Linguistics Notes

In the Name of Allah who is Rahman and Raheem.
For Allah, For Islam
Linguistics Notes
True Everlasting Islamic Books
Sayings of Allah: The Holy Quran

Hadees Books (True Sunnah): Sahi Bukhari and Sahi
Preface Muslim have no Zaeef hadees. Remaining books
have Sahih And Zaeef Ahadees. We should follow
‫السالم علیکم و رحمتہ و برکات‬ the true teachings of Islam. We need to study these
books with translation to understand teachings of
Dear brothers and sisters, I have arranged these Allah and Prophet Muhammad (SAW) to become a
true Muslim.
notes what I could manage the time. I know that
Sahi Bukhari
there will be many deficiencies and remedies in
Sahi Muslim
composing and arranging them. These notes will
Jamay Tirmzi
in sha Allah prove very fruitful for English
Sunnan Abu Daood
Lectureship preparation. Many friends will have
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• Educators Muhammad Rashid (SESE English)

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Muhammad Rashid M Phil Linguistics Scholars. SESE English at GES (2nd Shift High) Multan
Contents Glides ............................................................... 11
Preface ................................................................... 1 ARTICULATORY PHONETICS................................. 11
Linguistics ............................................................... 8 Voiced .............................................................. 11
Linguistics, Phonetics and Phonology .................... 9 Voiceless .......................................................... 11
Language .................................................................... 9 AUDITORY PHONETICS ........................................ 11
Characteristics of Linguistics .................................. 9 PHONOLOGY ........................................................ 11
Linguistics ........................................................... 9 Classificatory features: ........................................ 11
Level of Linguistics ................................................. 9 Consonantal ..................................................... 11
Phonemes .............................................................. 9 Vocalic ............................................................. 11
Morphology............................................................ 9 Syllabic ............................................................. 11
Syntax ..................................................................... 9 Obstruent ........................................................ 11
Semantics ......................................................... 10 Nasal ................................................................ 12
PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY......................... 10 Articulatory features: .......................................... 12
ARTICULATORY PHONETICS : PLACE OF High.................................................................. 12
ARTICULATION ..................................................... 10
Low .................................................................. 12
Bilabial .............................................................. 10
Back ................................................................. 12
Labio-dental ..................................................... 10
Round .............................................................. 12
Dental ............................................................... 10
Anterior ........................................................... 12
Alveolar ............................................................ 10
Coronal ............................................................ 12
Post-alveolar .................................................... 10
Lateral .............................................................. 12
Palato-alveolar ................................................. 10
Manner features:................................................. 12
Palatal............................................................... 10
Delayed release (affricates /dʒ / tʃ/) .............. 12
Velar ................................................................. 10
Acoustic features: ................................................ 12
Glottal .............................................................. 10
Voice ................................................................ 12
Frontal .............................................................. 10
Allophone ........................................................ 12
Middle .............................................................. 10
Morphology ............................................................. 12
Back .................................................................. 11
Morpheme ........................................................... 12
ARTICULATORY ................................................. 11
Free Morphemes ................................................. 13
Plosives............................................................. 11
1.1 Full words: ................................................. 13
Fricatives .......................................................... 11
1.2 Empty Words: ............................................ 13
Affricates .......................................................... 11
2. Bound Morphemes .......................................... 13
Nasals ............................................................... 11
Prefix : .............................................................. 13
Liquids .............................................................. 11
Infix .................................................................. 13
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Suffix: ............................................................... 13 TYPES OF BILINGUALISM ..................................... 18
Langue and parole................................................ 14 • Early bilingualism ..................................... 18
Langue ............................................................ 14 o Simultaneous early bilingualism .............. 18
Parole ................................................................... 14 o Successive early bilingualism ................... 19
Langue (Language) Parole (Speech) ................ 14 • Late bilingualism ...................................... 19
Competence and Performance ............................ 14 • Additive bilingualism and subtractive
I. Linguistics ................................................. 14 bilingualism – ................................................... 19
II. Sociolinguistics ......................................... 14 • Passive bilingualism ................................. 19
III. Discourse .............................................. 14 CODE SWITCHING ............................................ 19
IV. Strategic ............................................... 14 CODE-MIXING ...................................................... 19
Stages of Second Language Acquisition ............... 14 DIGLOSSIA............................................................ 19
Stage I: Pre-production ........................................ 15 MULTILINGUALISM .............................................. 19
Stage II: Early production ..................................... 15 A Multilingual Country ........................................ 20
Stage III: Speech emergence ................................ 15 Language policy, multilingualism and language
vitality in Pakistan ............................................. 20
Stage IV: Intermediate fluency ............................ 15
MENTALIST /COGNITIVE THEORY ....................... 20
Stage V: Advanced Fluency .................................. 16
Mentalist Theory ................................................. 21
Sociolinguistics ......................................................... 16
The Language Acquisition Device( LAD) .......... 21
How a Language is changed ................................. 16
Language Functions And Functional Analysis.......... 23
1.Change in Social Conditions .......................... 17
LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS....................................... 23
2.Social Class .................................................... 17
1. The Addresser .............................................. 24
3.Gender .......................................................... 17
2. The Addressee ............................................. 24
4.Regional Groups ............................................ 17
3.The Channel .................................................. 24
5.Cultural Groups ............................................. 17
4. The Message Form ...................................... 24
Reasons of Variation ............................................ 17
5.The Topic ...................................................... 24
1. Dialect .......................................................... 17
6.The Code ....................................................... 24
2. Accent .......................................................... 17
7.The Setting.................................................... 24
3. Pidgin............................................................ 17
1.The Emotive Function ................................... 24
4.Creole ............................................................ 18
2.The Directive Function ................................. 24
5.Register ......................................................... 18
3.The Phatic Function ...................................... 24
MONOLINGUALISM.................................................. 18
4. The Poetic Function ..................................... 24
BILINGUALISM .......................................................... 18
5. The Referential Function ............................. 24
Bilingualism is the ability of an individual or the
members of a community to use two 6. The Metalinguistic Function ........................ 24
languages effectively........................................ 18 7. The Contextual Function ............................. 25
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There are seven micro functions of language...... 25 Creolization...................................................... 28
Physiological Functions .................................... 25 Lingua Franca....................................................... 28
2. Phatic function ............................................. 25 Jargon .............................................................. 29
3. Recording function ....................................... 25 Grammar Translation Method ............................ 29
4. Identifying function ...................................... 25 Method ............................................................ 29
5. Reasoning function ...................................... 25 Advantages ...................................................... 29
6. Communicating function.............................. 25 Criticism ........................................................... 29
7. Pleasure functions........................................ 25 THE DIRECT METHOD .......................................... 30
Functional Analysis .............................................. 25 Definition ......................................................... 30
More than one function:- .................................... 25 Origin/Background: ......................................... 30
Types of Meaning:- .............................................. 26 Objectives ........................................................ 30
Semantic Meaning:- ......................................... 26 Features ........................................................... 31
Pragmatic Meaning:- ........................................ 26 Merits .............................................................. 31
Short terms .............................................................. 26 Demerits: ......................................................... 31
Creole ................................................................... 26 Conclusion: ...................................................... 32
PIDGIN .................................................................. 26 The Study of Language By George Yule ................... 32
Code Switching..................................................... 26 Chapter #3 ........................................................... 32
Code Mixing ......................................................... 26 The sound system ................................................ 32
Dialect .................................................................. 26 • Phonetics ................................................. 32
Idiolect ................................................................. 27 Types of Phonetics........................................... 32
2. Heterogeneous Speech Community ............ 27 Types of sounds with respect to place ............ 32
Qualitative Units .................................................. 27 Ch#4 Sound pattern of language ................. 33
Quantification of Linguistics Units ....................... 27 • Phonology ................................................ 33
Jackobson ‘s Functions of Speech .................... 27 • Phoneme ................................................. 33
The six functions of language[edit] ................... 27 • Phones ..................................................... 33
1. The Referential Function .............................. 27 • Allophone ................................................ 33
2. The Poetic Function ..................................... 27 • Syllable..................................................... 33
3. The Emotive (alternatively called "Expressive" • Consonant cluster .................................... 33
or "Affective") Function ................................... 27
• Assimilation ............................................. 33
4. The Conative Function ................................. 27
Chapter # 5 word formation ........................... 33
Metalinguistic Code ......................................... 28
• Neologism ................................................ 33
Emotive ............................................................ 28
• Etymology ................................................ 33
Expressive......................................................... 28
• Coinage .................................................... 33
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• Eponyms ................................................... 33 • Synonymy ................................................ 35
• Word ........................................................ 33 • Antonyms ................................................ 35
• Borrowing................................................. 34 • Hyponymy................................................ 35
• Compounding ........................................... 34 • Prototypes ............................................... 35
• Blending ................................................... 34 • Homophones ........................................... 35
• Clipping .................................................... 34 • Homonyms .............................................. 35
• Hypocorism .............................................. 34 • Polysemy.................................................. 36
• Backformation.......................................... 34 • Metonymy ............................................... 36
• Conversion ............................................... 34 • Collocation ............................................... 36
• Acronyms ................................................. 34 Chapter #10 Pragmatics ............................... 36
• Affixes....................................................... 34 • Context .................................................... 36
• Stem ......................................................... 34 • Deixis ....................................................... 36
Chapter #6 Morphology.................................. 34 • Reference ................................................ 36
• Morpheme ............................................... 34 • Inference.................................................. 36
• Free .......................................................... 34 • Anaphora ................................................. 36
• Bound ....................................................... 34 • Presupposition......................................... 36
• Morphs ..................................................... 34 • Speech ..................................................... 36
• Allomorph ................................................ 34 • Politeness ................................................ 36
Chapter #7 Grammar ...................................... 34 Chapter #11 Discourse Analysis ....................... 36
• Traditional ................................................ 35 • Cohesion .................................................. 36
• Agreement ............................................... 35 • Coherence................................................ 36
• Deep ......................................................... 35 • Turn-Taking.............................................. 36
• Surface ..................................................... 35 • The ........................................................... 36
Chapter # 8 syntax ........................................... 35 • Maxim ...................................................... 36
Chapter # 9 semantics .................................... 35 • Maxim ...................................................... 36
• Semantic................................................... 35 • Maxim ...................................................... 36
• Agent ........................................................ 35 • Maxim ...................................................... 36
• Instrument ............................................... 35 • Hudges ..................................................... 36
• Location.................................................... 35 • Background .............................................. 36
• Source ...................................................... 35 • Schema .................................................... 36
• Goal .......................................................... 35 • Script ........................................................ 36
• Lexical....................................................... 35 Chapter # 12: Language And Brain ................. 37
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Chapter #13 First Language Acquisition ........... 37 • Pidgen ...................................................... 38
Chapter #14 second language acquisition ........ 37 • Creole ...................................................... 38
Chapter # 15 Gestures and Sign Language .... 37 • Decreolization.......................................... 38
• Types ........................................................ 37 • Decreole .................................................. 38
• types ......................................................... 37 Chapter 19. language and social vavriations: ...... 38
• Oralism ..................................................... 37 Sociolinguistics ................................................ 38
• Signed English( Manually Coded English):37 Chapter #20 language and Culture................... 39
• Location.................................................... 37 Linguistics,Psycholinguistics and Socio-linguiatics .. 39
• Movement................................................ 37 Linguistics (Honey Books) ........................................ 46
• Primes ...................................................... 37 Linguistics ........................................................ 46
• Finger ....................................................... 37 Sociolinguistics .................................................... 46
Chapter # 16 Writing ..................................... 37 Style level in language ......................................... 46
• Pictogram ................................................. 37 Isoglass ............................................................ 46
• Ideograms ................................................ 37 Diglossia ........................................................... 46
• Logograms ................................................ 37 Psycholinguistics .................................................. 46
• Rebus........................................................ 37 Semantics ........................................................ 46
• Subject...................................................... 37 Synonymy ........................................................ 46

Antonymy ........................................................ 46
• Alphabetic ................................................ 38
Hyponymy........................................................ 46
• English ...................................................... 38
Collocation ....................................................... 46
• Diagraph ................................................... 38
Presupposition................................................. 46
• Family ....................................................... 38
Morphology ......................................................... 46
• Cognats .................................................... 38
Grammar of words .......................................... 47
Chapter #18 Language and Regional variation . 38
Minimal............................................................ 47
• Standard ................................................... 38
Free morphemes ............................................. 47
• Accent ...................................................... 38
Phonetics ......................................................... 47
• Dialect ...................................................... 38
Characteristics of speech sounds .................... 47
• Dialectology ............................................. 38
Three types ...................................................... 47
• Isoglosses ................................................. 38
Homophones ................................................... 47
• Dialect ...................................................... 38
Phonology ............................................................ 47
• Bilingualism .............................................. 38
Articulatory phonetics ..................................... 47
• Diglossia ................................................... 38
Auditory ........................................................... 47
• Language .................................................. 38
Consonants ...................................................... 47
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Vowel ............................................................... 47 Countable Nouns ............................................. 55
Pragmatics........................................................ 47 Uncountable Nouns or Mass Nouns ................ 55
Invisible ............................................................ 47 Collective Nouns .............................................. 55
Indirect speech act ........................................... 47 Concrete Nouns ............................................... 56
Quantifier ......................................................... 47 Abstract Nouns ................................................ 56
Syntax ............................................................... 47 The Different Types of Pronouns ........................ 56
Greek ................................................................ 47 Demonstrative Pronouns................................. 56
Adverb .............................................................. 47 Indefinite Pronouns ......................................... 56
Clause ............................................................... 47 Interrogative Pronouns ................................... 56
Declarative ....................................................... 48 Personal Pronouns........................................... 56
Empty word ...................................................... 48 Possessive Pronouns ....................................... 57
Grammar .......................................................... 48 Relative Pronouns............................................ 57
Anology ............................................................ 48 Absolute Possessive Pronouns ........................ 57
Root .................................................................. 48 Reciprocal Pronouns ........................................ 57
Lexiology .......................................................... 48 Reflexive Pronouns .......................................... 57
Noun and verb ................................................. 48 Intensive (or Emphatic) Pronouns ................... 57
Verb .................................................................. 48 Table of Noun ...................................................... 58
Sociolinguistics- Psycholinguistics............................ 48 Pronoun Table ..................................................... 58
English Grammar...................................................... 54 Types of adjectives .......................................... 58
Parts of Speech .................................................... 54 Proper adjectives ............................................. 58
Noun................................................................. 54 Adjective of quality .......................................... 58
Pronoun............................................................ 54 Adjective of quantity ....................................... 58
Adjectives ......................................................... 54 Numeral adjectives. ......................................... 58
Verb .................................................................. 54 Demonstrative adjectives ................................ 59
Adverbs ............................................................ 54 Distributive adjectives ..................................... 59
Preposition ....................................................... 54 Interrogative adjectives ................................... 59
Conjunctions .................................................... 54 Possessive adjectives ....................................... 59
Interjections ..................................................... 54 Kinds of Verbs in English...................................... 59
Classifications of Nouns ....................................... 55 1. ...................................................................... 59
Proper Nouns ................................................... 55 2. ...................................................................... 59
Common Nouns ............................................... 55 3. ...................................................................... 59
Material ............................................................ 55 4. Stative Verbs:............................................... 59
Compound Nouns ............................................ 55 5. ...................................................................... 59
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6. ...................................................................... 60 Adjective Clause .............................................. 71
7. Phrasal/Prepositional Verbs:........................ 60 Adverb Clause .................................................. 72
8. Modal Auxiliary Verbs: ................................. 60 Phrase and Clause comparison........................ 73
9. Helping Verbs/Auxiliary Verbs: .................... 60 Subject: Action Performer .................................. 74
10. Hypothesis Verbs: ...................................... 60 Verb: ................................................................ 74
11. Causative Verbs:......................................... 61 Object: ............................................................. 74
12. Regular and Irregular Verbs: ...................... 61 Verbals: Gerunds, Infinitives, and Participles ...... 75
Types of Adverb ................................................... 61 Types of Sentences (on the basis of function) .... 75
PREPOSITIONS: LOCATORS IN TIME AND PLACE Declarative sentence ....................................... 75
......................................................................... 63 Interrogative sentence .................................... 76
Prepositions that describe location ................. 63 Imperative sentence ........................................ 76
Prepositions of Time ........................................ 63 Exclamatory sentence ..................................... 76
Prepositions That Express Time And Place ...... 64 5. Optative Sentences...................................... 76
Time ................................................................. 64 Sentences: Simple, Compound, and Complex ..... 76
Place ................................................................. 64 1. Simple Sentences......................................... 77
Different types of conjunctions: definitions, uses 2. Compound Sentences .................................. 77
and examples ....................................................... 64
3. Complex Sentences ..................................... 78
Subordinating Conjunctions ............................. 65
Independent/Dependent Clauses ....................... 80
Correlative Conjunction ................................... 66
Independent clause ......................................... 80
Conjunctive Adverbs ........................................ 66
Dependent clause ................................................ 81
Using Conjunctions .......................................... 67
Conditional Sentences—Rules You Need to Know
Phrase .................................................................. 67 ............................................................................. 81
Types of Phrases .................................................. 68 How to Use Zero Conditional Sentences ......... 82
Noun Phrase ..................................................... 68 How to Use First Conditional Sentences ......... 82
Prepositional Phrase. ....................................... 68 How to Use Second Conditional Sentences..... 82
Adjective Phrase............................................... 69 How to Use Third Conditional Sentences ........ 83
Adverb Phrase .................................................. 69
Verb Phrase ...................................................... 69
Gerund Phrase ................................................. 70
Participle Phrase .............................................. 70
Absolute Phrase ............................................... 70
Linguistics
Grammar
Clause ................................................................... 70
1 Nopun and Its Types
Types of Subordinate Clause................................ 71 2 Pronoun and Its Types
Noun Clause ..................................................... 71 3 Adjectives and Its Types
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4 Verb and Its Types • Subject Matter
5 Adverb and Its types • Relationship with other Science
6 Preposition and Its Typs • Systematic
7 Conjunctions and Its types • Method of Studying
8 Phrases and its Types • Arbitrariness of Meaning
9 Clauses and its Types
Difference between Human language and Human
10 Sentence and its types
Language
11 conditional sentences
12 Proverbs Human languageis unlimited and infinite- Animal
13 synonyms Language is limited and finate
14 Antonyms
15 Use of Preposition
Linguistics, Phonetics and Linguistics
The word linguistics is combination of two Latin
Phonology words
1 Phonetics and Phology
2 Morphology Lingua language
3 Syntax
4 Semantics Istics scientific uy
5 Pragmatics
The scientific stdy of any language is called
6 Discourse
linguistics.
7 Sociolinguistics
8 Psycholinguistics
Level of Linguistics
• Phonemes
Language • Morphology
The system of organized speech sounds by which • Syntax
we share our ideas, thoughts and emotions with • Semantics
other individual TO make a relationship in our
society is called language.
Phonemes
Characteristics of Human Language
The smallest meaningful unit of a sound system is
• Social Phenomena called phoneme. /u/.
• Arbitrariness
• Symbolic
• Patterning
Morphology
• Duality Morphology is the study word formation.
• Dynamic and non-static Morphology tells us how different phonemes ate
• Non instinctive combined to make a word.
• Creative/ Unique
• Conventional
Syntax
Characteristics of Linguistics
9
Syntax is the study of sentence formation. In Place of articulation is the point in the vocal tract
syntax, we study how different words are where the speech organs restrict the passage of air
combined producing distinctive sounds and is particularly
important for the production of consonants.
Semantics Consonant sounds are referred to by their place of
Semantics is the study of meaning structure.. articulation:
PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY Bilabial / b /p /m /w
Sound is both a physical and a mental
phenomenon. Labio-dental / f / v (bottom lip touching the
upper teeth)
PHONETICS is a technically based subject
concerned with measuring sound, recording Dental / θ / ð (tongue touching the
frequencies and studying the physiology of speech. upper teeth)
PHONOLOGY is essentially preoccupied with Alveolar / t /d /s /z /l /n/ (tongue

sound as a system for carrying meaning and its touching the alveolar ridge behind the upper
task is identifying phonemes.
teeth)
PHONETICS has 3 main dimensions:
Post-alveolar / r / (tongue curled behind the
(a) Acoustic phonetics (production of alveolar ridge)
sound) Palato-alveolar /dʒ / tʃ/ (tongue touching
both the hard palate and the alveolar
(b) Articulatory phonetics (transmission of
sound) ridge)
(c) Auditory phonetics (reception of Palatal / ʃ / ʒ / j (middle of the tongue

sound) against the hard palate)
(a) studies the properties of sound as a Velar / k / g / ŋ (back of the tongue

consequence of variations in air pressure. against the soft palate or velum)
Frequencies of speech are recorded by a
spectrograph to produce spectrograms. Glottal / h / (formed in the space
(b) studies the processes by which we between the vocal folds or glottis)
articulate speech sounds and describes
them in terms of the organs involved in
their production: tongue, teeth, lips, lungs
etc. (Place of articulation, manner of In vowels air is manipulated by the shape of the
articulation, voice) oral cavity and the position of the speech organs.
(c) is concerned with the perception of speech Thus you can have:
sounds.
Frontal vowels : / i (need) / I (name) / ɛ
ARTICULATORY (bed) / æ (cat)/ (front of the tongue + palate)
PHONETICS : PLACE OF Middle vowels : / ʌ (cup) / ɜ (bird) / ə

