22
MATHEMATICAL DESCRIPTIONS OF SYSTEMS
EXAMPLE 2.8 Consider a cart with an inverted pendulum hinged on top of it as shown in Fig,
2.12. For simplicity, the cart and the pendulum are assumed to move in only one plane, and the
friction, the mass of the stick, and the gust of wind are disregarded. The problem is to maintain
the pendulum at the vertical position. For example, if the inverted pendulum is falling in the
direction shown, the cart moves to the right and exerts a force, through the hinge, to push the
pendulum back to the vertical position. This simple mechanism can be used as a model of a
space vehicle on takeoff.
Let H and V be, respectively, the horizontal and vertical forces exerted by the cart on the
pendulum as shown. The application of Newton's law to the linear movements yields
ay
M un
dt eo
e Ce -
H =m aly + 1sinB) = my + mlllcosd — mi(6)” sino
2 ne
mg—V ma (1080) = ml[-6 sin@ — (6)? cos 8)
‘The application of Newton’s law to the rotational movement of the pendulum around the hinge
yields
mgl sin = mlé -1 + mil cos
‘They are nonlinear equations, Because the design objective is to maintain the pendulum
at the vertical position, it is reasonable to assume 4 and to be small. Under this assumption,
we can use the approximation sin @ = 6 and cos = 1. By retaining only the linear terms in &
and é or, equivalently, dropping the terms with 6, (6), 94, and 66, we obtain V = mg and
My — my — mlb
Bb =16 +5
which imply
My =u—mgd - 225)
MIB = (M + m)g@ -u 2.26)
Figure 2.12 Cart with inverted pendulum,2.5 Examples 23
Using these linearized equations, we now can develop the input-output and state-space
descriptions. Applying the Laplace transform to (2.25) and (2.26) and assuming zero initial
conditions, we obtain
Ms°5(s) = it(s) — mg6(s)
MIs76(s) = (M + m)gA(s) — ii(s)
From these equations, we can readily compute the transfer function g,,.(s) from u to y and the
transfer function gu(s) from u to 6 as
To develop a state-space equation, we select state variables as xy = y, %2 = J. 3
and x4 = 6. Then from this selection, (2.25), and (2.26) we can readily obtain
01 0 re °
_|0 0 -mgm of] x 1/M
=lo 0 0 tee eet
Pi 0 0 (M+meg/M 0) Las =1/ML
y=[1 00 Ox 2.27)
This state equation has dimension 4 and describes the system when and 6 are very small.
ExaMPLe 2.9 A communication satellite of mass m orbiting around the earth is shown in
Fig. 2.13. The altitude of the satellite is specified by r(#), 8(t), and @(¢) as shown. The orbit,
can be controlled by three orthogonal thrusts u,(), u9(¢), and u(r). The state, input, and
output of the system are chosen as
r()
i Hi ro
x(t) = 6) u(t) = | a(t) y= [2
ot) ug (t) v(t)
ow)
‘Then the system can be shown to be described by
;
16? cos’ 6 + rd? — k/r? + u-/m
how =|? i (2.28)
~278/r + 266 sin / cos + us/mr cos
9
—# cos d sing — 2Fb/r + ug/mr24
MATHEMATICAL DESCRIPTIONS OF SYSTEMS
Satellite (mass m)
L
T
ie
L
Figure 2.13 Satellite in orbit.
