT
concrete under water is an element at edges of opening or at the perimeters of shear walls or diaphragm
DUAL SYSTEM
is a combination of a Special or Intermediate Moment Resisting Space Frame and
SEISMIC DESIGN PROVISION Shearwalls or Braced Frame
ESSENTIAL FACILITIES
ARTIFICIAL RIGIDITY
are those structures which are necessary for emergency post- earthquake operations
will cause torsion (twisting)
FLEXIBLE ELEMENT
BASE
an element or system is one whose deformation under lateral load significantly larger
is the level at which the earthquake motions are considered to be imparted to the
than adjoining parts of the system
structure
HARMONIC MOTION SPACE FRAME
the coincidence of the natural period of structural with the dominant frequency in the is a three dimensional structural system without bearing walls composed of members
ground interconnected so as to function as a complete self contained unit with or without the aid
of horizontal diaphragms or bracing systems
MOMENT RESISTING FRAME
is a space frame in which the members and joints are capable of resisting forces STOREY
primarily by flexure is the space between levels. Storey x is the storey below level x
FILL is a deposit of earth material placed by artificial means CONCRETE, STRUCTURAL LIGHT WEIGHT
concrete containing lightweight aggregate and has an air-dry unit weight not
GRADE is the vertical location of the ground surface exceeding 1900 kg/m3. lightweight concrete without natural sand is termed all- light
weight concrete and lightweight concrete in which of the fine aggregate consists of
EXISTING GRADE is the grade prior to the grading normal weight sand is termed sand- lightweight concrete.
FINISH GRADE is the final grade of the site that conforms to the approved plan CURVATURE FRICTION
friction resulting from bends or curves in the specified pre-stressing tendon profile
GRADING is any excavating or filling or combination thereof
steel element such as wire, cable, bar, rods or strand, or a bundle of such elements
MODULUS, TENGENT (concrete) used to impart prestress to concrete
the slope of tangent to the curve to some point along the curve
TIE
PEDESTAL loop or reinforcing bar or wire enclosing longitudinal reinforcement
an upright compression member with a ratio of unsupported height to average least
lateral dimensions of less than 3 TRANSFER
act of transferring stress in prestressing tendons from jacks
PLAIN CONCRETE or pretensioning bed to concrete member
concrete that does not conform to the definition of reinforced concrete
WALL
PLAIN REINFORCEMENT member, usually vertical, used to enclose or separate spaces
reinforcement that does not conform to the definition of deformed reinforcement
WOBBLE FRICTION
POST TENSIONING in pre-stressed concrete, friction caused by unintended deviation of prstressing sheath
method of prestressing in which the tendons are tensioned after concrete has hardened or duct from its specified profile
d. individual bars within a bundle terminated within the span of flexural members should
terminate at a different points at least 40db stagger
STANDARD HOOKS
AGGREGATES
A. 180º bend plus 4db extension but not less than 65 mm at free end
Fine aggregates- sand
are those that passes through a No.4 sieve (about 6mm in size) B. 90º bend plus 12db extension, at free end of bar
Coarse aggregate -gravel or crushed stone C. for stirrups and tie hooks:
Coarse aggregate shall not be less than: 16 mm bar and smaller, 90º bend plus 6db extension at free end of bar or
The diameter of bend measured on the inside of the bar shall not be less than the
following:
(a.) 6db for 10 mm to 25 mm bar
d. Concrete cover for pipes, conduits and fittings shall not be less than 40 mm for concrete
SIZE AND SPACING OF MAIN BARS AND TIES exposed to earth or weather
2. Use 10 mm diameter ties for 32 mm bars or smaller and at least 1. High-strength bolted parts shall fit solidly together when assembled and shall not be
12 mm in size for 36 mm and bundled longitudinal bars separated by gaskets or any other interposed compressive material.
3. Vertical spacing of ties shall be the smallest of the following: 2. Bolts tightened by means of a calibrated wrench shall be installed with a hardened
washer under the nut or bolt head whichever is the element turned in tightening.
a. 16 x db (db = longitudinal bar diameter)
b. 48 x tie diameter 3. When assembled, all joint surfaces, including those adjacent to the washer, shall be free
c. least dimension of columns of scale, except tight mill scales, dirts and burns.
4. Surface in contact with the bolt head and nut head shall have slope of not more than
4. Ties shall be arrange such that every corner and alternate longitudinal 1:20 with respect to a plane normal to the bolt axis.
bar shall have lateral support provided by the corner of the tie with an
included angle of not more than 135º and no bar shall be farther than
150 mm clear on each side along the tie from such a laterally
supported bar. Where longitudinal bars are located around the
perimeter of a circle tie is allowed.
MINIMUM REQUIREMENT FOR DEVELOPMENT OF REINFORCEMNT
a. Conduits and pipes embedded in slab, the wall or beam shall not be larger in outside
dimension than 1/3 the overall thickness of slab, wall or beam
b. Reinforcement with an area not less than 0.002 times the area of cross- section shall be
provided normal to piping