ARTICULATION (mother)/ (middle of the tongue + palate)
10
Back vowels: / a(car) / ɒ(not) / ɔ (ball) / ʊ This discipline studies the physical ways in which
(book) / ʊ (blue) / (back of the tongue + the sound waves we produce are converted into
palate) meaningful units of speech.
The outer ear collects the sounds, the middle ear

amplifies them, and the inner ear transmits them
ARTICULATORY PHONETICS : MANNER OF through the auditory nerve to the speech centres of
ARTICULATION the brain, the most important of which are
Configuration adopted by the speech organs in Wernickes’s area and Broca’s area, both located in
articulating a sound. the left emisphere in right-handed people.
Plosives (stops) : / p / b / t / d/ k / g /
(airstream is stopped by a brief closure) There are various theories on how the brain
Fricatives : / f / v/ θ / ð /s / z / ʃ / ʒ / h / reconstructs a word from a series of coarticulated
(friction occurs as air passes sounds and speculations on the uniqueness and
innateness of language.
through)
Affricates : /dʒ / tʃ/ (airstream is stopped PHONOLOGY

as for a plosive and then released
Phonology studies the systematic relationships
slowly with friction) between sounds within the grammar of a
language.
Nasals : / m / n / ŋ/ (airstream is
diverted through the nasal cavity by A phoneme is an abstract unit of sound which
forms part of the mental apparatus of all the native
lowering the soft palate) users of a language.
Liquids : /l/r/ Some prefer to see these relationships just in
terms of distinctive features (for example “voiced
Glides : /w/j/
bilabial plosive” for a /b/) according to the
theory elaborated by Roman Jakobson. Distinctive
features are binary and can have only two values ‘
ARTICULATORY + ’ or ‘ – ’.
PHONETICS : VOICE Classificatory features:

Voicing occurs when the vocal folds or chords
Consonantal (plosives, fricatives, affricates,
situated in the larynx vibrate.
nasals and liquids as opposed to vowels and
Voiced sounds : ex. / b / z / v / glides)
Voiceless sounds: ex. / p / s / f / Vocalic (vowels and liquids)
Syllabic (sounds which can function as the peak of

AUDITORY PHONETICS a syllable, ex. vowels)
Obstruent ( sounds that involve radical

obstruction of the airstream like plosives,
11
fricatives and affricates as opposed to liquids,
glides, nasals and vowels)
Phonological rules are also important for the study
Nasal of Syntax and in particolar of Morphology.
Morphological alterations have also a phonological

Articulatory features: side because they often involve pronunciation
changes. Ex. Plural ‘s’ after belt, lane, beach ( / s / z
High (tongue above the rest position)
/ IZ ); ‘-ed ’ after stop, clean, want ( / t / d / id).
Low (tongue below the rest position)
Back (tongue retracted from the rest position)

The study of this is called Morphophonology.
Round (lips rounded)
Allophone
Anterior (post-alveolar obstructon: labials, labio-
dentals and alveolars) An allophone is a phonetic variant of a phoneme in
a particular language.
Coronal (blade of the tongue raised from the Examples (English)
neutral position: dentals, alveolars, post-alveolars
[p] and [pH] are allophones of the phoneme /p/.
and palatals) [t] and [tH] are allophones of the phoneme /t/.
Lateral (air escapes over the sides of the tongue
/l/) Examples (Spanish)
Manner features: [b] and [B] are allophones of the phoneme /b/.
[d] and [D] are allophones of the phoneme /d/.
Continuant (fricatives, approximants [liquides
and glides] and vowels as opposed to plosives and
affricates)
Morphology
Delayed release (affricates /dʒ / tʃ/) The level of word formation is called morphology.
In this level, we study, how words are formed and
Acoustic features: how smaller units combine to make a word. So in
morphology we study all those rules by which we
Voice Strident (high-frequency sounds, ex. labio- form a word.
dental, alveolar and palato-alveolar)
Morpheme
PHONOLOGY studies also the patterns of stress The smallest unit of word formation is called
we use in speaking and the variations of pitch or morpheme. It is also called the smallest unit of
tone. word and sentence formation.
The study of this is called Prosody and examines Morpheme is not further divisible. If we divide it
units larger than the phoneme, termed then we will fall back to the level of phonology.
suprasegmentals, which become very important
Classification / Types of Morphemes
for Discourse analysis and Pragmatics. (Intonation)
12
There are two main types off morphemes: Prefix :
The bound morphemes that are attach before the
1) Free Morphemes root morphemes are called prefix i.e un, im, etc.
2) Bound Morphemes
moral immoral
Free Morphemes lucky unlucky
The morphemes which can exist independently

Infix
and have their own meanings, i.e. book, work,
The affix which are used in root or free
room etc. they are also called root morphemes.
morphemes are called infix. i.e.
There are two types of free morpheme;
Full words Singular Plural

man men
Empty Words woman women
foot feet
1.1 Full words:
tooth teeth
Full words have their own meanings. These words
goose geese
give complete sense and hace laxical meanings. i.e
talk, cook, and work etc. These word which replace singular words to
plural words are called infix. So these affix are
1.2 Empty Words: called replacive.
Empty words are those words wich have not their
own meanings. They have only grammatical Suffix:
meanings and they get complete meanings when The affix which are used after the root morphemes
thy are used with words or sentence. i.e the, an, are called suffix. i.e ness, ed, ly etc.
hurrah.
Suffix has further two types:
2. Bound Morphemes I. Inflectional suffix

II. Derivational Suffix
The morphemes which can not be exist
independently because these has not their own
Inflectional suffix:
meanings. We attach morphemes root morphemes
the suffix which close the boundary of the word
with bound morphemes to construct a meaningful
are called inflectional suffix. They are also called
word.
terminals because they do not allow for further
i.e ness, un, d , ed etc. attachment or suffixation. These are s, es, d, and
ed.;
if we remove all bound morphemes from a word
then the morpheme that is left is called root work worked
morpheme. spoile spoiled
teacher teachers
Bound morphemes have three types and these
watch watches
types are called affix.
I. Prefix
II. Infix
III. Surfix
13
Derivational Suffix: Social
This suffix may or may not allow the word for Individual
further attachment or suffixation. They are class Fixed
maintaining or class changing. Free
Slow Moving
Noun Adjective Adverb Emphermal
luck lucky luckily Psychological Psycho-
honest honesty honestly Physical
beauty beautiful beautifully
Competence and Performance

Langue and parole
Noam Chomsky‘s concept of competence and
performance is some what similar to
Langue and parole are more than just
Saussure‘s concept of langue and parole.
'language and speech' (although this is a
useful quick way of remembering them). This Competence is the speaker ‘s knowledge of his
linguistics concept Was given by Ferdinand De language, the system of rules, he had
Saussure. mastered, his ability to produce and
understand a vast number of new sentences
Langue
competence is the study of the system rules
La langue is the whole system of language that and performance is the study of actual use of
precedes and makes speech possible. A sign is language in real life situation. So the speakers
a basic unit of langue. knowledge of the structure of a language is his
Learning a language, we master the system of linguistic competence and the way in which he
grammar, spelling, syntax and punctuation. uses, is his linguistic performance.
These are all elements of langue. Competence and Performance of an individual
Langue is a system in that it has a large is different from other individual..
number of elements whereby meaning is
created in the arrangements of its elements
and the consequent relationships between Communicative competence can be of four types.:
these arranged elements. a man would be aware______
I. Linguistics coopetence: knowledge of

Parole grammar and language
II. Sociolinguistics competence: knowledge
Parole is the concrete use of the language, the
of norms of society
actual utterances. It is an external
manifestation of langue. It is the usage of the III. Discourse competence: knwoledge of
system, but not the system. meanings of lexis
IV. Strategic Competence: knowledge to over
over the misunderstanding of meanings
during discussion.
Langue (Language)
Parole (Speech) Stages of Second Language
Code Acquisition
Encoding Of A Message
Potential by Judie Haynes
Actualized All new learners of English progress through the
14
same stages to acquire language. However, the • Use pictures and realia to support
length of time each students spends at a particular questions.
stage may vary greatly.
• Modify content information to the
language level of ELLs.
Stage I: Pre-production • Build vocabulary using pictures.
This is the silent period. English language learners • Provide listening activities.
may have up to 500 words in their receptive • Simplify the content materials to be used.
vocabulary but they are not yet speaking. Some Focus on key vocabulary and concepts.
students will, however, repeat every thing you say.
• When teaching elementary age ELLs, use
They are not really producing language but are
simple books with predictable text.
parroting.
• Support learning with graphic organizers,
These new learners of English will listen
charts and graphs. Begin to foster writing
attentively and they may even be able to copy
in English through labeling and short
words from the board. They will be able to
sentences. Use a frame to scaffold writing.
respond to pictures and other visuals. They can
understand and duplicate gestures and
movements to show comprehension. Total Stage III: Speech emergence
Physical Response methods will work well with
them. Teachers should focus attention on listening Students have developed a vocabulary of about
comprehension activities and on building a 3,000 words and can communicate with simple
receptive vocabulary. phrases and sentences. They will ask simple
English language learners at this stage will need questions, that may or may not be grammatically
much repetition of English. They will benefit from correct, such as “ May I go to bathroom? ” ELLs
a “buddy” who speaks their language. Remember will also initiate short conversations with
that the school day is exhausting for these classmates. They will understand easy stories read
newcomers as they are overwhelmed with in class with the support of pictures. They will also
listening to English language all day long. be able to do some content work with teacher
support. Here are some simple tasks they can
complete:
Stage II: Early production Sound out stories phonetically. Read short,
modified texts in content area subjects. Complete
This stage may last up to six months and students
graphic organizers with word banks. Understand
will develop a receptive and active vocabulary of
and answer questions about charts and graphs.
about 1000 words. During this stage, students can
Match vocabulary words to definitions. Study
usually speak in one- or two-word phrases. They
flashcards with content area vocabulary.
can use short language chunks that have been
Participate in duet, pair and choral reading
memorized although these chunks may not always
activities. Write and illustrate riddles. Understand
be used correctly.
teacher explanations and two-step directions.
Compose brief stories based on personal
experience. Write in dialogue journals.
Here are some suggestions for working with Dialogue journals are a conversation between the
students in this stage of English language learning: teacher and the student. They are especially
helpful with English language learners. Students
• Ask yes/no and either/or questions. can write about topics that interest them and
• Accept one or two word responses. proceed at their own level and pace. They have a
place to express their thoughts and ideas.
• Give students the opportunity to
participate in some of the whole class
activities. Stage IV: Intermediate fluency
15
English language learners at the intermediate scientific study so we may say that
fluency stage have a vocabulary of 6000 active sociolinguistics means:
words. They are beginning to use more complex ➢ Scientific study of language in its
sentences when speaking and writing and are
social context.
willing to express opinions and share their
thoughts. They will ask questions to clarify what ➢ Sociolinguistics is the branch of
they are learning in class. These English language linguistics which deals with the
learners will be able to work in grade level math relationship between language and
and science classes with some teacher support. society.
Comprehension of English literature and social
studies content is increasing. At this stage, According to Oxford dictionary:
students will use strategies from their native
language to learn content in English. ➢ “The study of language in relation to
social factors. “
Student writing at this stage will have many errors
as ELLs try to master the complexity of English
grammar and sentence structure. Many students
Sociolinguistics based on the fact
may be translating written assignments from
native language. They should be expected to that language is not a single
synthesize what they have learned and to make homogeneous entity yet it is a social
inferences from that learning. This is the time for phenomenon. Sociolinguistics is
teachers to focus on learning strategies. Students relative to the newcomers which
in this stage will also be able to understand more entered in the linguistic field. It was
complex concepts.
not recognized till1960s, it was a
result of William Labov‘s work in
Stage V: Advanced Fluency America and Peter Trigill ‘s in
Britain. So it developed into
It takes students from 4-10 years to achieve recognized branch of linguistics.
cognitive academic language proficiency in a
second language. Student at this stage will be As language is changed from one
near-native in their ability to perform in content place to another so in linguistics we
area learning. Most ELLs at this stage have been
study all those factors which change
exited from ESL and other support programs. At
the beginning of this stage, however, they will the language.
need continued support from classroom teachers
especially in content areas such as history/social How a Language is changed
studies and in writing.
According to Labov, if speech of
Sociolinguistics young people with in a particular
social group is different from that of
The word sociolinguistics is a
old people in the same group, then it
combination of three words:
is very likely that change occur.
Socio
There are some factors that caused
Lingua change in a language:
Istics • Change in Social Conditions

• Social Class
➢ Socio means company/society, lingua • Gender
means language and istics means
• Regional Groups
16
• Cultural Groups Varieties of a language which are
formed in various geographical
1.Change in Social Conditions regions, involve a change in the
There are different social situations pronunciation as well as vocabulary,
in different places of world so a such as changes form distinctly.
language can not maintain its real Following varieties change a
language.
shape. Because of different situations
• Dialect
in history of England, for the first • Accent
people used to speak Latin later • Pidgin
French and now they speak English • Creole
language as well. It is all cause of • Register
different situations in society.
1. Dialect
2.Social Class Dialect refers to varieties
As different classes of society use differentiated by grammar and
different type of words because they vocabulary. Dialect is a geographical
based language variety with distinct
have different standards of life, i.e.
form syntactic and vocabulary items.
people used forgiveness and pardon For example English has two types
in a one sense, treat and feast. British and American.
3.Gender 2. Accent
As male persons use different worlds Accents means as
in their links and female different. ➢ A particular way of pronouncing
a language, associated with a
4.Regional Groups country, area, or social class.
Regional groups like Asians use ➢ An emphasis given to a syllable,
different language and Europeans word, or note in speech or music.
➢ A special emphasis: the accent is
used different language.
on participation.
➢ A mark on a letter or word
indicating pitch, stress, or the
5.Cultural Groups quality of a vowel.
Most accents are regional or
Every society has different customs.
national. Some accents are social and
So they use different words in one relate to the cultural and educational
sense. So language change background, like Australian, Scottish
and American accent. Geordie and
cockney are also other examples of
accents.
As sociolinguistics is the study of
language variation and how varieties
of languages are formed when the 3. Pidgin
speakers belong to a different A pidgin is a Variety of a language
geographical region, social class, which is developed for some
practical purposes such as trading
social situation and occupation etc.
among groups of people who did not
each other language of other one.
Reasons of Variation A pidgin is a native language of none.
Pidgins are formed by two speech
17
communities attempting to MONOLINGUALISM
communicate.
Monoglottism (monos, "alone, solitary", glotta,
"tongue, language") or, more
4.Creole
commonly, monolingualism or unilingualism, is
Carole refers to a pidgin language
the condition of being able to speak only a single
which has become the mother
language of speech community. language, as opposed to multilingualism. In a
different context, "unilingualism" may refer to
a language policy which enforces an official
5.Register or national language over others.
Variation in language may be
specific. This language is used in Being monolingual or unilingual is also said of a
different fields of law, religion, text, dictionary, or conversation written or
science and sports. In specific conducted in only one language, and of an entity in
language there is a specific which a single language is either used or officially
vocabulary and manner of use of recognized (in particular when being compared
English which defines the legal with bilingual or multilingual entities or in the
language according to its use is presence of individuals speaking different
called register. Sociolinguistics languages). Note that monoglottism can only refer
examines the particular
to lacking the ability to speak several languages.
characteristics of different register,
I. Legal Register Multilingual speakers outnumber monolingual
II. Scientific Register speakers in the world's population.
Monolingual countries where you need to
This kind of study is useful because it
know the language
enables us to understand how
language use is tied to a social France, Thailand, Hungary, Turkey, Brazil etc.
context. The notion of register is
important in showing that language
use in communication is not arbiter BILINGUALISM
or uncontrolled but is governed by Bilingualism is the ability of an individual or the
rules of situational and contextual
members of a community to use two
appropriateness.
languages effectively.
At the end we may say that living languages E.G. More than half of the world's population is
are always changing, as they respond bilingual or multilingual: "56% of Europeans are
to changes in social structure. bilingual, while 38% of the population in Great
Language reflects society; it also Britain, 35% in Canada, and 17% in the United
serves to pass on social structure, to States are bilingual" (Multicultural America: A
learn a language central feature is Multimedia Encyclopedia, 2013).
being socialized.
TYPES OF BILINGUALISM
So sociolinguistics is thus the study
of language as it is used and of
society it communicates. • Early bilingualism - there are two types:
simultaneous early bilingualism and consecutive
(or successive) early bilingualism.
o Simultaneous early bilingualism refers to a
child who learns two languages at the same time,
from birth. This generally produces a strong
18
bilingualism, called additive bilingualism. This also CODE SWITCHING
implies that the child's language development is Code switching is the practice of moving back and
bilingual.
forth between two languages, or between
o Successive early bilingualism refers to a child two dialects orregisters of the same language. Also
who has already partially acquired a first language called code-mixing and style shifting.
and then learns a second language early in Code switching (CS) occurs far more often
childhood (for example, when a child moves to an
environment where the dominant language is not in conversationthan in writing.
his native language). This generally produces a
strong bilingualism (or additive bilingualism), but
the child must be given time to learn the second
language, because the second language is learned
at the same time as the child learns to speak. This
implies that the language development of the child
is partly bilingual.
• Late bilingualism – refers to bilingualism when
the second language is learned after the age of 6 or
7; especially when it is learned in adolescence or
adulthood. Late bilingualism is a consecutive
bilingualism which occurs after the acquisition of
the first language (after the childhood language
development period). This is what also
distinguishes it from early bilingualism. With the
CODE-MIXING
first language already acquired, the late bilingual
uses their experience to learn the second Code-mixing refers to the mixing of two or more
language. languages or language varieties in speech. Some
scholars use the terms "code-mixing" and "code-
switching" interchangeably, especially in studies
• Additive bilingualism and subtractive of syntax, morphology, and other formal aspects of
bilingualism – The term additive bilingualism
language.
refers to the situation where a person has
acquired the two languages in a balanced manner.
It is a strong bilingualism. Subtractive bilingualism DIGLOSSIA
refers to the situation where a person learns the
second language to the detriment of the first
language, especially if the first language is a In sociolinguistics, a situation in which two
minority language. In this case, mastery of the first distinct varieties of a languageare spoken within
language decreases, while mastery of the other the same speech community.
language (usually the dominant language) Adjective: diglossic ordiglossial.
increases. These expressions and their associated Bilingual diglossia is a type of diglossia in which
concepts were created by Wallace Lambert, the one language is used forwriting and another
Canadian researcher who has been given the title
for speech.
of “the father of bilingualism research”.
• Passive bilingualism - refers to being able to MULTILINGUALISM

understand a second language without being able
to speak it. Children who respond in a relevant
way in English when they are addressed in French
could become passive bilinguals, as their mastery
of oral expression in French decreases.
19
corporate sector, media, education, etc are English
and Urdu. The state’s policies have favored these
two languages at the expense of others. This has
resulted in the expression of ethnic identity through
languages other than Urdu. It has also resulted in
English having become a symbol of the upper class,
sophistication and power. The less powerful
indigenous languages of Pakistan are becoming
Multilingualism is the use of two or markers of lower status and culture shame.
more languages, either by an individual speaker or
by a community of speakers. Multilingual speakers Language policy,
outnumber monolingual speakers in the world's
population.Multilingualism is becoming a social
multilingualism and language
phenomenon governed by the needs of vitality in Pakistan
globalization and cultural openness.Owing to the
ease of access to information facilitated by the Pakistan is a multilingual country. Its national
Internet, individuals' exposure to multiple language, Urdu, is the mother tongue of only 7.57
languages is becoming increasingly frequent, per cent of the population though it is very widely
thereby promoting a need to acquire additional used in the urban areas of the country. Pakistan’s
languages. People who speak several languages official language is still English as it was when the
are also called polyglots. As far as learning a
. British ruled the country as part of British India. In
language, multilingual speakers have acquired and addition to this, the country has five major
maintained at least one language during indigenous languages given below.
childhood, the so-called first language (L1). The
first language (sometimes also referred to as the Languages Percentage of speakers
mother tongue) is acquired without formal Punjabi 48%
education, by mechanisms heavily disputed. Pashto 8%
Children acquiring two languages in this way are Sindhi 12%
called simultaneous bilinguals. Even in the case of
Siraiki 10%.
simultaneous bilinguals, one language usually Urdu 8%
dominates over the other. People who know more Balochi 3%
than one language have been reported to be more Other 4.66%
adept at language learning compared to
monolinguals. Additionally, bilinguals often have
important economic benefits over monolingual MENTALIST /COGNITIVE
individuals as bilingual people are able to carry THEORY
out duties that monolinguals cannot, such as
interacting with customers who only speak a Language is Almighty‘s special and unique gift
minority language. to mankind without which human civilization
would have remained an impossibility. As a
distinct area of interest, psycholinguistics
A Multilingual Country developed in 1960s and in its early form
Pakistan is a multilingual country with six major covered phonology and language pathology.
and over fifty-nine small languages. However, the But now a day, it has been influenced deeply by
languages of the domains of power—government, the development of generative theory and its
20
most important area of investigation has been o How it came in his mind to press the
language acquisition. It has raised and partly bar?
answered question such as
➢ How do children acquire their mother

language? Answer is there ,
➢ How do they grow up linguistically and “ it is nature who told him to press the bar for
learn to handle the registrar and reward.”
stylistic varieties of mother language
effectively?
➢ How much of the linguistic system that Mentalist Theory
they ultimately command are they born
with and how much do they discover on This school of thought arguing on the crucial
matter of first language acquisition in children
the basis of their exposure to language?
is the mentalists’ school of thought which is led
by Noam Chomsky. He and his followers claim
that a child learns his first language through
In order to account for the language learning cognitive learning. He also acquires it by
by children, during the past forty years, there natural exposure. Both “nature and nurture”
have been two main theories influence the acquisition of language in
children. Chomsky regards linguistics as a sub
1. Behaviourist theory (Behaviourism)
field of psychology, more especially the
2. Mentalist (cognitive theory)
cognitive psychology.
➢ The behaviourists’ school of thought