One solution, which corresponds to a circular equatorial orbit, is given by
X(t) = (ro 0 wot w OOF uy =0
with r3o? = k, a known physical constant. Once the satellite reaches the orbit, it will remain
in the orbit as long as there are no disturbances. Ifthe satellite deviates from the orbit, thrusts
must be applied to push it back to the orbit. Define
X= MOF) UN =wiN+ GD ye +500)
If the perturbation is very small, then (2.28) can be linearized as
o 1 0 0 an)
Buh 00 awry a)
GC 4 o 0
RO = 0 0 0
0 0 0 Oo o 1
O00 66 -wf 0
a 0 o
= 0 0
g 50 :
.\|4 ar)
0 0 9
° a2.5 Examples 25
OH oe o 0
jay=]O 9 1 0 0 0 |x
eee ee : 1 0
This six-dimensional state equation describes the system. In this equation, A, B, and C happen
to be constant. If the orbit is an elliptic one, then they will be time varying. We note that the
three matrices are all block diagonal. Thus the equation can be decomposed into two uncoupled
parts, one involving r and 8, the other . Studying these two parts independently can simplify
analysis and design
ExamPLe 2.10 In chemical plants, it is often necessary to maintain the levels of liquids. A
simplified model of a connection of two tanks is shown in Fig. 2.14. It is assumed that under
normal operation, the inflows and outflows of both tanks all equal Q and their liquid levels
equal Hy and H2. Let u be inflow perturbation of the first tank, which will cause variations
in liquid level x; and outflow yi as shown. These variations will cause level variation x» and
‘outflow variation y in the second tank. It is assumed that
where R; are the flow resistances and depend on the normal height H and H». They can also
be controlled by the valves. Changes of liquid levels are governed by
Aids) =(¢—yidt and Aydxy = (y~ y)de
where A; are the cross sections of the tanks. From these equations, we can readily obtain
Pete Ls
Ar ALRt
x
"SADR, ADR:
Thus the state-space description of the system is given by
a] ff -l/AaRe V/ArRy ayy VA i
fa} | 1/A2Ry —(1/A2 Ry + 1/A2R2) | Le 0
y= (0 1/R)x
Figure 2.14 Hydraulic
tanks.
Qe OtyAnswers to Selected Problems
CHAPTER 2
2.1. (a) Linear. (b) and (c) Nonlinear. In (b). shift the operating point to (0, yo): then (u, 5) is linear
where j
=
2.3 Linear, time varying, causal
28. No, yes, no for x(0) # 0. Yes, yes, yes for x(0) = 0. The reason is thatthe superposition property
must also apply to the initial states.
29 y(t) =O fort < Oandt > 4.
0.507 forO 0.
22
Gs) as aay lee |
Dx(s) Dnls) Nu(s) Nats),
2.15 (a) Define x; = 9 and x3 = 6. Then #, = x2, 42 = —(g//) sin xy — (u/ml) cos.xy. If 4 is
smal, then
: bia : u
=e/l 0. -I/mg
Tei a linear state equation.
(b) Define xy = 61, 43 = 61.43 = 8, and xy = 62. Then
= (g/l) sin xy + (omag /my]) cos x5 sin(x3 ~ 24)
+ (1/1) sin x3 sin(xy — x1)
ks
= (g/l2)sin x5 + U/m2l2)(c0s x3)4
This is a set of nonlinear equations. If , * 0 and 8,4, ~ O, then it can be linearized as
321322 ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS
0 TOF 0 0
g_ | mgm tmay/mil, 0 mg/ml 0 0
ae 0 OOo n
0 0 -g/h 0 I/mah
2.16 From
mh = fi- fe = ki — kaw
16406 =(h4+h)fi-hh
and taking their Laplace transforms can
we can readily obtain a state equation. Assuming
yield the transfer function. i
218 B1(s) = Si(s)/H(s) = 1/(AVRis + 1). 82(5)
J(s)/8(S) = B1(5)§2(6).
2.20
0 0 cy
[ 0 0 V/Cr x
T/L, 1k, —(Ri+ R2)/Ly
in ole
HS)/Hs) = 1/(ArRas + D. Yes
WL, Ri/ly
ys(-l -1 -Rx+[l Ru
x ls) s?-4(R2/Ly)s
FAG) pica) eRe: Tey
(AE) +lata)a
ols) = (Ris + A/C Ms + (Ro/L)).
BO RG) (Re RoR) (Ere)E
PT PNG ta) i
BES) = Bis )iei(s) + B2(S)42(5)
3.5 p(A)) = 2, nullity(Ay)=1; 3, 0; 3, 1