The Language Acquisition Device( LAD)
has argued that learning is entirely the
Chomsky argues that language is so complex
product of experience and that our
that it is almost incredible that it can be
environment affects all of us in the
acquired by child in so short time. He further
same way. In other words we may say
says that a child is born with innate mental
that language learning is like behaviour
capacity which helps the child to process all
learning.
the languages which he hears. This is called the
➢ On the other hand, the mentalists’
language acquisition device.
theory has suggested that everybody
has an innate language learning Chomsky and his followers claim that language
mentalist’s means language learning is is governed by rules and is not incidental thing,
a mental process. as Skinner and his followers would claim. We
must remember that when Chomsky talks
As behaviourist argued that a child learn after
about rules, he means the conscious rules in a
repeatition and give an example of rat who
child‘s mind. A child constructs his own mental
watch the experiment of pressing bar , then
grammar which is a part of his cognitive
reward. Then after observation the rat starts
framework. These rules enable him to produce
pressing bar for the reward.
grammatical sentences in his own language.
But the question is here that Chomsky do not mean child can describe these
rules explicitly.
o who told the rat to press the bar?
21
For instance, a four or five years old child can
produce a sentence like , I have taken meal, he
can do that because he has a mental grammar
which enables him to form correct present
perfect structure and also to use such
structure in the right or appropriate situation.
The thought of mentalists can be understood

with the help of the following diagram.
Chomsky suggests that the learner of any

language has an inbuilt learning capacity for
language that enables each learner to
construct a kind of personal theory or set of
rules about the language based on very limited
exposure to language.
How mentalist approach is different from

Behaviourism.
At The End…..
It can be concluded that Chomsky

22
Imitates the
sounds of all
human
languages,
gradually
6
dropping the
Babbling months
sounds that
– 1 year
are not
reinforced by
the parents,
family, or
caregivers
One word has

several
Holophras
meanings 1-2
tic
depending on years
One word
context and
purpose
Two words
more
Two word specifically 2 years
convey
meaning
Strings more
Telegraph than two
2-3 year
(to words
s
infinity…) together like a
telegram
Acquiring a first language (L1), also referred to as the Language Functions And Functional
native or
Analysis
Stage
Characteristic
Age
LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS
s
23
• In order to understand the function of a 7.The Setting
language, one way is to look behind the The setting is the social or physical context.
literal, formal meaning of what is said or
written, and to consider what the sender of
a message intends to achieve with it. Macro functions are then established,
• Language has each focusing attention upon one element. Roman
Jakobson has defined six macro functions of
• 1. Macro Function, and language, according to which an effective act of
verbal communication can be described. Each of
• 2. Micro Function the functions has an associated factor.
THE CLASSIFICATION OF MACRO 1.The Emotive Function

FUNCTION The emotive function is defined as
communicating the inner states and emotions of
The macro functions of a language the addresser such as Fantastic! Oh no! Ugh!
were formulated by the linguist ROMAN
JAKOBSON and further developed by DELL 2.The Directive Function
HYMES. In order to understand the macro The directive function is seeking to affect
functions of a language, many linguists have the behaviour of the addressee. For example,
identified elements of communication. However, ‘Please help me’, ‘Shut up’, ‘I’m warning you’
the scheme proceeds by first identifying the
elements of communication, as follows: 3.The Phatic Function
It is opening the channel or checking that it is
1. The Addresser working either for social reasons (‘Hello’, ‘Do you
The addresser is the person who come here often?’, ‘Lovely weather’) or for
originates the message. practical reasons (‘Can you hear me?’, ‘Are you still
there?’)
2. The Addressee
The addressee is the person to whom 4. The Poetic Function
the message is addressed. It is that function in which the
particular form chosen is the essence of the
3.The Channel message.
It is the medium through which the
message travels: sound waves, marks on paper, For example,
telephone wires etc.
The advertising slogan
4. The Message Form
These are the particular grammatical and ‘BEANZ MEANZ HEINZ’ would lose its point if it
lexical choices of the message. were paraphrased as ‘If you are buying beans, you
will naturally buy Heinz’
5.The Topic
The topic is the information carried in the 5. The Referential Function
message. It is carrying information.
6.The Code 6. The Metalinguistic Function

It’s the language or dialect. It is focusing attention upon the
code itself in order to clarify it.
24
7. The Contextual Function 5. Reasoning function
The contextual function is defined as It’s the instrument of thought. Before
creating a particular kind of communication e.g. we say something we think and to do that we
‘Right, let’s start the lecture’ , ‘it’s just a game’. necessarily use language.
Micro Functions of Language 6. Communicating function

This function would probably
be pointed by most language users without major
There are seven
considerations. Requesting, apologizing,
micro functions of language. informing, ordering as well as promising and
refusing are all reasons for communicating our
Physiological Functions ideas.
Curse words are used to serve this
purpose, as they rarely convey any meaning and 7. Pleasure functions
are only to make the speaker feel better e.g. fans of Language often gives pleasure both to
sports the speakers and listeners and is not supported by
the frequent use of assonance, alliteration, and
2. Phatic function onomatopoeia in poetry. Depending on the sounds
The phatic use of language is of language, some are perceived as being mild as
characterized mainly of speech. The use of phrases English.
such as nice day today, or how do you do is
characterized by lack of any informative context
and is intended to link people and make the Functional Analysis
coexistence peaceful and pleasant.
• Language Functions vary according to
For example, the letters begin with Dear Sir, situations, speaker & hearer.
Madam and ends with Yours faithfully serve that
•
purpose.
❑ “The Window is Open.”
3. Recording function
This function denotes using language to ❑ Husband to Wife-in the middle of night----
make a durable record of things that ought to be Expression of Worry
remember. First writing systems developed in
Middle East as 4000 BC. Writing took forms of ❑ Teacher to Student----Order
pictures representing the things they referred to,
then gradually into the alphabets in their present • One Function:-
forms. ❑ Discourse between husband & wife
4. Identifying function
Language is used to identify the
objects and events in the world we live in. We use ❑ The window is open---------Don’t worry
names to classify different types of things whether
we call a car an automobile, a lorry, a van or a (Expression of Anxiety) (Reassurance)
truck makes a big difference.
More than one function:-

25
❑ Sorry, I saw you were home . There’s a cat languages which have been created from scratch
stuck under the gate and because they are not subject to the
normalizing influence of a standard. Classically
Sorry (Apology) pidgins arose during trade between European
I saw you were home (Explanation) countries and those outside of Europe.
There’s a cat stuck under the gate (Request) Code Switching

Types of Meaning:- Moving from one language to another within a
single sentence or phrase. This is a phenomenon
Semantic Meaning:- found among
Fixed & Context free Meaning bilinguals who feel it is appropriate to change
languages (or dialects in some cases) — perhaps
Pragmatic Meaning:- to say something which can only be said in the
Meaning which the words take on in a particular language switched to. Code switching is governed
context ,between particular persons by fairly strict rules concerning the points in a
sentence at which one can change over.
Code Mixing
Short terms
The process of using lexis of other language while
Creole communicating in specific language is called code
Mixing. This phenomenon is used, when the
A term used to describe a pidgin after it has speaker has to clarify some soncept.
become the mother tongue of a certain population.
This development usually implies that the pidgin Dialect
has become more complex grammatically and has
increased its vocabulary in order to deal with the A traditional term referring to a variety of a
entire set of situations in which a native language language
is used. A well known example is Tok Pisin, a spoken in a certain place. There are urban and
creole spoken in Papua New Guinea and which has rural dialects. The boundaries between dialects
official status there. are always gradual. The term dialect is used to
denote a geographically distinct variety of a
PIDGIN language. Two major points in this connection
should be noted:
A language which arises from the need to 1) 'dialect' does not refer to the social or temporal
communicate between two communities. aspect of language and
Historically, and indeed in almost all cases, one of
2) the term 'dialect' makes no reference to the
the communities is socially superior to the other.
standard variety of a language.
The language of the former provides the base on
which the latter then creates the pidgin. A pidgin In connection with the latter point it is important
which has become the mother language of a later to stress that the standard of a language is nothing
generation is termed a Creole. Pidgins are of more than a dialect which achieved special
special interest to the linguist as they are political and social status at some stage in the past
26
and which has been extensively codified Jackobson ‘s Functions of Speech
orthographically.
The six functions of language[edit]
Idiolect 1. The Referential Function

corresponds to the factor of Context and
The language of an individual as opposed to that describes a situation, object or mental
of a state. The descriptive statements of the
group. referential function can consist of both
definite descriptions and deictic words, e.g.
1. Homogeneous Speech Community "The autumn leaves have all fallen now."
Homogeneity and heterogeneity are 2. The Poetic Function
concepts often used in the sciences and focuses on "the message for its own
statistics relating to the uniformity in a sake"[3] (the code itself, and how it is used)
substance or organism. A material or and is the operative function in poetry as
image that is homogeneous is uniform well as slogans.
in composition or character (i.e. color,
3. The Emotive (alternatively called
shape, size, weight, height,
"Expressive" or "Affective") Function
distribution, texture, language, income,
relates to the Addresser (sender) and is
disease, temperature, radioactivity, best exemplified by interjections and other
architectural design, etc.); one that sound changes that do not alter
is heterogeneous is distinctly thedenotative meaning of an utterance but
nonuniform in one of these do add information about the Addresser's
qualities. [1][2] (speaker's) internal state, e.g. "Wow, what
a view!"
2. Heterogeneous Speech 4. The Conative Function

engages the Addressee (receiver) directly
Community : having one and is best illustrated
specific language by vocatives and imperatives, e.g. "Tom!
Come inside and eat!"
5. The Phatic Function
Qualitative Units is language for the sake of interaction and
is therefore associated with the
Age, colour, religeion, family, background Contact/Channel factor. The Phatic
….. Function can be observed in greetings and
casual discussions of the weather,
particularly with strangers. It also
Quantification of Linguistics provides the keys to open, maintain, verify
or close the communication channel:
Units "Hello?", "Ok?", "Hummm", "Bye"...
6. The Metalingual
In linguistics and grammar, a quantifier is a type
(alternatively called
of determiner, such as all, some, many, few, a lot,
"Metalinguistic" or
and no, (but notnumerals)[ that indicates quantity.
"Reflexive") Function is the
Quantification is also used in logic, where it is a use of language (what
formula constructor that produces new formulas Jakobson calls "Code") to
from old ones. Natural languages' determiners discuss or describe itself.
have been argued to correspond to logical
quantifiers at the semantic level.
27
Metalinguistic Code of colonization there was a mixture
Metalinguistics is the branch among people of indigenous, African,
of linguistics that studies language and and European descent, which came to
its relationship to other cultural be understood as Creolization.
behaviors.[citation needed][dubious – discuss] It is Creolization is traditionally used to
the study of dialogue relationships refer to the Caribbean; although not
between units of speech exclusive to the Caribbean it can be
communication as manifestations and further extended to represent
enactments of co-existence.[clarification other diasporas.[2] The mixing of
needed] Jacob L. Meyin his book, Trends in people brought a cultural mixing which
Linguistics,[1] describes Mikhail ultimately led to the formation of new
Bakhtin's interpretation of identities. It is important to emphasize
metalinguistics as "encompassing the that creolization also is the mixing of
life history of a speech community, the "old" and "traditional" with the
with an orientation toward a study of "new" and "modern". Furthermore,
large events in the speech life of people creolization occurs when participants
and embody changes in various actively select cultural elements that
cultures and ages." may become part of or inherited
culture. Robin Cohen states that
Emotive creolization is a condition in which
In linguistics, affect is an attitude or "the formation of new identities and
emotion that a speaker brings to an inherited culture evolve to become
utterance. Affects such as sarcasm, different from those they possessed in
contempt, dismissal, distaste, disgust, the original cultures," and then
disbelief, exasperation, boredom, creatively merge these to create new
anger, joy, respect or disrespect, varieties that supersede the prior
sympathy, pity, gratitude, wonder, forms.[3]
admiration, humility, and awe are
frequently conveyed
through paralinguistic mechanisms
Lingua Franca
such as intonation, facial expression,
and gesture, and thus require recourse A lingua franca /ˌlɪŋɡwə ˈfræŋkə/[1] also known
to punctuation or emoticons when as a bridge language, common language, trade
reduced to writing, but there are language or vehicular language, is a language
grammatical and lexical expressions of or dialect systematically (as opposed to
affect as well, such occasionally, or casually) used to make
as pejorative and approbative or lauda communication possible between people who do
tive expressions or not share a native language or dialect, particularly
inflections, adversative forms, honorifi when it is a third language that is distinct from
c and deferential both native languages.[2]
language, interrogatives and tag Lingua francas have developed around the world
questions, and some types throughout human history, sometimes for
ofevidentiality. commercial reasons (so-called "trade languages")
but also for cultural, religious, diplomatic and
Expressive administrative convenience, and as a means of
exchanging information between scientists and
other scholars of different nationalities. The term
originates with one such language, Mediterranean
Creolization
Lingua Franca.
Creolization is the process in
which Creole cultures emerge in the
New World.[1] As a result
28
Jargon
classical literature of the Greeks and
Romans.
Jargon is a type of language that is used in a
Method
particular context and may not be well understood
outside of it. The context is usually a particular ▪ Use of mother tongue.
occupation (that is, a certain trade, profession, ▪ Vocabulary items are taught in the
or academic field), but any ingroup can have
jargon. The main trait that distinguishes jargon
form of word lists.
from the rest of a language is special vocabulary— ▪ Elaborate explanations of grammar.
including some words specific to it and, often, ▪ Focus on the morphology and syntax.
narrower senses of words that outgroups would
▪ Reading of difficult texts early in the
tend to take in a broader sense. Jargon is thus "the
technical terminology or characteristic idiom of a course.
special activity or group".[1] Most jargon ▪ Practice focuses on exercises
is technical terminology,[2] involving terms of translating sentences or texts from
art[2] or industry terms, with particular meaning
within a specific industry. A main driving force in
mother tongue to the target language
the creation of technical jargon and vice versa.
is precision and efficiency of communication when It is surprising to see that the Grammar
a discussion must easily range from general
Translation Method was still in use in
themes to specific, finely differentiated details
without circumlocution. some classrooms during the late decades
of the 20th century. May be, it’s because
Grammar Translation Method it bears some advantages.
Advantages
BY MOHAMMED RHALMI · APRIL 4, 2009
History ▪ Translation is the easiest and
shortest way of explaining meaning
The Grammar Translation Method is an of words and phrases.
old method which was originally used to ▪ Learners have no difficulties to
teach dead languages which understand the lesson as it is carried
explains why it focuses mainly on the out in the mother tongue.
written form at the expense of the oral ▪ It is a labor-saving method as the
form. It was designed according to teacher carries out everything in the
the faculty psychology approach which mother tongue.
was very popular during the 18th and Criticism
19th century. It contended that ” mental ▪ What the method is good at is
discipline was essential for “teaching about the language” , not
strengthening the powers of the mind”. “teaching the language”.
The way to do this was through learning
29
intensive oral interaction in the target language,
▪ Speaking or any kind of spontaneous
employing questions as a way of presenting and
creative output was missing from the eliciting language. L. Sauveur and other believers
curriculum. in the Natural Method argued that a foreign
language could be taught without translation or
▪ Students lacked an active role in the the use of the learner’s mother tongue if meaning
classroom. was conveyed directly through demonstration and
action. They argued and advised teachers to
▪ Very little attention is paid to encourage direct and spontaneous use of the
communication. foreign language in the class room. They argued
that known words could be used to teach
▪ Very little attention is paid to vocabulary, using mimes, demonstration and
content. pictures. Towards the end of the late 1800s, a
revolution in language teaching philosophy took
▪ Translation is sometimes misleading. place that is seen by many as the dawn of modern
Because of all these disadvantages, foreign language teaching. Teachers, frustrated by
the limits of the Grammar Translation Method in
instructors tried to find better ways to terms of its inability to create communicative
remedy the pitfalls of the grammar competence in students, began to experiment with
new ways of teaching language. Basically, teachers
translation method. The Direct began attempting to teach foreign languages in a
Method was the answer. way that was more similar to first language
acquisition. It incorporated techniques designed to
address all the areas that the Grammar
THE DIRECT METHOD Translation did not namely oral communication,
more spontaneous use of the language, developing
the ability to think in the target language. Perhaps
Definition: in and almost reflexive action, the method also
The Direct method is a moved as far away as possible from various
method of teaching without the intervention of techniques typical of the Grammar Translation
mother tongue. It aims at establishing a direct Method for instance using L1 as the language of
association between experience and expression. instruction, memorizing grammatical rules and
The main emphasis of method is an oral work to lots of translation between L1 and ch target
the exclusion (omission) of grammar and language.
translation. It is, therefore, called the ‘anti-
grammatical’ or the Oral Method. Direct method The appearance of the
involves the principle of proceeding from the "Direct Method" thus coincided with a new school
unknown to the known. of thinking that dictated that all foreign language
teaching should occur in the target language only,
with no translation and an emphasis on linking
Origin/Background: meaning to the language being learned. The
method became very popular during the firs
This method owes its origin to earlier quarter of the 20th century, especially in private
methods like the Natural Method which aimed at language schools in Europe whee highly motivated
teaching foreign languages ‘naturally’ in the students could students new languages and not
manner in which mother tongue is taught. Gouin need to travel far in order to try them out and
had been one of the first of the nineteenth century apply them communicative. One of the most
reformers to attempt to build a methodology famous advocates of the Direct Method was the
around naturalistic principles of language German Charles Berlitz, whose schools and Berlitz
learning. Among those who tried to apply natural Method are now world-renowned.
principles to language classes in the nineteenth
century was L. Sauveur (1826-1907), who used Objectives:
30
from the idea to the English expression and from
1. The basic premise of the Direct Method the expression to the idea.
is theta students will learn to communicate in the He not only speaks fluently but also understands
target language, partly directly what he hears or reads.
by learning how to think in that language and by 3. The method promotes not only the ability to
not involving lll1 in the language learning process speak but also the ability to understand English.
whatsoever. 4. A student who has gained the ability to express
2. Objectives include teaching the students how to himself directly in English without any mental
use the language spontaneously and orally, linking translation of his
meaning with the target language through the use thoughts soon begins to express himself in written
of regalia, pictures or pantomime (Larsen- quite freely. A smooth flow in writing depends
Freeman 1986:24). There is to be a direct upon clear thinking and a command over English.
connection between concepts and the language to 5. It helps critical study because appreciation is
be learned. based on comprehension.
6. Its approach is psychologically sound. Speaking
Features: precedes reading. Aural-oral appeal is far stronger
than the visual.
Richards and Rodgers (1986:9-10) 7. It captures the interest of the pupil by
summarize the key features of the Direct Method illustrating the lessons with pictures and other
thus: audio- visual material.
1. Classroom instruction is conducted exclusively
in the target language.
2. Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are Demerits:
taught.
3. Oral communication skills are built up in a
carefully traded progression organized around This method has also its limitations and
question-and -answer drawbacks. As J.C.Richards and T.S Rodgers
exchanges between teachers and students in small, observe in their book. “Apporaches and Methods
intensive classes. in Language Teaching.” That it overemphasizes
4. Grammar is taught inductively. and distorts the similarities between naturalistic
5. New teaching points are taught through first language learning and classroom foreign
modeling and practice. language learning; and fails to consider the
practical realities of the classroom.
6. Concrete vocabulary is taught through Other weakness are follows:.
demonstration, objects, and pictures; abstract 1. The very name 'Direct Method' is a misnomer. It
vocabulary is taught by association of ideas. is a name wrongly given to this method because
7. Both speech and listening comprehension are there are innumberable words which cannot be
taught. explained without translation. Abstract terms like
8. Correct pronunciation and grammar are 'honesty' and 'beauty' cannot be easily explained
emphasized. in simple terms in English.
2. By emphasizing speech ability it ignores reading
Merits: and writing which are equally important abilities.
3. There is a sizable section of students who learn
1. Direct method helps us to establish a direct more through visual impressions (reading) than
association between an idea and its expression through speaking.
without the mother tongue. The learner gets off to 4. This method does not work smoothly with large
a good start. He begins thinking directly in English. classes. In a class of eighty, each student gets only
He starts expressing himself freely without any half a minute for practice in speaking.
hindrance. 5. Teachers with good pronunciation are quite
2. This method puts a lot of emphasis on the active rare. So, it is dangerous to pollute the
side of learning English. The mother tongue is fountainhead of knowledge.
eliminated, so the mind of the leaner goes straight
31
6. Inductive teaching of grammar is not easily The Study of Language By George
practicable. Because text-books are not available
in our country. Yule
7. Absolute isolation of mother tongue from the
teaching of English is impossible. Mental
translation occurs anyway, however hard we may
Chapter #3
try.
8. Experienced and highly qualified teaching as The sound system
compare to Grammar Translation Method.
9. It is not suitable for under-developing countries
• Phonetics: the study of characteristics
because it is somewhat costly way of teaching.
10. At the early stage, it is the best method, but at of sound
the later stage, other methods are to be used to
Types of Phonetics
teach reading and writing more effectively.
• Articulatory phonetics: How
sounds are produced physically.
Conclusion: • Acoustic phonetics: physical properties
of Sounds.
Still, the Direct Method was not without its
problems. As Brown (1994:56) points out. "(it) did • Auditory Phonetics: how sounds
not take well in public education where the are perceived.
constraints of budget, classroom size, time, and
teacher background made such a method difficult
to use."
By the late 1920s, the method was starting to go • Voiced sounds: when there is vibration
into decline and there was even a return to the in vocal cords.
Grammar Translation Method, which guaranteed • Voiceless sounds: when there is no
more in the way scholastic language learning vibration in vocal cords.
orientated around reading and grammar skills.
But the Direct Method continues to enjoy a Types of sounds with respect to place
popular following in private language school
• Bilabial : active parts are lips
circles, and it was one of the foundations upon
which the well-known "Audio-lingual Method" • Labiodenta: uper teeth and lower lips
expanded from starting half way through the 20th • Dental : teeth
century. • Alveolar : uper teeth ridge and front of
In the end, we can say that it may be used Tongue.
gainfully in its modified form. We should not
ignore other skills as well. The teacher may use • Palatal: hard palate and tongue
mother tongue where it is difficult to make the • Velar sounds : soft palate and back of the
meanings of words and phrases clear by sketch or tongue
gesture. Occasional translation is also use full in • Glottal: lyrynx
our classrooms.
• Manners of articulation
• Stops: complete blocking of air stream
• Fricatives: block of air stream and a little
opening
• Affricatives: combine stop and combine
releasing
• Nasal: nasal cavity
32
• Liquid/ lateral: air from the sides of • Syllable : A vowel containing sound
tongue which is produced with single chest pulse.
• Glides: semi vowels, tongue in motion ▪ The consonant before
• Glottal stops and flaps: complete vowel is called onset, vowel
closure and realese is called nucleolus and the
• Vowels sounds followed consonant is
called coda.
• Sounds which are produced with free air
▪ Nucleus and coda is called
flow. All the vowels are voiced.
rythem.
• Front :
▪ The syllable with no “coda”
• Central: is called open syllable and
• Back: syllable with no onset is
• High: called “closed syllable”.
• Mid: • Consonant cluster: the possible pattern in
• Low: a syllable is called consonant cluster.
CV,CVC,VCC etc.
• Assimilation : when two segment of
sound occurs in a sequence and the some
• Short vowels:
aspects of one segment is taken or copied
• Long vowels:
by other, the process is called Assimilation.
• Dipthongs: the sounds which are sonsist of
V—f
two vowels, one glide to other but one
▪ I have to-----------I haf to
sound.
• Elision : the process of not
pronouncing a sound segment that might
be present in the deliberately careful
pronounciation of a word in isolation,
Ch#4 Sound pattern of ▪ We asked him----
language /wiəstəm/
• Phonology: description of system and

Chapter # 5 word formation
study of human speech sounds.
• Phoneme : smallest unit of sound in a • Neologism: study of new words
language e.g. /m/,/b/, etc. • Etymology: study of history and origin
• Phones : physically produced speech of words.
sounds, representing one version of ▪ [Latin words,
phonem. [t], /tar/, /star? Etymon(original form),
• Allophone: one of closely related set of Logia (study)]
speech sounds. • Coinage: least common process of
• Morph: an actual form used as part word formation e.g. Trade names, aspirine,
of a word representing one version of a nylon etc.
morpheme. • Eponyms: new word based on the
• Minimal pair: when two words name of a person or place e.g. jeans(Italian
with same patterns occur and have only city of Genoa)
one different phoneme---bat,cat etc. • Word formation: borrowing,
compounding, blending, clipping,
33
backformation, conversion, acronyms, ▪ Derivational : class
derivation(affixes) changing, brave+ly---
• Borrowing : new word from other bravely
language (sofa-Arabic) • Stem: the root word is called stem.
• Compounding : making a word by Bravely----Brave (root)
joing tow separate words, class +
room=classroom Chapter #6 Morphology
• Blending : combination of two forms
by taking the parts from mother words. • Study of forms of grammatical units ,their
Motel(motor+ hotel), meanings, structure and function.
▪ Telecast (television+ • Morpheme: minimal unit of grammar,
broadcast) having specific meaning. Reopened(
• Clipping: shortening the syllable. re+open+ed) three morphemes. These are
Ad(advertisement), Cab( Cabriolet) two types: a. free morphemes b. bound
• Hypocorism: a type of reduction in morphemes
British and Australian English Movie( • Free morphemes: stand themselves as
Moving picture) single and word. These are of two types
▪ A longer word is reduced to • lexical: which carry
a single syllable then “y” or the content of
“ie” is added at the end. meassage (nouns,
Telly(Television) verbs, adjective)
• Backformation: reducing a word • functional: closed
(typically a noun) to make a new word class of words(
(verb). Donate (Donation), Televise preposition,
(Television) pronoun,
• Conversion: changing of function of a articles,conjunction
verb without reduction. Take over --- s)
takeover, bottle, water etc. • Bound morphemes: Lexical Morphemes
• Acronyms: new word formation by which cannot stand alone and need to
initiatl words. CD (Compact Disk) attach with other morphemes. E.g. -re, -ist,
• Affixes(Derivation): By adding a syllable -s etc,
before or end of the word. Mis+ • Morphs: an actual form of word
understand= misunderstand representing one version of a morphemes.
▪ Infix: change within word Good---good+s(two morphs)
(man---men) • Allomorph: one of the close related set
▪ Prefix: addition before root of morphs( s, es), (d,ed)
word( un+ pleasant=
unpleasant
▪ Suffix: addition at the end
Chapter #7 Grammar
of the word( heart+less=
• The study of structure of phrases and
heartless), it is of two
sentence, their rules and
types.
functions(grammatical and
▪ Inflexational : class
ungrammatical)
maintaining, boy +s---boys
34
• Traditional grammar: the ▪ The boy cut the rope with
prescriptive and ancient type of grammar , razor and he drew the
and study of its constituents as in Latin picture with a crayon.
and Greek. This is based on the parts of ▪ Crayon , an old
speech. Noun, pronoun, verb, adjectives razor(instrument), the boy
etc. (experience)
• Agreement: the relationship of words • Location : where an entity is in the
whom they qualify. I love Catherin.----( description of an event;(in the room )
love ---Catherine) • Source: where from an entity
• Transformational generative Grammar: moves.
the phrase structure in formation • Goal: where an entity moves. He drove
of sentence. from Chicago(source) to New York( goal).
• Deep Structure: • Lexical relation: the words can show
• Surface Structure: or contains on through their lexical
relationship.
Chapter # 8 syntax • Synonymy: two or more words with
closely meanings: buy/purchase
• The study of sentence structure and • Antonyms: two forms with opposite
function. meanings. fast/slow
• Structure ambiguity: • Gradable (direct): opposite along
• Tree diagram: scale. Big/small
• Non gradable (indirect, complimentary):
• Symbols and Syntactic analysis:
married/unmarried
• Phrase Structure Rules:
• Reversive: raise/fall, pack/unpack
• Lexical Rule: • Hyponymy: when a meaning of a form
• Movement Rule: included to other. Carrot/vegetable
• Compliment Phrase: ▪ Animal/dog, dog/poodle
▪ Subordinate (high levels)
Chapter # 9 semantics animal( horse)----
insect(cockroach)
• The study of meanings. ▪ Animal and insect are
• Semantic role(thematic roles): role subordinate.
of words to illustrate the meanings. a. ▪ Co- hyponyms :
simple b. complex animal(dog---horse), dog
• Agent and theme : the performer of and horse are cohyponyms.
action is agent and the action is called • Prototypes: characteristics of one
theme. object of other( animal---dog—horse---
▪ The boy(agent) kicked the cow)
ball(theme). • Homophones: different written form but
• Instrument and experience: if an agent same pronunciation. Bare/bear,
use an entity to perform an action, that is meat/meet.
called instrument. If a noun phrase is used • Homonyms: when one word have same
to designate an entity as the person who or different meanings. bank (of river),
has a feeling, perception or state, it fills the Bank( money saving place)
role of experience.
35
• Polysemy : one form having multiple • Politeness: showing awareness and
meanings. head( head of state, head of consideration of another person‘s face. It is
team.) of two types;
• Metonymy : different forms for a • Negative face: need to be independent
concepts. King/crown, house/roof and free from imposition
• Collocation: other concept with in • Positive face: need to be connected and
concept. Table—chair belonging to the member of group.
Chapter #10 Pragmatics Chapter #11 Discourse

Analysis
• The study of meaning behind the text.
• Context: the set of words used in the • The study of language in text and
same phrase or sentence. conversations.
• Deixis: (Greek word: pointing via • Cohesion: the arrangement of text in a
language). It is of three types sentence
▪ Personal: him, them, ▪ (Textual meaning and
those etc. function)
▪ Spatial (location): here, • Coherence: the sense in the people.
there, near that etc. ▪ (Cultural meanings)
▪ Temporal (time):
• Turn-Taking: the way in which a speaker
now, then, last
takes a turn.
week etc.
• The Cooperative principles: Grice ‘s
• Reference: an act which a speaker
maxims; make your conversational
/writer uses language to enable a listener
contribution such as is required, at the
to identify something.
stage which is occurs by the accepted
• Inference: additional information purpose or direction of talk exchange in
used by listener to create a connection which you are engaged.
between what is said and what must be
• Maxim of quality: as required
meant.
• Maxim of quality: accurate and authentic
• Anaphora: use of pronouns (it) and
• Maxim of relation: relevant
noun phrases with the objects to refer
• Maxim of manner: brief, orderly and
back something already mentioned.
clear
• Presupposition: an assumption by a
• Hudges: lacking of surety about
speaker or writer about what is true or
uttered phrases or sentences.
already known by the listener/reader.
• Implicature: an additional meanings
• Speech acts: expressions; a type of
conveyed by a speaker adhering to the
action performed by a speaker with the
cooperative principle.
utterance, requesting, commanding,
• Background information: information
questioning, or informing. It is of two
that is not in text, but is used from memory
types:
by a reader to understand the text.
• Direct: Questions (sentence start with
• Schema: conversational knowledge
helping verb)
exist in memory (fixed)
• Indirect: normal sentence
• Script: series of conversational
actions that take place.
36
by speaker for specific purpose where
Chapter # 12: Language verbal language cannot be used.
And Brain ▪ b.Primary Sign language:
language of firstly people
Broca ‘s Aarea: who do not have verbal
Language. BSL( British Sign
Wernick ‘s Area:
language), FSL( French sign
The motor Cortex and the arcuate fasciculus: language)
▪ these signs were used as
The localization view: popular beliefs.
• Oralism: the method to teach kids
Aphasia:
the language as early stage.
Broca ‘s Aphasia: • Signed English( Manually Coded
English): Emphasis on written rather
Wernicke ‘s Aphasia: spoken English learning.
Conduction Aphasia : • Location: shape and orientation of
hands( place of articulation)
Diochotic Listening: • Movement: shaped Gestures and its
presentation
The critical period:
• Primes: the sets of features
that form contrasting elements within the
Chapter #13 First Language articulatory parameters of ASL.
Acquisition • Finger Spelling: Alphabetical
representation by hands.
Chapter #14 second language

acquisition
Chapter # 16 Writing
Chapter # 15 Gestures and
• Symbolic representation of language.
Sign Language • Pictogram: a way of writing in which a
picture/ drawing of one object is used to
• Use of non-verbal expressions
represent the object.
• Embles: signals through
• Ideograms: a way of writing in which
parts of body
symbols represent some concepts.
• Logograms: a way of writing in which
each symbol represent a word.
• Types of gestures: a. Iconics: the • Rebus Writing: a way of writing in
gesture which are reflection of verbal which a pictorial representation of an
saying. object is used to indicate the sound of the
• b.Decitics: word for that object.
gestures of pointing • Subject writing: a way of wrinting in
• types of sign language: a. which each each symbol represent a
Alternative Sign language: signals used syllable.
37
• Alphabetic: a way of writing in which • Diglossia: a situation where “high
each symbol represent a specific sound or variety” of a language is used in formal
phoneme. situation and “low variety” for informal.
• English arthograph: the orthography of • Language planning: the process and
english allows for a variation, how each procedure adopted by government or
sound is represented. organizationsto acquire/learn a language.
• Diagraph: combination of two letters • Pidgen: a variety of
representing a single sound. Ph /f/ language of two different language learned
persons for mutual communication.
• Creole: when pidgen becomes first
• Chapter # 17 language History and language of community, it becomes creol
and the process is called creolization.
Change
• Decreolization: The standard but
• Family of Englis: Indo-
distintive to mother creole.
European---Geranic---English
• Decreole Continuam: the range of
• Cognats: words in different
varieties that evolves in communities
languages having similar form and
where creole is spoken, usually as result of
meaning.
creolization.
Chapter #18 Language and Chapter 19. language and

Regional variation social vavriations:
• Standard Language: a variety of
Sociolinguistics: the study of language in
language treated as the official language
social context.
used in public broadcasting, publication
and education. Social variables:
• Accent: aspects of
pronounciation that identify where the Linguistics variables:
speaker is from.
Social Markers:
• Dialect: a variety of
language which is distintive in Speech style:
pronounciation, lexis and grammar.
Speech shifting:
• Dialectology: the study of dialects
• Isoglosses: a line on map separating Prestige:
two areas in which a particular linguistics
features dialects are used. Cover prestige:
• Dialect continuam: the gradual
Over prestige:
merging of one regional variety of a
language into an other. Speech accomodation:
• Bilingualism: the stat of two languages. A
persona who knows two languages with Register:
same proficiency is called bilingual. Jargon:
Slang Language:
38
African-American English: o Comparative linguistics has suggested that
certain basic words in a language do not
Vernacular language: change over the time. These words are
termed as Cultural Free.
Chapter #20 language and o During the 19th century European
linguistics focused on the philology.
Culture o Structuralism began with publication of
Linguistics Realtivity: the work of Swiss Linguistics Ferdinand De
Saussure.
Linguistics determinism: o In 1926, Czech linguist Vilem Mathesius
founded the linguistics circle of Prague.
The Sapir-Whorth Hypothesis: o Like the Russian formalists, member of the
Classifiers: Prague School were keenly concerned with
literature.
Addresss Terms: o The London school of harry Sweet and
David Jones stressed the practical side of
Social gender: phonetics.
o J.R Firth and others at the school of
Orientals and African Studies helped to
Linguistics,Psycholinguistics and plan the national Languages.
Socio-linguiatics o The 1957publication of Syntactic Structure
o Linguistics is usually defined as the by American linguist Avaram Noam
scientific study of language. Chomsky brought revolution in linguistics.
o Linguistics is concerns with the o In the recent linguistic, development, the
relationships between languages and with new approach is that of Brain Physiology.
the ways language change over the time. o Language is a phenomenon which is both
o By the 3rd B.C Ancient Greek philosophers objective and variable.
had begun grouping words into parts of o Language phenomenon with other
speech. languages is objective because it is
o 400 B.C produced the earliest work observed with the senses.
describing the rules of Sanskrit. o Linguistics is both an empirical and a
o Priscian (6th C) produced the detailed Latin social science.
Grammars. o Before the 20th century, the study of
o During the 17th and 18th centuries, modern language was not regarded as a separate
languages such as French and English, area of study in its own right.
replaced Latin as the means of universal o Intra-disciplinary branches of linguistics
communication in the West. are purely linguistics.
o In 1786, Sir William Jones, a British o Descriptive linguistics is the extension of
scholar, asserted that Sanskrit, Greek and historical linguistics.
Latin were related to one another and had o Theoretical linguistics deals with the
depended from common source. theories presented by different linguists
o The correspondences among languages, and with developing valid rules and
known as genetic relationships came to be generalization about all languages systems.
presented on what comparative linguistics o When the focus is on the differences and
refer to as family tree. similarities between languages, the subject
is referred to as comparative linguistics.
39
o General linguistics is the universal o All over the world, children have been seen
properties of the language. to show similar stages in their language
o General linguistics includes the theoretical, acquisition process.
descriptive and comparative linguistics. o Chomsky says, “competence is the native
o Theoretical linguistics is the branch of speaker‘s knowledge of his language.”
linguistics which deals with the developing o Performance is the actual production of
models of knowledge. the actual sentences, used in real life
o Historical linguistics also called the situation.
diachronic linguistics, deals with the o Substance is the elements or the raw
language change. material of language such as phoneme,
o Comparative linguistics is the branch of morpheme or grapheme.
historical linguistics that is concerned with o The term Synchronic and Diachronic is
comparing languages in order to establish given by Saussure.
their historical relatedness. o Diachronic description traces the historical
o Sociolinguistics is the study of language in development of a language.
its social contexts and study of social life o Saussure says, “A sign is physical marker
through linguistics. which carries some information.”
o Sociolinguistics is the distinctive branch of o A sound image is called Signifier.
linguistics since 1960s. o In Britain, over 100 minority languages are
o Sociolinguistics is the study of language in routine use.
variation and change how varieties of o A collection of linguistics data; either
language are formed when speaker written texts or transcription of recorded
belongs to a different geographical region, speech, which can be used as a starting
social class, social situation and point to verify hypothesis is called Corpus.
occupation. o Glossogentics is used in linguistics to refer
o Dialect is a geographical based language to the study of the origins and
variety with distinctive syntactic form and development of language, both in the child
vocabulary. and in the human race.
o An accent is concerned solely with o The term language was first time was used
auditory effects. by Saussure.
o Labov reasoned if the speech of the young o Psycholinguistics is the branch of
people within particular social group is linguistics which combines the disciplines
different from that of old people in the of psychology and linguistics.
same group then it is very likely that o Psycholinguistics is interdisciplinary and is
language change is taken place. studied by people in a variety of fields.
o A pidgin is a variety of language which is o Psycholinguistics as a separate branch of
developed for some practical reasons. study emerged in the late 1950s and a960s
o Creole refers to the pidgin language which as a result of Chomskyan revolution.
has become the mother tongue of speech o Skinner puts forth the point of view that
community. language is behavior shaped by
o Variety of language according to its use is conditioned responses.
called register. o Chomsky ‘s review of Skinner ‘s book
o It has been observed that normal children Verbal Behaviour in 1959 is refuting the
have mastered their language structure by behaviouristic theory.
the age of 5. o Left hemisphere controls the ride side and
is dominant in analytical reasoning,
40
temporal odering, arithmetic and language o Dionysius Thrax, in 2nd century B.C ,
processing. Speaking language is under its produced the systematic Grammar of
controle. Western Tradation, it dealt only with
o Right hemisphere controls the left side of morphology.
the body and processing music, percieving o Linguistics approach is diachronic.
nonlinguistic sound, visual and spatial o Traditional grammar is the prescriptive
skills and pattern recognised. grammar.
o Specialization of the brain hepishpheres o Animal communication is the transmission
for different cognative functions is called of a signal from one animal to another.
Lateralization. o The study of animal communication is
o Language is controlled by the left called Zoosemiotics.
hemisphere. o The study of human communication,
o The word is heard and composed via sometimes called anthroposemiotics.
Wernike ‘s area. o American linguist Charles F. Hocket
o In Broca area where preparation are made employes the notion in 1960.
to production of speech. o For the purpose of comparision, Hocket
o Applied linguistics is the interdisciplinary employs the notion of the design features.
field of study that identifies , investigates o It is property of displacement which allows
and offers solutions to language-related the human to create fiction and describe
real life problems. the future words.
o As early as the 1970s , applied linguistics o The human language consist on two sub
became a problem driven filed rather than systems; sound and meanings.
theoretical linguistics. o Unlike animal, man has ability to lie, it is
o By the 1990s, applied linguistics has called prevarication.
broadened including critical studies of o Animal communication system is limited
multilingualism. to food, alarms, territorial claims,
o In UK the first schol of applied linguistics is recognition and greeting and reproduction
thought to have opened in 1957, at the etc.
university of Edinburgh. o Human are capable of using complex,
o Two major schols of linguistics are structured languages that have their own
Structuralist and the Functionalist school. set of grammatical, syntactical and
o Ferdinand De Sassure, leonard Bloomfield phonological rules.
belonged to structuralist school. o Chomsky believes that no non-human
o M.A. K Halliday , John Searl belonged to communication cen ever posses grammar,
functionalist school. or a sytem of grammar, and therefore
o Proper and formal study of linguistics cannot be considered a language.
started in 18th century. o MacPhail believses that animals do not
o Language is used to identify the objects have a specific mechanism in their brain
and events in the world we live in. that is responible for natural language
o Linguistics can be divided into five major acquisition.
components. o The signs of animal sytems are inborn.
o Traditional grammar is usually meant by o Signs have often multiple functions; one
the grammars written by classical Greek meaning can be expressed in many ways.
Scholars. o A refrence to linguistics in which the main
o Traditional grammar is based on Indo- aim is to list and classify features and
European classical language. phenomena is callled taxonomic.
41
o The notion that thought is determinde by o Stem is the changed form assumed by the
language is called Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. root when a suffix is added to it.
o Linguistic determinism refers to the view, o A form to which a rule of word-formation
propounded by Edwar Sapir and Benjamin is applied is called root/base/stem.
that language determine the way in which o All affixes are bound morphemes.
people think. o Derivational morphems are may be class
o When a person can speak two languages maintaining and class changing.
with a same competence is called bilingual. o Word formation process by which a new
o The set of forms belonging to a particuilar words are formed by combining two or
word-class or member of a word-class is more independent word is called
called paradigm. compounding.
o The way ,we actually speak is called o Abbreviations formed by taking the intitial
linguistics performance. sounds (leeters) of the words of phrase
o Historical linguistics is the study of and uniting them to form a prouncable
language change. word is called acronyms.
o Regional dialects have regional meanings. o A process of creating a new word by
combining the parts of two different
Levels of Linguistics words, usually the beginning of one word
o Levels of linguistics are phonetics, and the ending of another is called
phonology, morphology, syntax and blending.
semantics. o A process involving the shortening of the
o Morpheme is the smallest unit of long word by dropping some parts of it
grammatical structure. without changing the meaning of the word
o There are two kinds of morphemes. is called clipping.
o Bound morphemes are divided into two o Sentence formation is called syntax.
types. o The basic unic of syntax is not the word
o A prefix is a letter or group of letters added but the syntactic item.
to the beginning of a word to make a new o Syntactic classes of words are traditionally
word. called the parts of speech.
o Suffix is a letter or group of letters added o The major division, that can be made
to the end of a wordto make another word. within a construction are known as
o Inflextional morphems make minor immediate constituents.
grammatical changes necessary for o The irreducible element(morphems) are
agreement with other words. known as immediate constituents.
o Derivational morphemes create new o Semantics is the study of the meanings in
words. language.
o Lexical morphemes carry the substance of o Denotative meanings often based on the
the message. dictionary definations.
o Functional morphemes are also called the o The same lexical item has different
grammatical/close morphemes. meaning is called polysemy.
o Bound morphemes cannot normally stand o Homonymy reffers to cases where two or
alone. more different lexems have the same
o A new word in the vocabulary of a shape.
language is called neologism. o Homography is the phenomenon of two or
more words having same spellings but
different prounciation.
42
o A sense relation which describes a part- o Speech act theory was propounded by
whole relationship is called meronymy. Austin in 1955.
o The way the message is used to achieve o A term locutionary is used in the theory of
such purposes in ordinary speech situation speech acts to refer to an act which is
is called discourse. performed by the speaker by virtue of
o Pragmatics refer to linguistics analysis of utterance having been made.
naturally occuring conneted spoken or o A term perlocutionary is used in the theory
written speech. of speech acts to refer to an actwhich is
o Cohesion is the formal link between the performed when an utterance achieves a
sentences and clauses. particular effect on the behaviour, belief
o Meaning unity is called coherence. and feelings etc, of listeener.
o Discourse analysis is a primirily linguistic o A non-distinctive variant of morpheme is
study eximining the use of language by its called allomorph.
native population whose major concern is o Any item of language which can not be
investigating language functions along broken down any further without a loss of
with its forms,produced both orally and in meaning is called morph.
writing. o Any unit which is part of a large one is
o The study of intended meaning is called called constituent.
pragmatics. o The insertion of one syntactic phrase or
o Both semantics and pragmatics is unit within another is called embedding.
concerned with aspects of meaning in o Any information which is taken for granted
language. in a discourse situation is called
o Pragmatics is concerned with how people presupposition.
use language within a context, in real-life o A sense relation which exist between
situation. words which are written the same,
o The intent meaning and the sentence through the pronounciation may be
meanings are not always same. different is called homograph.
o Pragmatics have five elements. o Any set of words which share their form
o No utterance is context free in terms of but have different meanings is called
meaning and function. homograph.
o Pointing via language is called dexis. o The semantic relationship which hold
o Implicature is the process through which between words as opposed to those which
speakers include meaning beyond the hold between words and the outside word
literal message in an utterance . is called sense relation.
o People co-operate in process of o A morpheme which is added inside a root
communication in order to reduce morpheme in the formation of a new word
misunderstanding is called co-operative is called infix.
principle. o The meaningful units of language are
o A number of su-priciples or maxims were called morphemes.
given by Grice. o The dentation of word is dictionary
o Maxims are different from rules because meanings.
rules are not violated by people, while o A discourse is a series of connected
maxims are deliberately violated by the utterances such as conversation, story or
people. any communicative event.
o Violating a maxim is called flout rules. o The study of how language is used in
context is called pragmatics.
43
o Words which forms the sub-class of o A glide is an approximant in which the
another words are called hyponyms. tongue and lips move during the
production of sounds.
Phonetics And Phonology o A phone produced by closing or partially
o Part of human anatomy which are used in closing the vocal cords is called fricative.
speech production are called organs of o A nasal is a phone made by allowing the air
speech. to flow out of the nose while possibly
o For the production of speech sounds ,there stopping it in the mouth.
must be some disturbance in the air. o A phone produced when the top of the
o Speech according to one view, is only the tongue touches the hard palate,is called
secondary functions of the organs of palatal sounds.
speech. o A sound which is produced by blocking the
o The respiratory system comprises the complete airstream is called plosive/stops.
lungs, muscles of the chest and the o A phone produced when the top of the
Trachea. tongue touches the soft palate or velum is
o The respiratory system provides an called velar sounds.
airstreams that act as a source of energy. o When the vocal cords are held closely
o English and all other European languages , together, the air from the lungs can escape
as also all Indian languages except Sindhi, only by setting them into vibration, such
use only the pulmonic eggressive vibration produce voiced sounds.
airstream mechanism. o The lip position is an important factor in
o The airstream released by the lungs the production of vowel.
undergoes several modifications; the first o Many vowel sounds are produced at the
is effected in the Trachea. teeth ridge.
o The upper part of the trachea is a o The soft portion of the roof is called velum.
structure, called the larynx. o Phonology is the branch of linguistics
o Front part is prominent in the neck, and is which deals with the sounds of a language.
commonly known as Adam‘s apple. o Phonwtics is the study of sounds, their
o An affricative is a phone which can be production, transmission and reception.
thought of as a very rapid, blended o Segmental phonology analysis speech into
sequence of a stop and fricative. segments such as, phones.
o A phone produced when the tongue o A reference to phenomena which do not
touches the tooth ridge behind the teeth is belong to the sound segments of language
called alveolar. but which typically are spread over several
o An affricative is a phone, in which the segments e.g. intonation, stress, tempo etc
tongue partly closes the airway, but not is called suprasegmental phonology.
enough to cause a fricative. They can be o Any human sound which has not been
divided into liquids and glides. classified in the phonology of a language is
o A phone produced when the tongue called phones.
touches the teeth is called dental. o The phoneme is the minimal unit of
o If during the production of phone, air is distinctive sound features.
made to pass through a narrow passage, a o Phonetics varities of phonemes are called
fricative sound is produced. allophone.
o Syllable is a sound or group of sound
produced by a single chest pulse and
containing a vowel.
44
o Rhythm refers to the degree of force use in o The part of the sound system of a language
peoducing syllable or words. which involves the use of pitch to convey
o Rise and the fall of the pitch of voice in information is called intonation.
speaking is called intonation. o Any two words which are only
o Stress is the regular repetition of some distinguished by different sounds in a
kind of pattern, some part of which are single position is called minimal pair.
stressed and some parts are unstressed. o The study of phonemes in language, their
o One three standard division of phonetics distribution, status and interrelationships
which concerns itself with the production is called phonemic.
of sounds is called articulatory phonetics. o The point in the vocal tract at which a
o One of the three standard divisions of the sound is produced is called place of
phonetics which is concerned with the articulation.
perception of sounds is called auditory o A term which refers to all supra-segmental
phonetics. properties of language such as pitch,
o In English there is no on-to-one loudness, tempo and rhythm is called
correspondence between spelling and intonation.
sounds. o The standard pronunciation of British
o The idea of establishing phonetic Alphabet English is called Received Pronunciation.
was first proposed by Otto Jesperson in o RP stems originally from the speech of the
1886. middle and upper class in London.
o An IPA is a set of symbols which can be o The term RP was coined by the English
used to represent the phones and phonetician Daniel Jones.
phonemes of natural languages. o A sound which is pronounced with clear,
o A system of representing sounds in writing hissing friction is called sibilant.
unambiguously is called transcription. o Particularly in rapid speechthere is a
o The IPA helps us in establishing tendency for neighboring phones to
international intelligibility and uniformity become more similar, presumably to make
in the pronounciation of English or to pronounciation easier is called
write any language of the world. assimilation.
o Vowels are the speech sounds which are o “Linking” or “Joining together” is what ,
produced with the no obstruction on the this is French word refers to liaison.
oral cavity. o Some of the sounds that are heard if words
o A system of 8 rounded and 8 unrounded are pronounced slowly and clearly appear
vowels are called cardinal system. not be pronounced when the same words
o Cardinal vowels were originally developed are produced a rapid is called elision.
by the English Phonetician Daniel Jones. o The first language phonological system
o If the vocal cards vibrate, the phonemes often interferences while learning the
produced as such as voiced sounds. second language.
o A diphthong is a basically a glide from one o The shape of the oral cavity in the
vowel to another and the whole glides acts production of vowels is affected by the
like one of the long and simple vowel. height and advancement of the tongue.
o Among twenty vowels, twelve are called o Sounds that are not stopped are called
monothongs. voiceless.
o Any set of words pronounced in the same o The basic lexical relation between the
way is called homophone. following pais of word “daffodil/flower” is
that of hyponymy.
45
Linguistics (Honey Books) ▪ When two or more dialects of language are
➢ Scientific study of language is in regular use in a community is called
Linguistics
➢ Diachronic lingistics Diglossia
Development of language through ▪ The study of interelationship of
history psychology and libguistics is called
➢ Sychronic linguistics
Language use in given Psycholinguistics
community in given time
➢ Comparative linguistics concern with Semantics
▪ The study of meaning and its manifestation
The comparision two or more different is called
languages Semantics
➢ Linguistics has ▪ The semantics category with one sense to
5 levels several names is called
➢ The word linguistics have derived from
Latin word Synonymy
➢ Linguistics is a ▪ Two terms with opposite meaning is called
Science
➢ General linguistics is divided into Antonymy
3 subdivisions ▪ When meaning of one form is included in
the meaning of another ,the relationship is
Sociolinguistics called
▪ Sociolinguistics deals with Hyponymy

How language is used in society ▪ The study of varieties of language whose
▪ Dialect properties position that language in
A variety of language distinctive in context is called
pronounciation,vocabulary and grammar Stylistics
▪ Sociolect is a variety of language spoken by ▪ The association of a lexical item with other
the items is called
A particular group of people in a
Collocation
community
▪ Any information which is taken for granted
▪ Register is a
in a discourse situation is called
Style level in language Presupposition

▪ A semantic relationship which obtain
Isoglass between words as opposed to those which
A line indicating the degree of change hold between words and outside the
▪ Pidgin words are called
A mixture of elements from from different Sense relation
natural languages
Morphology
46
▪ Morphology is the study of Articulatory phonetics
▪ -------------deals with the study of sounds
Grammar of words
▪ The mormpheme is the__grammatical unit.
Auditory
▪ A sound which is produced by stopping or
Minimal partial stoppage of air is called
▪ Morpheme which can occur alone are
called Consonants
▪ A voiced sound in the production of which
Free morphemes there is no obstruction
▪ The grammatical code which ties together
the phonologicalsytems is called Vowel
morphonemics ▪ Junture , stress and pitch are called
Suprasegmental features
Pragmatics
Phonetics ▪ Pragmatics is the study of _____meaning
▪ Phonetics is the study of
Characteristics of speech sounds Invisible

▪ The study of phonetics can be divided into ▪ Any utterance where,there is a
pdiscrepency between literal and and
Three types intended meaning is called
▪ There are ___short vowels in English Indirect speech act
7 ▪ Any term which serves to indicate an
▪ The number of long wovels In English is amount such as all,some few or the
5 numerals in a language is called
▪ Rise and the fall of the pitch of the voice in
speaking is called Quantifier
Intonation
▪ The phoneme is the ______ unit of speech Syntax
which distinguishes one unit from an ▪ Syntax has been derived from
other. Greek
Smallest ▪ Syntax is
▪ The words which are pronounced alike but the grammatical structure of sentence
have different spelling, meaning and ▪ A word class which encompasses those
origins are called elements which qualify verb, adjectives is
Homophones called
Adverb
Phonology ▪ A syntactic unit which is smaller than
sentence is called
▪ The branch of phonetics which deals with
the production of speech sounds is called Clause
▪ A type of sentence which which makes a
positive statement rather than negative a
47
statement or asking a question is called ▪ When a language or dialect is stigmatized,
this suggests which of the following
statements about the people that speak
Declarative this language or dialect? -------- They are
▪ A word which does not carry any meaning stigmatized in this society.
of its own but which frequently plays a ▪ Phonemics refers to the study of
role in a grammatical category or syntactic significant sound contrast of a given
relationship is called language.
Empty word ▪ Syntax refers to the arrangement of words
in phrase and sentences.
▪ The idea, that all languages have a
Grammar common structural basis because the
▪ Partial similarity between two things that human brain contains a limited set of rules
are compared is called for organizing language is Noam
Chomsky‘s position on language.
Anology ▪ The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis states that the
▪ In grammar the unaltererable core of word grammatical categories of different
to which all suffixes are aded is called languages lead their speakers to think
about things in particular way.
Root
▪ The study of structure of lexicon is called ▪ Berlin and Kay‘s study ,in which they
determined that there are ten basic colour
terms that appear in languages in a
Lexiology consistent order, is an example of ethno
▪ Any group of words which makes sense semantics.
but not complete is called ▪ The use of falsetto voice by voman in japan
Phrase is an example of style shift.
▪ A gerund is that form of verb which ends in ▪ According to the principle of linguistic
ing and has the force of relativity, all dialects are equally effective
as system of communication.
Noun and verb ▪ Languages that have descended from the
▪ Mood is the mode or manner in which the same language are called daughter
action denoted by ______is represented. languages.
▪ Japanese add the suffix –san to name to
demonstrate respect for that person. This
Verb
is an example of an honorific.
▪ There are ________moods in English
▪ Culture is defined as the totally of learned,
language.
socially transmitted customs, knowledge,
3
material object and behavior.
▪ People need for food, shelter and clothing
Sociolinguistics- Psycholinguistics are example of what Murdock reffered to
▪ When the chimpanzee, Washoe, combined as cultural universals.
the signs for “water” and “bird” to denote a ▪ The process of introducing a new idea or
swan, he saw, she was displaying object to culture is known as innovation.
productivity. ▪ The term used by sociologist to refer to the
process by which cultural items spreads
48
from group to group or society to society is ▪ Evaluating the practices of other cultures
diffusion. on the basis of our own perspective is
▪ The terms introduced by William Ogburn reffered as ethnocentricism.
to refer to the period of maladjustment ▪ Multilingual speakers outnumber
when the non material culture is still monolingual speakers in the world‘s
adapting to new material condition is population.
culture lag. ▪ Multilingualism is becoming a social
▪ Sapir-Whorf hypothesis-----------language phenomenon governed by the needs of
proceeds thought. globalization and cultural openness.
▪ The statement, “respect you elders”--------- ▪ A multilingual person, in a broad
norms definition, is a person who can
▪ Health, love and democracy are the communicate in more than one language.
examples of values. ▪ A multilingual person is generally
▪ Functionalists’ theory maintains that polyglot(Greek word----poly(many),
stability requires a consensus and the glot(language)
support of society’s members. ▪ Multilingual people are multi competent.---
▪ Culture became popular in sociology in the -cook
US beginning in the 1950s. ----functionalist ▪ Monolingualism is the characteristics of
theory. the minority of the people.
▪ A common culture serves to maintain the ▪ According to figures cited in Stavenhagen
previleges of certain groups---------conflict (1990) for example, five to eight thousand
perspective. different ethnic groups reside in
▪ The set of beliefs and practices that help to approximately 160 nations states.
maintain powerful social, economic and ▪ More scholars states that there are 5000
political interests.--------------dominant distinct languages are spoken in the world.
theory. ▪ Frame semantics is the theory which
▪ An American touring from different parts relates linguistic semantics to
of china wants local meater for dinner, but encyclopedia knowledge, developed by
is shocked to learn that the speciality in Charles J.Fillmore and is further
one restaurant is dog meat. This illustrate - development of this case grammar.
--culture shock ▪ The basic idea is that one can not
▪ Terrorists groups are example of understand the meaning of a single word
countercultures. without access to all the essential
▪ Anyone who feels disoriented, uncertain, knowledge that relates to that word.
out of place even fearful, when immerced ▪ Speakers learn standard patterns known
in an unfamiliar culture may be as the skeletal frames as a basic for
experiencing ----culture shock sentence composition. Restricts the
▪ The terms used when one places a priority composition of frame ‘key responses’,
on understanding other cultures, rather nouns verbs and adjectives.
than dismissing them as “strange or ▪ Frame theory can generate novel
exotic”. ------ Cultural relativism. sentences and grammatical sentences but
▪ Sociolinguistics apply this man ‘s principle it cannot control the grammaticality in the
of natural selection to the study of social sentences because nonsensical sentences
behavior----Charles Darwin will be produced.
▪ Skinner ‘s theory failed to explain four
language abilities of speaker.
49
▪ Speakers learn standard patterns or ▪ Setting and occasion is a domain in
skeletal frams as a basis for sentence sociolinguistics.
composition. ▪ Anylytical language classified languages
▪ Semantics Frame theory creates novel from morphological aspects is known as
sentences using Key Frames. isolating language.
▪ Sentences may be created by using ▪ Idiolect is known as personal language.
identical word frame class. ▪ We all have a perfect and complete temple
▪ The script theory is an integral part of of our language in our hands, and Saussure
cognitive linguistic, which was first reffered to this template as langue.
proposed by Frank. ▪ Implicature allows the audience to make
▪ Schemata can represent knowledge at all assumptions about the existence of
levels from ideologies and culture truths to information not made explicit what is
knowledge about the meaning of a acctually said.
particular word, to knowledge about what ▪ Naming is one of the obivious linguistics
patterns of excitations are associated with means of establishing people ‘s identity.
what letters of the alphabets. ▪ A pidgen is a dialect only spoken by the
▪ A socio-cognitive processing model takes a children which becomes their mother
constructivist view of reading tongue.
comprehension. ▪ The term argot and jargon both used by a
▪ The transactional model takes into account particular people or group are called slang.
the dynamic nature of language and both ▪ An argot is a language ussed by a small
aesthetic and cognitive aspeacts of group of people developed for the purpose
reading. of communicating between themselves in a
▪ Schemata are not viewed as static but manner which is not understood by the
rather as active developing, and ever outsiders.
changing. ▪ Euphemisms are polite, pleasant
▪ Characteristics of writer, text and reader expressions used to replace an offensive
will influence the resultant meaning. expressions.
▪ An in danger language is a language that is ▪ One characteristics of AAE(African
at risk of falling out of use. American English) is double negatives.
▪ If a language looses all its native speakers, ▪ Dell hymes coined the term
it becomes a dead language. ‘communicative competence’.
▪ If evantually no one speaks the language at ▪ Communcative competence refers to the
all, it becomes an “extint language”. linguistic aspects that are also part of the
▪ Michael E. Krauss---6000 languages in use. communication process:silence, turn
▪ Language revitalization is an attempt to taking, gestures etc.
slow or reverse language death. ▪ Example of variation: ------------differnece
▪ Situation in which a child acquires both between men and women communication
languages without any structured ▪ In 19th century, it was Evolved that English
instruction is called spontaneous is from Indo-European language.
bilingualism. ▪ English is ----analytical language.
▪ Corpus planning seeks to develop a variety ▪ BEV----------Bold Elitist Vernacular
of a language to standardised it, that is to ▪ An Auxulary language------------- Esperanto
provide it with the means for serving every ▪ Phrase-Structural rule--------
possible language function in society. Transformational Generative grammar.
50
▪ They are used to break down a natural ▪ Two words utterances, between 18 to 24
language sentence into its constituents months unstressed syllables are dropped.
(syntactic categories) namely phrasal E.g. tato instead of potato.
categories and Lexical categories. ▪ Two words utterances-at two years, a child
▪ According to Noam Chomsky, the rule for ‘s vocab contains 200 or more words.
Noun Phrase could be ----D+N+S ▪ Telegraphic utterance becomes more
▪ An important aspect of phrase structure longer combination of words are used in a
rules is that they view sentence structure variety of ways.
from ---the top down approach ▪ Telegraphic stage—pronounciation is very
▪ Phrase structure rules as they are close to adult.
commonly employed result in view of ▪ The term –lect a backformation from
sentence structure that is ------- dialect is sometimes used to cover the
constituency based. notion of language variant.
▪ The constituency relation is a one-to-one ▪ Those whose focus is on the systematic
or more correspondence. nature of language variation is called
▪ Babling stage lasts from 0 to 11 months. varionist.
▪ Holophrastic or one word stage is from 11 ▪ A simplified version of a language used to
to 18 months. communicate specific message is called
▪ Two word utterance stage is from 18 to 24 pidgin.
months. ▪ A language varient spoken natively based
▪ Telegraphic stage starts from 24 months. upon an earlier pidgen is called creole.
▪ At six to 8 weeks babiesbegin to coo. ▪ A regional or rural variation of language is
▪ Babling stage between 2 and 5 months called patios.
babies respond to parental smiles. ▪ A regional language variation with distinct,
▪ Babling stage at around 16 weeks babies vocabulary, grammar and pronounciation
begin to laugh. is called dialect.
▪ Babling stage from 6 months ,children ▪ A mode of pronounciation is called accent.
seem to recognize words, particulary ▪ Bilingual language used by a minority
names of family members. group is often anlyzed as having two
▪ In babling stage, reduplication is common. components the ‘we’ versus ‘they’ code.
▪ In holophrastic stage, question ▪ In psycholinguistic, modern research
word(why,which, what etc)is not yet able makes use of biology, neuroscience,
to use. cognititve science and information theory
▪ In holophrastic stage, overgeneralization is to study ,how the brain processes the
common in this stage. language.
▪ Holophrasic stage is limited to ▪ Developmental sociolinguistics, brings
conversational skills, they mostly together tow of the ancient concerns of the
communicate in single word monolgues social psychologist, child rearing or
and their vocab is mostly single noun. socialization practices and language
▪ Holophrastic stage, children in the behaviour.
holophrastic stage acquire 10-20 new ▪ Developmental psycholinguistics studies
words a month. infants and children ‘s ability to learn
▪ In two words utterance, consonant language , usually with experimental or at
clusters are avoided. least quantitative methods(as opposed to
naturalistic observations such as those
51
made by Jean Piaget in his research on the ▪ The emergence of canonical babling is
development of children. highly important, holding predictive value
▪ Psychopathology is a term which refers to for future linguistics development.
either the study of mental distress or the ▪ At the fifth stage ( 12 to 13 months) jargon
manifestation of behaviours and or intonated bable , infants produce long
experience. strings of syllables having varied stress
▪ Social cognition is the study of how people and intonation patterns.
process social information, espacially its ▪ Canonical (reduplication) babling is
encoding, storage ,retreival. And usually identified with the onset of babling
application to social. at round 6-7 months. It consists on
▪ Cognitive psychology, is the school of reduplicative syllable Babababa.
psychology that eximines internal mental ▪ Marginal babling usually happens between
processes such as problem solving, 4-6 months of the age.
memory and language. ▪ In marginal babling, infant put together
▪ Neuro psychology is a branch of consonant-vowel CV or vowel consonat VC
psychology and neurology that aims to sound combination like baaa,maa. Ummm
mental understand , how the structure and etc.
function of the brain relate to specific ▪ Cooing sounds are produced likely
functions. vowels….ooooo, hhhhhh etc.
▪ Researchers found that older adults who ▪ Marginal babling is considered a type of
regularly used a brain fitness program precanonical vocalization along with
played on a computer demonstrated squeels and cooing.
significantly improved memory and ▪ In transformational grammar, surface
language. structure is the outward form of a sence.
▪ Bilingual children outperform children ▪ In transformational grammar, deep
who speak only one language in problem structure are generated by phrase –
solving skills and creative thinking. structure rules.
▪ The first stage from 0 to 2 months ▪ Surface structures are derived from deep
phonation is characterized mainly by structures of series of transformations.
fussing, crying, sneezing and burping, ▪ The base rule of language refer to a
which bear littleresemblance to adult sentence structure and parts of speech,
speakers. which are noun,pronoun, verb etc.
▪ The second stage ( at 4 to 6 months) ▪ A noun phrase can be----D+pre
cooing begain when back vowels and modifiers+Noun+ Post modifiers.
nasals appear together with velar ▪ In transformational grammar, a verb
consonants. phrase is a word group that includes a
▪ The third stage at 4 to 6 months, vocal play main verb and other auxiliries.
or expression , syllable like productions ▪ According to Fries, we acquire new verbal
with long vowels. creations by manipulating words, shifting
▪ Canonical babling stage (at 7 to 10 them about until a new pattern is hit upon.
months) two types of productions emerge; ▪ The speakers of a language posses some
reduplicated babling, identical , repetative sort of language knowledge which allows
sequence of syllables CV. them to make integration of basic sentence
▪ Canonical babling is Syllabic, containing to form the whole sentence. This particular
mainly frontal stops, nasals and glides kind of language knowledge is called
coupled with lax vowels. generative rules.
52
▪ Grammar translation method involves two ▪ By one year of age, infants begin to devote
componants, the explicit study of grammar greater attention to word learning/ and
rule, vocabulary and the use of less attention to native sounds.
translations. ▪ Normal phonological deviation that
▪ General culture way of utilizing the literacy children make when producing sounds and
which people draw upon in literary event words are reffered to as phonological
are called practice. processes.
▪ The varionist approach to study language ▪ A young child complaining thet “he
in society is generally linked with Eckert. wouldnot share woth me” without first
▪ Eckert in 2005, described three waves in mentioning the offending child is
the quantitative study of sociolinguistics exhibiting a lack of discourse competence.
variation. ▪ An individual who displays interactional
▪ A child uses its LAD to make sense of competence adherence to accepted
utterance heard around it, derived from standards for---body language, eye contact
his primiary linguistic data. and physical proximity.
▪ To Bloomfidians, language is nothing but a ▪ The simultaneous focus by two or more
habit that the child comes to learn by individuals on the same external stimulus
imitation. is reffered as joint attention.
▪ The psychological theory behind the ▪ The stages of vocal development,
behaviourist linguistics was founded by verbalization refers to any words the
J.B Watson(1942). children produce.
▪ The extreme behaviouristics stand-point is ▪ Cooing and going sounds occur when the
characterised by B.F Skinner ‘s well-known child is feeling content.
study, Verbal Behaviour 1957. ▪ What is calledwhen a child extends a
▪ The work that could be regarded as the known word to other subjects because
basic doctrine of the structural school of they have perceptual similarities----
linguistics theory was Lonard Bloomfiled ‘s analogical overextension
Language 1933. ▪ When analyzing yound children ‘s
▪ The Swiss scholar Ferdinand De Saussur, phonemic attainment, we interpret form
(1857-1913), who is an associationist refrences with respect to phonemic
,believes that all the language items are attainment of other child.
interlinked. ▪ Fast Mapping is the phenomenon that
▪ The cognitive rejects the behaviouristics includes an initial ecposure to a word
theory. followed by a rapid acquisition of a general
▪ Erric Lenneberg ‘s critical period sense of its meaning.
hypothesis (1967) holds that “mlanguage ▪ Alphabetical principle is a concept that
acquisition must occur before the onset of describes the relationship between sounds
puberty in order for language to develop and letters.
fully”. ▪ Samuel Ferdinand De Saussure who was
▪ Communicative competence requires the considered as the “Father of Linguistics” a
speaker ‘s be aware of two main aspects— swiss guy who authored a book “Course in
linguistics and pragmatics. general Linguistics”.
▪ Discourse, phonological and lexical are the ▪ Structuralist is the name of the school,
aspects of communicative competence. which attepted to uncover “ Discovery
Procedure”; that are internallimbedded,
53
and compose the underlying units of Answer the question, what kind, which one, how
language. many and how much.
▪ Two main structures when deconstructing
a sentence into tree diagram. NP and VP. Articles are a sub category of adjectives and include
▪ Tenor of Discourse refers to the role of the following three word, a, an and the.
relationship between participants and its
Old car (what kind) that car (which one)
situation.
▪ Mode of discourse refers to the means of Two cars (how many)
communication as how communication is
carried out. Verb---action, condition or state of being
▪ When two languages are used side by side
with each having a different role to play, Action (things you can do) ----think, run, jump, climb,
and language switching occurs when eat, grow.
situation changes it constitutes the
Linking (or helping) am, is, are, was, were
situation of bilingualism.
▪ The term Diglossia was first used by Adverbs--- describe verbs, adjective and other
Fergueson in 1959, refers to a socialistic adverbs.
situation similar to Bilingualism.
Answer the question, how, when, where and to what
extent.
Many words ending in “ly” are adverbs: quickly,

smoothly, truly.
English Grammar A few other adverbs; yesterday, ever, rather, quite,
earlier.
Parts of Speech Preposition----- show the relationship between a
Noun----a person, place, thing or an idea. noun or pronoun and a word in the sentence.
person boy cat Umer Things of the box (things you have done to a box).
place house Pakistan ocean Some prepositions: over, under, on, from, of, at,
through, in, next to, against, like.
thing car desk phone
Conjunctions---connecting words.
idea freedom happiness sadness
Connect ideas, nouns or sentences.
Pronoun---a word used instead of noun.
FANBOYS (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so)
Fatima---she car---it
A few other conjunctions are found at the beginning
A few other pronouns: he, they, I, you, we, them, of a sentence: however, while, since, because.
who, everyone, anybody, that etc.
Interjections---show emotions.
Adjectives—describes a noun or pronoun
54
Usually the first word (s) and are set off from the rest Compound Nouns
of the sentence by a comma (,) or exclamation point A compound noun contains two or more
(!) words which join together to make a single
A few interjections: wow, ha, aha, oh, ouch, alas, noun. Compound nouns can be words written
hurrah. together (closed form) such as softball, class
fellow and toothpaste, words that are
Classifications of Nouns hyphenated (hyphenated form) such as six-
pack and son-in-law, or separate words (open
Proper Nouns form) such as post office and upper class that
Proper nouns are nouns that refer to specific go together by meaning.
entities. Writers of English capitalize proper
nouns like Quid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Countable Nouns
Jinnah, Allama Iqbal, The Holy Quran, Lahore, The names of the things which can be counted
Multan and Saeed to show their distinction are called concrete nouns. Bana
from common nouns. Uncountable Nouns or Mass Nouns
The names of the things which are substance
Common Nouns
Common nouns refer to general, unspecific and are measured.
categories of entities. Whereas Kashmir is a Substances, liquids, and powders are entities
proper noun because it signifies a specific that are often signified by mass nouns such
state, the word state itself is a common noun as wood, sand, water, and flour. Other
because it can refer to any of Paskistani examples would be milk, air, furniture,
states. Islamia University Bahawalpur refers freedom and rice.
to a particular institution of higher learning,
while the common noun university can refer to Collective Nouns
any such institution. In general, collective nouns are nouns that

refer to a group of something in a specific
Material Nouns manner. Often, collective nouns are used to
Material nouns refer to materials or refer to groups of animals. Consider the
substances from which things are made. following sentences.
While cotton is an adjective when used Look at the gaggle of geese. There used to
in cotton dress, cotton is a material noun when
be herds of wild buffalo on the prairie.
used to describe a crop being grown - The
A bevy of swans is swimming in the pond.
farm grew cotton.
A colony of ants live in the anthill.
More Examples: Wheat, rice, sugar, milk and
In the above examples herds, family, army,
sand etc.
bunch and colony are collective nouns.
55
Concrete Nouns Indefinite Pronouns
Concrete nouns are nouns that can be Unlike demonstrative pronouns, which point out
touched, smelled, seen, felt, or tasted. table, specific items, indefinite pronouns are used for non-
specific things. This is the largest group of
Samra sand and salt, and wool are all
pronouns. All, some, any, several, anyone, nobody,
examples of concrete nouns.
each, both, few, either, none, one and no one are
Please pass the salt. Your sweater is made the most common.
of fine wool. Example:

Concrete nouns can be perceived by at least Somebody must have seen the driver leave.
one of our senses.
(somebody – not a specific person)
Abstract Nouns
More ethereal, theoretical concepts We are all in the protest, but some of us are looking
at the stars.
use abstract nouns to refer to them. Concepts
like freedom, love, power, and redemption are I have nothing to declare except my genius.
all examples of abstract nouns.
Interrogative Pronouns
They hate us for our freedom. All you need These pronouns are used in questions. Although they
are classified as pronouns, it is not easy to see how
is love. We must fight the power.
they replace
nouns. Who, which, what, where and how are all
In these sentences, the abstract nouns refer to
interrogative pronouns.
concepts, ideas, philosophies, and other
entities that cannot be concretely perceived. Example:
The Different Types of Who told you to do that?
Pronouns Which dog won the race?
Demonstrative Pronouns Personal Pronouns

These pronouns are used to demonstrate (or The personal pronouns
indicate). This, that, these and those are all are I, you, he, she, it, we, they, and who. More often
demonstrative pronouns. than not (but not exclusively), they replace nouns
representing people. When most people think of
Examples: pronouns, it is the personal pronouns that usually
spring to mind.
This is the one I left in the car.
Example:
(In this example, the speaker could be indicating to a
mobile phone, in which case, the pronoun this We can't all be heroes because somebody has to sit
replaces the words mobile phone.) on the curb and clap as they go by.
Shall I take those? I bought some batteries, but they weren't included.
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Possessive Pronouns Shall we take yours or theirs?
Possessive pronouns are used to show possession. As
they are used as adjectives, they are also known as Reciprocal Pronouns
possessive. My, your, his, her, its, our and their, are Reciprocal pronouns are used for actions or feelings
all possessive pronouns. that are reciprocated. The two most common
reciprocal pronouns are each other and one
Have you seen her book? another.
(In this example, the pronoun her replaces a word Examples:

like Sarah's.)
They like one another.
More on possessive pronouns...
They talk to each other like they're babies.
Relative Pronouns
Relative pronouns are used to add more information More on reciprocal pronouns...
to a
sentence. Which, that, who (including whom and wh Reflexive Pronouns
A reflexive pronoun ends ...self or ...selves and
ose) and where are all relative pronouns.
refers to another noun or pronoun in the sentence
Examples: (usually the subject of the sentence). The reflexive
pronouns
Dr Syeda Samra, who lectured at Cambridge for aremyself, yourself, herself, himself, itself, ourselve
more than 12 years, should have known the s,yourselves and themselves.
difference.
Examples:
(In this example, the relative
pronoun who introduces the clause who studied at The cat is cute itself.
Cambridge for 12 years and refers back to Syeda
Samra Bukhari.) (In this example, the intensive pronoun itself refers
back to the noun the dog.)
The man who first saw the comet reported it as a
UFO. Are you talking to yourself?
(In this example, the relative I love him myself.

pronoun who introduces the clause who first saw the Intensive (or Emphatic) Pronouns
comet and refers back to the man.) An intensive pronoun (sometimes called an emphatic
pronoun) refers back to another noun or pronoun in
Absolute Possessive Pronouns
These pronouns also show possession. Unlike the sentence to emphasize it (e.g., to emphasize that
possessive pronouns (see above), which are it is the thing carrying out the action).
adjectives to nouns, these pronouns sit by
themselves. Mine, yours, his, hers, ours and theirs ar Examples:
e all absolute possessive pronouns. Sam bakes all the bread herself.
Examples: (In this example, the intensive

pronoun himself refers back to the noun Samra.)
The tickets are as good as ours.
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The cat opened the door itself. 1st I My Me Myself
Person
Table of Noun (Speaker) We Our Us Ourselves
Members 2nd
of the Person
Pronoun Type Subclass Example
(Listener) You Your You Yourself
mine, yours,
his, hers, ours,
He His Him Himself
theirs,my
Possessive our,etc The white car is mine
3rd
Person She Her Her Herself
myself,
yourself,
(Absent) They Their Them Themselves
himself, herself,
itself, oneself,
ourselves, Indefinit
yourselves, He injured himself playing e It Its It Itself
Reflexive themselves football
each other, one

Reciprocal another They really hate each other
that, which,
Types of adjectives
Relative
who, whose,
whom, where, The book that you gave me Proper adjectives
when was really boring It is formed from a proper name. for example he is
this, that, Pakistani.
Demonstrative these, those This is a new car
English, American, Punjabi etc.
who, what,
why, where,
when,
Adjective of quality
Interrogative whatever What did he say to you? It shows the quality of a person.
Indefinite anything,
For example. He is a good boy.
anybody,
anyone,
something, Good, bad, large, hard etc
somebody,
someone, Adjective of quantity
nothing,
nobody, none, There's something in my
It tells about the quantity of the things.
no one shoe
For example, all the boys are regular.
Some, much, little, huge, all, any,full, half etc
Pronoun Table Numeral adjectives.

It tells about the numbers of things.
Case
Subjective
Case
Possessive
Case
Objective
Case
Reflexive
For example. He is a single man.
One, two, first, second, third or any etc.
58
Demonstrative adjectives He sang a song.
It tells about , which person or thing is meant.
Ali tripped.
For example, I like these books.
Ali tripped Hussain.
this, that, these, those, such etc.
3. Dynamic/ Event Verbs: The verbs, in which the
Distributive adjectives body movement is involved, are called dynamic or
It denotes a person or a thing separately. event verbs. These verbs show continued or
progressive action on the part of the subject.
For example, each one is hardworking.
Example of dynamic verbs are: act, build, complete,
Every, either, neither etc design, draw, gather, help, interview, justify, listen,
negotiate, outline, perform, record, save, show,
Interrogative adjectives travel, uncover, value, write, zoom…
It is used before a noun for asking a question.
She was writing a letter.
Whose book is this ?
They are playing in the playground.
Whose, which, how many, how much etc.
4. Stative Verbs: The verbs that express a state
Possessive adjectives rather than an action. They usually show mental
It tells about possession. feelings, emotions, state of a person, place,
relationships, sense and measurements.
For example. This is my book.
I believe in God.
His, our, your, their etc.
I am believing in God.
Kinds of Verbs in English It sounds like a great idea.
1. Transitive Verbs: Transitive verbs are action It is sounding like a great idea.
verbs that have an object to receive that action.
I feel your sadness.
She drinks water. (Object)
I am feeling your sadness.
He drove the car. (Object)
Please forgive him.
2. Intransitive Verbs: Intransitive verbs are actions
verbs but unlike transitive verbs, they do not have an Some verbs like: verb to be, think, have and see can
object receiving the action. be both stative verbs and dynamic verbs depending
on their meaning.
The sun shines.
He is an intelligent teacher. (stative verb)
She is crying.
He is teaching the students. (dynamic verb)
Some verbs like (cheer, sing, visit, trip) can be
transitive or intransitive, depending on how they are 5. Perception/Sensation Verbs: The verbs which
used in a sentence. show our five senses are called perception/
sensation verbs.
He sang.
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I smell the flowers. Click here to learn more about modal auxiliary verbs.
He is listening to the radio. 9. Helping Verbs/Auxiliary Verbs: Auxiliary (or

Helping) verbs are used together with a main verb to
I feel great today. show the verb’s tense or to form a negative or
6. Linking/Copular/Predicating Verbs: Linking question. The most common auxiliary verbs are:
verbs do not express action. Instead, they connect have, has, had, do, does, did and to be verbs.
the subject of the verb to additional information Have they completed the assignment?
about the subject. These verbs are usually followed
by an adjective or a noun. Ali is writing an e-mail to a client at the moment.
The following verbs are true linking verbs: any form 10. Hypothesis Verbs: These verbs are usually
of the verb be [am, is, are, was, were, has been, are followed by subjunctives. Here, we wish against the
being, might have been, etc.], become, and seem. present facts in the present, and the formulas are
These true linking verbs are always linking verbs. given like;
Then you have a list of verbs with multiple
1. Sub + wish + (that) + sub. + the past indefinite
personalities: appear, feel, grow, look, prove,
remain, smell, sound, taste, and turn. Sometimes tense
these verbs are linking verbs; sometimes they are 2. Sub + wish + (that) + sub. + were + object
action verbs.
3. Sub + wish + (that) + sub. + had + object
7. Phrasal/Prepositional Verbs: The verb which
is formed by the combination of a preposition or I wish that he helped me. (Means he does not help
adverbial particle is called Phrasal/prepositional me)
verb.
I wish that he were a good teacher. (Means he is not
Because a preposition always has an object, all a good teacher)
prepositional verbs have direct objects.
She wishes that I had a latest car. (Means I have not
I believe in God. a latest car)
He is looking after the dog. Here, we wish against the past facts in the present,
and the formulas are given like;
They are talking about the issue.
1. Sub + wish + (that) + sub + the past perfect tense
8. Modal Auxiliary Verbs: Modal verbs are words
like can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would, 2. Sub + wish + (that) + sub. + had been + object
must, ought to etc. They are used with other verbs to
3. Sub + wish + (that) + sub. + had had + object
express ideas such as possibility, prediction,
speculation, deduction and necessity. Or modal I wish that he had taken admission. (Means he did
verbs show different moods and attitudes of the not take admission)
speaker.
I wish that I had been in London. (Means I was not in
You should work hard. London)
The weather may be colder tomorrow. She wishes that I had had a bus. (Means I had not a
bus)
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Click here to learn more about hypothesis verb modifies the verb “sing” by giving us more
“Wish.” information that the song is sung with a
loud voice .
11. Causative Verbs: In causative verbs we do not
Such a word is called an adverb.
perform an action directly, but we get it done
Adverbs modify a verb by giving us
indirectly by someone else means by the second
person. The formula will be changed according to the information about the following aspects of
absence or presence of the second person. English a verb.
has three true causative verbs: let, have, make, but 1. How an action occurs
there are other verbs such as cause, allow, help, 2. Where an action occurs
enable, keep, hold, force, require and persuade 3. When an action occurs
indeed which are not causative verbs but similarly 4. How often an action occurs
used as causative verbs. Click here to learn more Depending on the above aspects of
about causative verbs. modification, the adverbs have following
four types:
He gets Ali to wash his car.
Adverbs of manner: Angrily, Happily,
He has Nadir help him. Easily, Sadly, Rudely, Loudly, Fluently,
Greedily, etc
12. Regular and Irregular Verbs: Adverbs of Place: Near, There, Here,
Regular Verbs: Regular verbs are those verbs whose
Somewhere, Inside, Outside, Ahead, Top,
past tense and past participle (2nd and 3rd forms)
High, Bottom, etc
are formed by adding “d” or “ed” to the end of the
Adverbs of time: Yesterday, Now, Then,
verb.
Tomorrow, Today, Late, Early, Tonight,
Cook = cooked Again, Soon etc
Adverbs of frequency: Often, Sometimes,
Play = played Usually, Frequently, Seldom, Daily, Again
Irregular Verbs: Irregular verbs are those verbs that and again, Generally, Occasionally, Never,
do not take ‘ed’ ending for their past tense and past etc
participle (2nd and 3rd forms). Click here to learn Adverbs of Manner –Usage
more about regular and irregular verbs. These adverbs describe the manner of an
action or the way of the occurrence of an
Teach = taught
action.
Write = wrote = written e.g. happily, sadly, sympathetically,
harshly, carefully, carelessly, rudely,
Types of Adverb nicely, decently, etc
An adverb is a word that modifies (gives us Examples:
more information about) a verb in a They are living happily.
sentence. She completed her work nicely.
Example: He was behaving angrily.
She is singing a song. She treats the kids sympathetically.
She is singing a song loudly. Sara is driving carelessly.
The adverb “loudly” in the 2nd sentence Students were listening to lecture
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carefully. She is calling me again and again.
The failed student was frequently thinking
Adverbs of Place – Usage about his failure in exam.
These adverbs express the place of the The always helped me.
occurrence of an action or regarding an What is a Preposition?
action.
e.g. here, there, near, outside, inside, A preposition links nouns, pronouns and phrases to
bottom, top, ahead, somewhere, beneath, other words in a sentence. The word or phrase that
etc the preposition introduces is called the object of the
Examples: preposition.
They were coming here. A preposition usually indicates the temporal, spatial
Some is talking outside. or logical relationship of its object to the rest of the
Please come inside. sentence as in the following examples:
They live somewhere in Paris.
Kids are playing near the house. The book is on the table.
He went downstairs. The book is beneath the table.
Adverbs of Time – Usage
The book is leaning against the table.
These adverbs states the time of
occurrence of the action. It may give sharp The book is beside the table.
or rough idea about the time of occurrence
of an action. She held the book over the table.
e.g. soon, late, today, to night, early, She read the book during class.
tomorrow, yesterday, then, now, etc.
Examples: In each of the preceding sentences, a preposition
He will go to school tomorrow. locates the noun "book" in space or in time.
I met him yesterday.
A prepositional phrase is made up of the preposition,
Please call him now.
its object and any associated adjectives or adverbs. A
He will come soon. prepositional phrase can function as a noun, an
I am still waiting for my friend. adjective, or an adverb. The most common
Adverbs of Frequency – Usage prepositions are "about," "above," "across," "after,"
These adverbs tell about how often (or "against," "along," "among," "around," "at,"
how many times) an action occurs. It gives "before," "behind," "below," "beneath," "beside,"
an idea about the frequency of occurrence "between," "beyond," "but," "by," "despite,"
of an "down," "during," "except," "for," "from," "in,"
action. "inside," "into," "like," "near," "of," "off," "on,"
e.g. daily, weekly, seldom, frequently, "onto," "out," "outside," "over," "past," "since,"
usually, sometimes, most of the times, "through," "throughout," "till," "to," "toward,"
again and again, often, etc "under," "underneath," "until," "up," "upon," "with,"
"within," and "without."
Examples:
I meet him daily. Each of the highlighted words in the following
He usually sleeps in the day. sentences is a preposition:
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The children climbed the mountain without fear. It's too cold in winter to run outside.
He started the job in 1971. He's going to quit in
In this sentence, the preposition "without" August.
introduces the noun "fear." The prepositional phrase
"without fear" functions as an adverb describing how For and Since
the children climbed. We use for when we measure time (seconds, minutes,
hours, days, months, years).
Prepositions are not as scary as they appear! They are
For example: He held his breath for seven minutes.
mostly logical in that they follow some basic principles and
She's lived there for seven years.
most have a complementary preposition with an opposite
The British and Irish have been quarreling for
meaning. So, sit back and relax as we introduce you to
seven centuries.
these principles. Click on any word in RED for the
Portuguese translation of that word.
We use since with a specific date or time.
PREPOSITIONS: LOCATORS IN TIME AND
PLACE For example: He's worked here since 1970.
A preposition describes a relationship between other She's been sitting in the waiting room since two-
words in a sentence, locating something in time and thirty.
space, modifying a noun, or telling when or where or
During
under what conditions something happened.
During is used for events that occurred or existed
Prepositions that describe location
throughout the duration of a specific period of time.
The most common use of prepositions is in describing the
For example: Our young baby sleeps a lot during the day.
location of an object, person or place in relation to
During the Great Recession, interest rates
another object, person or place.
stayed very low.
For example: The World Trade Center is on Av. Nações By, Before and Until
Unidas, next to the River Pinheiros and one block from Av.
Berrini. By, before and until can all be used to indicate deadlines
or to mark a specific point in time.
Most prepositions that relate to location follow two basic
principles: they relate to a surface or they relate to a For example: If we have a 'deadline' of February:
volume. For example, a table is considered a two We must complete the project by February.
dimensional surface: We must complete the project before February.
We have until February to complete the project.
The instructor is UNDER the table. For example: When we wish to fix a sentence at a
particular time or point in the past:
Prepositions of Time
We use at to designate specific times.
Before 1950, few people in Britain had flown in
For example: The train is due at 12:15 pm.
an airplane.
By 1970, many people had flown in an airplane.
We use on to designate days and dates.
Until the introduction of commercial airlines,
For example: My brother is coming on Monday.
few people experienced flying.
We're having a party on the Fourth of July.
A preposition links nouns, pronouns and phrases to
We use in for nonspecific times during a day, a month, a other words in a sentence. The word or phrase that
season, or a year.
For example: She likes to jog in the morning.
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the preposition introduces is called the object of the livingroom in my apartment in the closet in the tub
preposition. in downtown New York)”
Prepositions work with other words in prepositional • At a specified location

phrases. A prepositional phrase usually indicates Example: “Let’s meet at my house (at the store at
where (by showing direction or location), how (in the corner of Main St.)”
what way or by what means), or when (at what time
or how long) the action in the sentence took place. • On a surface
Example: “The poem is on page 32 (on Broadway on
Prepositions are hard for most students. Why? street level on the third floor)”
Because there are hardly any rules as to when to use Exceptions: in the attic or in the basement.
which preposition. The only way to learn
prepositions is looking them up in a dictionary, Different types of
reading a lot in English and memorizing useful
phrases. conjunctions: definitions, uses
and examples
Ready? Let’s start!
Prepositions That Express Time And Place

In English, conjunctions are the words that
The following are a few examples of using in, at, and connect words, phrases or clauses. They join
on to show time and place: different parts of speeches together, creating
relationships between parts of a sentence or
Time:
different ideas and objects. To demonstrate
• In a month or a year different relationships, there are different
Example: ”I moved here in 2007 in September” types of conjunctions: coordinating,
• In a specific period of time subordinating and correlative conjunctions. So
Example: “She will be in Rome in a few days how do we define and use these different
(seconds, months, etc.)” conjunctions? Here are some explanations and
examples.
• In a specific period of the day
Example: We are going to the park in the afternoon
(morning, evening exception: at night)”
Coordinating Conjunctions
• On a specific day
Example: “The party is on Saturday, on your The most common, and simplest, conjunction
birthday” is the coordinating conjunctions. These join
• At a specific time or specific period of time words, phrases and clauses as a simple link, as
Example: “We will eat at 3:00 at noon (at night at equal grammatical components.
dawn at lunch)”
Cats and dogs are animals. (connecting two
Place: words)
• In a location surrounded by something else We wanted to walk in the forest or on the
Example: ” I live in the state of Nevada (in the
hill. (connecting two phrases)
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They went to the park and had a Here, it was sunny is a dependent clause; it is a
picnic. (connecting two clauses) grammatically complete idea but it does not
really make sense on its own (leading you to
Coordinating conjunctions include and, or, for,
ask what was sunny, or when was it sunny,
so, but, yet and nor. These can create
without the independent clause to provide
relationships that show, for example, a
context).
contrast, a decision, or consequences, but in
all cases the they connect words, phrases and Subordinating clauses can demonstrate a wide
clauses that do not have a grammatical impact variety of relationships between two clauses.
on each other. They can also come at the beginning of
clauses, as well as connecting clauses in the
I wanted to go, but decided to stay. (contrast)
middle.
She did not know whether to go left or right.
We were happy because our team won.
(decision)
Because our team won, we were happy.
It started raining, so he went home.
(consequence) Common subordinating conjunctions include:
Coordinating conjunctions do not require a after

comma before them when connecting single
although
words or ideas, but require a comma when
listing more than one word, phrase or clause. as
They ate cheese, biscuits and fruit for desert. as far as

They also usually require a comma when as if
connecting two independent clauses.
as soon as
I liked the car, but I could not afford to buy it.
because
before
Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions connect an even if
independent clause to a dependent clause.
how
They show consequences, connecting two
ideas – and are different from coordinating if
conjunctions because they occur in sentences
in case
where the dependent clause would not work
on its own. in that
They played football while it was sunny. no matter how
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now that neither… nor
once not only… but also
provided so… as
since whether… or
so that These create specific relationships between

words that are generally used for emphasis.
supposing
For example, we could connect two ideas
though simply with and, but it emphasises that the
two ideas share a certain quality if we
unless say both… and.
until My mother and sister were ill.
when Both my mother and sister were ill.
wherever In the second sentence, this may emphasise
whether that for both people to be ill is surprising or
alarming. The first sentence is more of a dry
while statement of fact.
while Conjunctive Adverbs

Clauses and phrases can also be connected
Check the next edition of this blog to see
with certain adverbs which connect ideas.
examples for all of these conjunctions!
These can be used in the same way as
Correlative Conjunction conjunctions, but are not specifically
Correlative conjunctions are pairs of conjunctions. They can be single adverbs or
conjunctions that connect equal sentence adverb phrases.
parts in specific ways. These can connect or
He bought two oranges in addition to the bag
contrast ideas. An example that I have
of grapes.
previously discussed in detail is not only…but
also. We finished watching the film, although no
one understood it.
This is not only fun, but also interesting.
These are usually used in the form of
Other examples include:
subordinating conjunctions, although they can
both… and also introduce new sentences (following a
related sentence). As such they can come at
either… or
the beginning or middle of a sentence.
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I like old books, for example The Illiad. thus
I like old books. For example, The Illiad is very Using Conjunctions
good. Conjunctions, in all three forms, and including
conjunctive adverbs, are very useful for
Examples of more conjunctive adverbs connecting both simple and complex ideas in
include: English. They create relationships and can be
after all useful for flow. They are simple in theory, but
can be as complicated as the phrases and
as a result ideas they connect
consequently
Phrase
finally
“A phrase is defined as a group of related words
for example that lacks both subject and verb.”
furthermore A phrase is a part of a sentence. It is a group of

words (within a sentence) that does not contain both
hence subject and verb, and does not express a complete
idea.
however
Example.
in addition
He is standing near a wall.
in fact
The part of above sentence “near a wall” is a phrase
incidentally because it does not contain subject and verb, and
does not express a complete idea.
indeed
A phrase does not include both subject and verb at a
instead same time and does not make a complete sense,
hence a phrase cannot stand as a sentence on its
likewise own.
meanwhile If a group of words include both subject and verb

then it becomes a clause, so the difference in a
on the contrary clause and a phrase is that a clause contains subject
and verb but a phrase does not contain subject and
on the other hand
verb.
otherwise Here are some examples of phrases.
still He is laughing at a joker.
therefore She is making tea for the guests.
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I saw a girl with blue eyes. A phrase functions as a noun, verb, adverb, adjective
or preposition in a sentence. The function of a
He always behaves in a strange way. phrase depends on its construction (words it
The boy in the red shirt is my cousin. contains). On the basis of their functions and
constructions, phrases are divided into various types
The boy, with a book in his hand, won a prize. i.e. noun phrase, verb phrase, adverb phrase,
adjective phrase, appositive phrase, infinite phrase,
A sentence may consist of one or more phrases.
participle phrase and gerund phrase.
For example, The boy in the red shirt behaves in a
strange way.
Noun Phrase
A phrase functions as a noun, adverb, or adjective in
A noun phrase consists of a noun and other
a sentence, therefore a phrase is also defined as “a
related words (usually modifiers and determiners)
group of words (lacking subject and verb), that
which modify the noun. It functions like a noun in a
functions as a single part of speech, in a sentence.”
sentence.
Examples
A noun phrase consists of a noun as the head word
He is wearing a nice read shirt. (as a and other words (usually modifiers and determiners)
noun/object) which come after or before the noun. The whole
phrase works as a noun in a sentence.
The people at the party were dancing. (as a
noun/subject) Noun Phrase = noun + modifiers (the modifiers
can be after or before noun)
The man in the room is our teacher. (as
adjective, modifies noun man) Examples.
She gave me a glass full of water. (as He is wearing a nice red shirt. (as
adjective, modifies noun glass) noun/object)
He always behaves in a strange way. (as She brought a glass full of water. (as
adverb, modifies verb behave) noun/object)
He returned in a short while. (as The boy with brown hair is laughing. (as
adverb, modifies verb return) noun/subject)
On the basis of their functions and constructions, A man on the roof was shouting. (as
phrases are divided into various types i.e. noun noun/subject)
phrase, verb phrase, adverb phrase, adjective
A sentence can also contain more noun phrases.
phrase, appositive phrase, infinite phrase, participle
phrase and gerund phrase For example. The girl with blue eyes bought a
beautiful chair.
Types of Phrases Prepositional Phrase.
A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition,
A phrase is a group of related words (within a
object of preposition(noun or pronoun) and may also
sentence) without both subject and verb. For
consist of other modifiers.
example, He is laughing at the joker.
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e.g. on a table, near a wall, in the room, at the door, adjective phrases when they function as adjective. In
under a tree the above sentence “The girl with brown hair is
singing a song”, the phrase “with brown hair” is a
A prepositional phrase starts with a preposition and
prepositional phrase but it functions as an adjective.
mostly ends with a noun or pronoun. Whatever
prepositional phrase ends with is called object of Adverb Phrase
preposition. A prepositional phrase functions as an An adverb phrase is a group of words that functions
adjective or adverb in a sentence. as an adverb in a sentence. It consists of adverbs or
other words (preposition, noun, verb, modifiers) that
Examples. make a group with works like an adverb in a
A boy on the roof is singing a song. sentence.
(As adjective) An adverb phrase functions like an adverb to modify
The man in the room is our teacher. a verb, an adjective or another adverb.
(As adjective) Examples
She is shouting in a loud voice. (As He always behaves in a good manner.
adverb) (modifies verb behave)
He always behaves in a good manner. They were shouting in a loud voice.
(As adverb) (modifies verb shout)
Adjective Phrase. She always drives with care.
An adjective phrase is a group of words that
(modifies verb drive)
functions like an adjective in a sentence. It consists
of adjectives, modifier and any word that modifies a He sat in a corner of the room.
noun or pronoun. (modifies verb sit)
An adjective phrase functions like an adjective to He returned in a short while.

modify (or tell about) a noun or a pronoun in a (modifies verb return)
sentence.
A prepositional phrase can also act as an adverb
Examples. phrase. For example in above sentence “He always
behaves in a good manner”, the phrase “in a good
He is wearing a nice red shirt. manner” is a prepositional phrase but it acts as
(modifies shirt) adverb phrase here.
The girl with brown hair is singing a song.
(modifies girl)
Verb Phrase
He gave me a glass full of water. A verb phrase is a combination of main verb and
(modifies glass) its auxiliaries (helping verbs) in a sentence.
A boy from America won the race. Examples.
(modifies boy)
He is eating an apple.
Prepositional phrases and participle phrases also
function as adjectives so we can also call them She has finished her work.
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You should study for the exam. Weeping of a baby woke him up.
(As noun/subject)
She has been sleeping for two hours.
Participle Phrase
According to generative grammar, a verb phrase can A participle phrase consists of a present
consist of main verb, its auxiliaries, its complements participle (verb + ing), a past participle (verb ending
and other modifiers. Hence it can refer to the whole in -ed or other form in case of irregular verbs) and
predicate of a sentence. modifiers or other associate words. A participle
Example. You should study for the exam. phrase is separated by commas. It always acts as an
adjective in a sentence.
Infinitive Phrase
Examples
An infinitive phrase consist of an infinitive(to +
simple form of verb) and modifiers or other words The kids, making a noise, need food.
associated to the infinitive. An infinitive phrase (modifies kids)
always functions as an adjective, adverb or a noun in I received a letter, mentioning about my
a sentence. exam. (modifies letter)
Examples. The table, made of steel, is too expensive.
He likes to read books. (As (modifies table)
noun/object) We saw a car, damaged in an accident.
To earn money is a desire of everyone. (As (modifies car)
noun/subject) Absolute Phrase
Absolute phrase (also called nominative phrase) is a
He shouted to inform people about fire. (As
group of words including a noun or pronoun and a
adverb, modifies verb shout)
participle as well as any associated modifiers.
He made a plan to buy a car. (As Absolute phrase modifies (give information about)
adjective, modifies noun plan) the entire sentence. It resembles a clause but it lack
a true finite verb. It is separated by a comma or pairs
Gerund Phrase of commas from the rest sentence.
A gerund phrase consists of a gerund(verb + ing) and
modifiers or other words associated with the gerund. Examples
A gerund phrase acts as a noun in a sentence.
He looks sad, his face expressing worry.
Examples
She was waiting for her friend, her eyes on
I like writing good essays. the clock.
(As noun/object)
Samra is painting a wall, her shirt dirty with
She started thinking about the problem. paint.
(As noun/object)
Sleeping late in night is not a good habit. Clause

(As noun/subject)
“A clause is a group of related words
containing a subject and a predicate”
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For example, he laughed. A subordinate (dependent) clause may function as a
noun, an adjective or an adverb in sentence. On the
A clause refers to a group of related words (within a basis of their function in a sentence, subordinate
sentence or itself as an independent sentence) which
clauses can be divided in to following types.
has both subject and predicate.
1. Noun Clause
Example
2. Adjective Clause.
I will meet him in office.
The part of above sentence “I will meet him” is a 3. Adverb Clause

clause because it has a subject(I) and a predicate(will
Noun Clause
meet him). On the other hand, the rest part of above “A dependent clause that functions as a noun in a
sentence “in office” lacks both subject and sentence is called noun clause.”
predicate(verb) such group of word is called phrase.
A noun clause performs same function like a noun in
A clause may stand as a simple sentence or may join a sentence.
another clause to make a sentence. Therefore, a
sentence consists of one, two or more clauses. Example
Examples. What he did made a problem for his family.
• He is sleeping. In above sentence the clause “what he did” functions

(one clause) as a noun, hence it is a noun clause. A noun clause
works as a noun that acts as a subject, object, or
• The kids were laughing at the joker. predicate in a sentence. A noun clause starts with
(one clause) words “that, what, whatever, who, whom, whoever,
• The teacher asked a question, but no one whomever”.
answered. (two clauses)
• I am happy, because I won a prize.

Examples
(two clauses)
Whatever you learn will help you in future.
• I like Mathematics, but my brother likes
(noun clause as a subject)
Biology,
What you said made me laugh.
because he wants to become a doctor.
(noun clause as a subject)
(three clauses)
He knows that he will pass the test.
Clauses are divided into main clause (also called
(noun clause as an object)
independent clause) and subordinate clause (also
called dependent clauses). Now I realize what he would have thought.
(noun clause as an object)
Types of Subordinate Clause Adjective Clause
“A dependent clause that functions as an
Functions of Subordinate Clause.
adjective in a sentence is called adjective clause.”
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An adjective clause works like adjective in a preceding noun or pronoun but does not limit the
sentence. The function of an adjective is to modify meaning of preceding noun or pronoun.
(describe) a noun or a pronoun. Similarly a noun
clause modifies a noun or a pronoun. Example
•The student in the class who studied a lot passed

the test. (restrictive clause)
Example
•The student in the class, who had attended all the
He wears a shirt which looks nice. lectures, passed the test.
(nonrestrictive clause)
The clause “which looks nice” in above sentence is
an adjective clause because it modifies noun “shirt” In the first sentence the clause “who studied a lot”
in the sentence. restrict information to preceding noun(student), it
means that there is only one student in the class who
An adjective clause always precedes the noun it
studied a lot, hence it is a restrictive clause.
modifies.
In the second sentence the clause “who had
Examples. attended all the lectures” gives us information about
I met the boy who had helped me. preceding noun but does not limit this information to
the preceding noun. It means there can be several
An apple that smells bad is rotten. other students in the class who had attended all the
lectures.
The book which I like is helpful in
preparation for test. A comma is always used before a restrictive clause in
a sentence and also after nonrestrictive clause if it is
The house where I live consists of four
within a main clause. “That” is usually used to
rooms.
introduce a restrictive clause while “which” is used
The person who was shouting needed help. to introduce a nonrestrictive clause.
Adjective clause begins with relative pronoun (that, Example

who, whom, whose, which, or whose) and is also
The table that costs $ 100 is made of steel.
relative clause.
(restrictive clause)
The table, which costs $ 100, is made of steel.

Adjective (relative) clauses can be restrictive clause (nonrestrictive clause)
or nonrestrictive clause
Adverb Clause
“A dependent clause that functions as an adverb in
Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Clauses
a sentence is called adverb clause”
Adjective (relative) clauses can be restrictive
An adverb clause like an adverb modifies a verb,
clause or nonrestrictive clause. A restrictive clause
adjective clause or other adverb clause in a
limits the meaning of preceding noun or pronoun. A
sentence. It modifies(describes) the situation in main
nonrestrictive clause tells us something about
clause in terms of “time, frequency (how often),
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cause and effect, contrast, condition, intensity (to Consider the following example
what extent).”
He is laughing at a joker.
The subordinating conjunctions used for adverb
clauses are as follows. The above sentence has two parts “he is laughing”
and “at a joker”.
The first part of the sentence “he is laughing” is a

Time: when, whenever, since, until, before, after, clause because it has a subject (he) and a predicate
while, as, by the time, as soon as (is laughing).
Cause and effect: because, since, now that, as long The second part of the sentence “at a joker” is a
as, so, so that, phrase because it does not contain subject and verb.
Contrast: although, even, whereas, while, though The difference between a clause and a phrase is that
a clause consists of both subject and verb, but a
Condition: if, unless, only if, whether or not, even if, phrase lacks a subject and verb.
providing or provided that, in case
Examples.
Examples.
The underlined part of each of following sentences
Don’t go before he comes.
shows a clause, while the rest part (non-underlined)
He takes medicine because he is ill. of each sentence shows a phrase.
Although he tried a lot, he couldn’t climb up He reached school in time.

the tree. I was standing near a wall.
Unless you study for the test, you can’t pass it. They are singing in a loud voice.
I will go to the school unless it rains.
She made tea for the guests.
You are safe as long as you drive carefully.
He a bought a book for his friend.
You can achieve anything provided that you I will meet him in my office.
struggle for it.
You look handsome in this picture.
Phrase and Clause comparison
Definitions A clause is a collection of words that has a
subject that is actively doing a verb. The
A clause is defined as a group of related words that
following are examples of clauses:
contains a subject and predicate (verb).
• since she laughs at diffident men
e.g. he came. • I despise individuals of low character
• when the saints go marching in
A phrase is defined as a group of related words that
• Obediah Simpson is uglier than a rabid raccoon
does not contain a subject and a verb.
• because she smiled at him.
e.g. on the table. In the examples above, we find either a noun or
a pronoun that is a subject (bold-print)
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attached to a predicate verb (underlined) in wh
that if
each case: en
• I despise individuals of low character
wh whether...or
unless
ile not
• Obediah Simpson is uglier than a rabid even
raccoon. as although
though
• because she smiled at him
III. If the clause could stand by itself, and form a as
which so that
complete sentence with punctuation, if
we call the clause an independent clause. The
following are independent clauses:
Here are some examples of dependent clauses:
• I despise individuals of low character
• Obediah Simpson is uglier than a rabid raccoon
We could easily turn independent clauses into
• because she smiled at him
complete sentences by adding
These clauses simply do not form complete
appropriate punctuation marks. We might say, "I
thoughts or sentences by themselves.
despise individuals of low character."
Those subordinate conjunctions--since, when,
Or we might write, "Obediah Simpson is uglier
and because, cause the listener to
than a rabid raccoon!" We call them
expect the speaker to add some extra material.
independent because these types of clauses can
The thought is incomplete. If you walked
stand independently by themselves,
up to a friend in the dorms and said, "since she
without any extra words attached, and be
laughs at diffident men," and then
complete sentences.
walked away without adding an independent
• IV. Dependent clauses have a subject doing a
clause, the friend would be completely
verb, but they have a subordinate
baffled.
conjunction placed in front of the clause. That
It's important to understand the difference
subordinate conjunction means that
between phrases, dependent clauses, and
the clause can't stand independently by itself
independent clauses because many punctuation
and become a complete sentence.
marks--such as commas, semicolons,
Instead, the dependent clause is dependent
and colons, require one or the other.
upon another clause--it can't make a
complete sentence by itself, even though it has a
subject doing a verb.
Common Subordinating Subject: Action Performer
Conjunctions/Dependant Words
after because Verb: Action Word
who, whose, whom what, whatever
Object: Action receiver
before since until
Umer hits the ball.
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Umer---- subject The dancing parrots entertained the
crowd.
Hits----verb
The wrecked sailboat washed up on
The ball----object
shore.
Verbals: Gerunds, Infinitives, But participles have another function. When

used with helping verbs such as to be and to
and Participles
have, they are action verbs and form several
The three verbals— gerunds, verb tenses.
infinitives, and participles—are formed from
She is thinking of the children.
verbs, but are never used alone as action words
in sentences. Instead, verbals function as nouns, The conference room had been
adjectives, or adverbs. These verbals are cleaned before they arrived.
important in phrases.
The gerund ends in -ingand functions as a noun.

Types of Sentences (on the
basis of function)
Jumping is fun.
A combination of words which gives a complete
He liked skiing. meaning is called a sentence. There are various types
of sentence depending
He had a unique way of whistling.
upon its structure and function. On the basis of its
The infinitive is the base form of a verb with to.
function, a sentence has the following four kinds.
Usually it functions as a noun, although it can
also function as an adjective or adverb. 1. Declarative Sentence
To jump is fun. (noun; subject of the 2. Interrogative Sentence

verb is) 3. Imperative Sentence
I like to ski. (noun; direct object of the 4. Exclamatory Sentence
verb like)
5. Optative Ssentences
She had a suggestion to offer. (adjective
modifying suggestion) Declarative sentence
A sentence which declares or asserts a statement is
He called to warn her. (adverb modifying called declarative sentence. It simply announces an
the verb called) idea. It has a plan
A participle is a verb that ends in -ing (present statement. A declarative sentence ends with a full-
stop mark or a period (.).
participle) or -ed, -d, -t, -en, -n (past participle).
Participles may function as adjectives, describing Examples:
or modifying nouns.
10/14/2018 Types of Sentences (On basis of function)
75
http://www.studyandexam.com/sentence-kinds.html 3/4 Don’t waste your time. (advice)
He bought a new laptop. Get out of the room. (comma nd)
They are playing footbal l. Exclamatory sentence
A sentence which expresses strong emotion or
He is going to college.
feeling is called an exclamatory sentence. It
I saw my friend in the street. describes emotions or feelings of
He is studying a book. joy, anger, sorrow, surprise, excitement, frustration

and appreciation. An exclamatory sentence is ended
She is watching a mov ie. with an exclamation
Interrogative sentence mark (!).
A sentence that has a question is called Interrogative
sentence. It is also called a question-sentence. An Examples:
interrogative sentence
Hurrah! We won the race! (emotions of joy)
ends with a question-mark (?).
Alas! I lost my purse! (emotions of so rrow)
Examples:
What a nice car! (emotions of surprise )
How are you?
Hurrah! I got selected for the job! ( emotion of joy)
When will he come?
How nicely they are dancing! (emotions of surprise)
Where are you going ?
It’s fantastic! (emotion of excit ement)
What is your hobby?
How intelligent you are! (emotions of surprise)
Will you help me?
5. Optative Sentences
Imperative sentence In these sentences there is wishing.
A sentence which expresses a request, a command
May you prosperous in life.
or an order is called imperative sentence. An
imperative sentence mostly
Sentences: Simple, Compound,
ends with a period (.). It can also sometimes ends
with an exclamation mark (!) depending upon the
and Complex
emotion in the sentence.
A common weakness in writing is the lack
Examples: of varied sentences. Becoming aware of
Turn off the light. (command) three general types of sentences--simple,
compound, and complex--can help you
Give me some food. (request)
vary the sentences in your writing.
Please cooperate with me. (request)
The most effective writing uses a variety
Don’t smoke. (adv ice)
of the sentence types explained below.
76
1. Simple Sentences The use of compound
A simple sentence has the most basic subjects, compound verbs, prepositional
elements that make it a sentence: a phrases (such as "at the bus station"),
subject, a verb, and a completed thought. and other elements help lengthen simple
Examples of simple sentences include the sentences, but simple sentences often
following: are short. The use of too many simple
sentences can make writing "choppy" and
Joe waited for the train. can prevent the writing from flowing
"Joe" = subject, "waited" = verb smoothly.
A simple sentence can also be referred to

The train was late. as an independent clause. It is referred
"The train" = subject, "was" = verb to as "independent" because, while it
might be part of a compound or complex
Mary and Samantha took the bus. sentence, it can also stand by itself as a
"Mary and Samantha" = compound complete sentence.
subject, "took" = verb 2. Compound Sentences
A compound sentence refers to a
sentence made up of two independent
I looked for Mary and Samantha at the
clauses (or complete sentences)
bus station.
connected to one another with
"I" = subject, "looked" = verb
a coordinating conjunction. Coordinating
conjunctions are easy to remember if you
Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus think of the words "FAN BOYS":
station early but waited until noon for
For
the bus.
"Mary and Samantha" = compound And
subject, "arrived" and "waited" =
Nor
compound verb
But
Or
Tip: If you use many simple sentences in an
essay, you should consider revising some Yet
of the sentences into compound or
So
complex sentences (explained below).
77
Examples of compound related. Too many compound sentences
sentences include the following: that use "and" can weaken writing.
Joe waited for the train, but the train was Clearer and more specific relationships
late. can be established through the use of
complex sentences.
I looked for Mary and Samantha at the 3. Complex Sentences
bus station, but they arrived at the A complex sentence is made up of an

station before noon and left on the bus independent clause and one or
before I arrived. more dependent clauses connected to it.
A dependent clause is similar to an
Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus independent clause, or complete
station before noon, and they left on the sentence, but it lacks one of the elements
bus before I arrived. that would make it a complete sentence.
Mary and Samantha left on the bus Examples of dependent clauses include
before I arrived, so I did not see them at the following:
the bus station.
because Mary and Samantha arrived at
Tip: If you rely heavily on compound the bus station before noon
sentences in an essay, you should consider
revising some of them into complex while he waited at the train station
sentences (explained below).
after they left on the bus
Coordinating conjunctions are useful for
Dependent clauses such as those
connecting sentences, but compound
above cannot stand alone as a sentence,
sentences often are overused. While
but they can be added to an independent
coordinating conjunctions can indicate
clause to form a complex sentence.
some type of relationship between the
two independent clauses in the sentence, Dependent clauses begin
they sometimes do not indicate much of with subordinating conjunctions. Below
a relationship. The word "and," for are some of the most common
example, only adds one independent subordinating conjunctions:
clause to another, without indicating how
after
the two parts of a sentence are logically
although
78
as While he waited at the train station, Joe
realized that the train was late.
because
After they left on the bus, Mary and
before
Samantha realized that Joe was waiting at
even though the train station.
if Conversely, the independent clauses can

go first in the sentence, followed by the
since
dependent clause, as in the following:
though
Tip: When the independent clause comes
unless first, a comma should not be used to
separate the two clauses.
until
I did not see them at the station because
when
Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus
whenever station before noon.
whereas Joe realized that the train was late while

he waited at the train station.
wherever
Mary and Samantha realized that Joe was
while waiting at the train station after they left
A complex sentence joins an independent on the bus.
clause with one or more dependent Complex sentences are often more
clauses. effective than compound sentences
The dependent clauses can go first in the because a complex sentence indicates
sentence, followed by the independent clearer and more specific relationships
clause, as in the following: between the main parts of the sentence.
The word "before," for instance, tells
Tip: When the dependent clause comes
readers that one thing occurs before
first, a comma should be used to separate
another. A word such as "although"
the two clauses.
conveys a more complex relationship
Because Mary and Samantha arrived at than a word such as "and" conveys.
the bus station before noon, I did not see
them at the station.
79
The term periodic sentence is used to Should you begin a sentence with
refer to a complex sentence beginning "because"?
with a dependent clause and ending
There is nothing wrong with beginning a
with an independent clause, as in
sentence with "because."
"While he waited at the train station,
Joe realized that the train was late." Perhaps some students are told not to
begin a sentence with "because" to avoid
Periodic sentences can be especially sentence fragments (something like
effective because the completed "Because Mary and Samantha arrived at
thought occurs at the end of it, so the the bus station before noon" is a
sentence fragment), but it is perfectly
first part of the sentence can build up to
acceptable to begin a sentence with
the meaning that comes at the end.
"because" as long as the sentence is
Beginning Sentences with "And" complete (as in "Because Mary and
or "Because" Samantha arrived at the bus station
before noon, I did not see them at the
Should you begin a sentence with "and" station.")
or "but" (or one of the other
coordinating conjunctions)? Independent/Dependent
The short answer is "no." You should
Clauses
avoid beginning a sentence with "and," When you want to use commas and semicolons in
"or," "but," or the other coordinating sentences and when you are concerned about
whether a sentence is or is not a fragment, a good
conjunctions. These words generally are
way to start is being able to recognize dependent
used to join together parts of a sentence, and independent clauses.
not to begin a new sentence.
Independent clause – A group of words that
However, such sentences can be used contains a subject and a verb and expresses a
complete thought. An independent is often a
effectively. Because sentences beginning sentence.
with these words stand out, they are
For example: Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his
sometimes used for emphasis. If you use
chemistry quiz.
sentences beginning with one of the
There are two types of words that can be used as
coordinating conjunctions, you should
connector at the beginning of an independent
use these sentences sparingly and clause:
carefully.
80
Coordinating conjunctions – The seven coordinating
Conditional Sentences—Rules
conjunctions used as connecting words at the
beginning of an independent clause are and, but, for, You Need to Know
or, nor, so, and yet. When the second independent
There are four types of conditional sentences.
clause in a sentence begins with a coordinating
conjunction, a comma is needed before the It’s important to use the correct structure for each of
coordinating conjunction. these different conditional sentences because they
express varying meanings.
For example: Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his
chemistry quiz, but it was hard to concentrate Pay attention to verb tense when using different
because of the noise. conditional modes.
Independent marker word – A connecting word used Use a comma after the if-clause when the if-clause
at the beginning of an independent clause, like also, precedes the main clause.
consequently, furthermore, however, moreover,
nevertheless, and therefore. When the second Conditional sentences are statements discussing
independent clause in a sentence has an known factors or hypothetical situations and their
independent marker word, a semicolon is needed consequences. Complete conditional sentences
before the independent marker word. contain a conditional clause (often referred to as the
if-clause) and the consequence. Consider the
For example: Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his following sentences:
chemistry quiz; however, it was hard to concentrate
because of the noise. If a certain condition is true, then a particular result
happens.
Dependent clause – A group of words I would travel around the world if I won the lottery.
that contains a subject and verb but does not
express a complete thought. A dependent clause When water reaches 100 degrees, it boils.
cannot be a sentence.
What Are the Different Types of Conditional
For example: When Jim studied in the Sweet Shop Sentences? There are four different types of
for his chemistry quiz… conditional sentences in English. Each expresses a
different degree of probability that a situation will
Dependent marker words are words added to the
occur or would have occurred under certain
beginning of an independent clause that make it a
circumstances.
dependent clause such as after, although, as, as if,
because, before, even f, even though, in order to, Zero Conditional Sentences
since, though, unless, until, whatever, when,
whenever, whether, and while. First Conditional Sentences
For example: When Jim studied in the Sweet Shop Second Conditional Sentences
for his chemistry quiz…
Third Conditional Sentences
(Without the word When, this would be a complete
Let’s look at each of these different types of
sentence and an independent clause; with When, it
conditional sentences in more detail.
becomes a dependent clause. A reader would ask,
“When what?”)
81
How to Use Zero Conditional Sentences If you will rest , you will feel better.
Zero conditional sentences express general truths—
situations in which one thing always causes another. If you rest , you will feel better.
When you use a zero conditional, you’re talking Explanation: Use the simple present tense in the if-
about a general truth rather than a specific instance clause.
of something. Consider the following examples:
If you set your mind to a goal, you eventually
If you don’t brush your teeth, you get cavities. achieve it.
When people smoke cigarettes, their health suffers. If you set your mind to a goal, you’ll eventually
There are a couple of things to take note of in the achieve it.
above sentences in which the zero conditional is Explanation: Use the zero conditional (i.e., simple
used. First, when using the zero conditional, the present + simple present) only when a certain result
correct tense to use in both clauses is the simple is guaranteed. If the result is likely, use the first
present tense. A common mistake is to use the conditional (i.e., simple present + simple future).
simple future tense.
How to Use Second Conditional Sentences
When people smoke cigarettes, their health will Second conditional sentences are useful for
suffer . expressing outcomes that are completely unrealistic
Secondly, notice that the words if and when can be or will not likely happen in the future. Consider the
used interchangeably in these zero conditional examples below:
sentences. This is because the outcome will always If I inherited a billion dollars, I would travel to the
be the same, so it doesn’t matter “if” or “when” it moon.
happens.
If I owned a zoo, I might let people interact with the
How to Use First Conditional Sentences animals more.
First conditional sentences are used to express
situations in which the outcome is likely (but not Notice the correct way to structure second
guaranteed) to happen in the future. Look at the conditional sentences is to use the simple past tense
examples below: in the if-clause and an auxiliary modal verb (e.g.,
could, should, would, might) in the main clause (the
If you rest, you will feel better. one that expresses the unrealistic or unlikely
If you set your mind to a goal, you’ll eventually outcome). The following sentences illustrate a
achieve it. couple of the common mistakes people make when
using the second conditional:
Note that we use the simple present tense in the if-
clause and simple future tense in the main clause— If I inherit a billion dollars, I would travel to the
that is, the clause that expresses the likely outcome. moon.
This is how we indicate that under a certain If I inherited a billion dollars, I would travel to the
condition (as expressed in the if-clause), a specific moon.
result will likely happen in the future. Examine some
of the common mistakes people make using the first Explanation: When applying the second conditional,
conditional structure: use the simple past tense in the if-clause.
82
If I owned a zoo, I will let people interact with the Explanation: With third conditional sentences, do
animals more. not use a modal auxiliary verb in the if-clause.
If I owned a zoo, I might let people interact with the If I had cleaned the house, I could go to the movies.
animals more.
If I had cleaned the house, I could have gone to the
Explanation: Use a modal auxiliary verb in the main movies.
clause when using the second conditional mood to
express the unlikelihood that the result will actually Explanation: The third conditional mood expresses a
happen. situation that could have only happened in the past if
a certain condition had been met. That’s why we use
How to Use Third Conditional Sentences the modal auxiliary verb + have + the past participle.
Third conditional sentences are used to explain that
present circumstances would be different if Exceptions and Special Cases When Using
something different had happened in the past. Look Conditional Sentences
at the following examples: As with most topics in the English language,
If you had told me you needed a ride, I would have conditional sentences often present special cases in
left earlier. which unique rules must be applied.
If I had cleaned the house, I could have gone to the Use of the Simple Future in the If-Clause
movies. Generally speaking, the simple future should be used
These sentences express a condition that was likely only in the main clause. One exception is when the
enough, but did not actually happen in the past. The action in the if-clause will take place after the action
speaker in the first sentence was capable of leaving in the main clause. For example, consider the
early, but did not. Along these same lines, the following sentence:
speaker in the second sentence was capable of If aspirin will ease my headache, I will take a couple
cleaning the house, but did not. These are all tonight.
conditions that were likely, but regrettably did not
happen. The action in the if-clause is the aspirin easing the
headache, which will take place only after the
Note that when using the third conditional, we use speaker takes them later that night.
the past perfect (i.e., had + past participle) in the if-
clause. The modal auxiliary (would, could, shoud, “Were to” in the If-Clause
etc.) + have + past participle in the main clause
The verb phrase were to is sometimes used in
expresses the theoretical situation that could have
conditional sentences when the likely or unlikely
happened.
result is particularly awful or unthinkable. In this
Consider these common mistakes when applying the case, were to is used to place emphasis on this
third conditional: potential outcome. Consider these sentences:
If you would have told me you needed a ride, I would If I were to be sick, I would miss another day of work.
have left earlier.
If she were to be late again, she would have to have
If you had told me you needed a ride, I would have a conference with the manager.
left earlier.
83
If the rent were to have been a penny more, they
would not have been able to pay it.
Note that the emphatic “were to” can be used to

describe hypothetical scenarios in the present,
future, and past.
Punctuating Conditional Sentences
Despite the complex nature of conditional sentences,

punctuating them properly is really simple!
Here’s the skinny:
Use a comma after the if-clause when the if-clause

precedes the main clause.
If I’d had time, I would have cleaned the house.
If the main clause precedes the if-clause, no

punctuation is necessary.
I would have cleaned the house if I’d had time.
84

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In the Name of Allah who is Rahman and Raheem.

For Allah, For Islam

Sayings of Allah: The Holy Quran

• Educators Muhammad Rashid (SESE English)

II. Sociolinguistics ......................................... 14 • Passive bilingualism ................................. 19

III. Discourse .............................................. 14 CODE SWITCHING ............................................ 19

IV. Strategic ............................................... 14 CODE-MIXING ...................................................... 19

Stages of Second Language Acquisition ............... 14 DIGLOSSIA............................................................ 19

Stage I: Pre-production ........................................ 15 MULTILINGUALISM .............................................. 19

Stage II: Early production ..................................... 15 A Multilingual Country ........................................ 20

• Primes ...................................................... 37 Linguistics ........................................................ 46

• Finger ....................................................... 37 Sociolinguistics .................................................... 46

Chapter # 16 Writing ..................................... 37 Style level in language ......................................... 46

• Pictogram ................................................. 37 Isoglass ............................................................ 46

• Ideograms ................................................ 37 Diglossia ........................................................... 46

• Logograms ................................................ 37 Psycholinguistics .................................................. 46

• Rebus........................................................ 37 Semantics ........................................................ 46

• Subject...................................................... 37 Synonymy ........................................................ 46

PHONOLOGY is essentially preoccupied with Alveolar / t /d /s /z /l /n/ (tongue

(c) Auditory phonetics (reception of Palatal / ʃ / ʒ / j (middle of the tongue

(a) studies the properties of sound as a Velar / k / g / ŋ (back of the tongue

PHONETICS : PLACE OF Middle vowels : / ʌ (cup) / ɜ (bird) / ə

The outer ear collects the sounds, the middle ear

Affricates : /dʒ / tʃ/ (airstream is stopped PHONOLOGY

PHONETICS : VOICE Classificatory features:

Voiceless sounds: ex. / p / s / f / Vocalic (vowels and liquids)

Syllabic (sounds which can function as the peak of

Obstruent ( sounds that involve radical

Morphological alterations have also a phonological

Back (tongue retracted from the rest position)

The morphemes which can exist independently

Full words Singular Plural

2. Bound Morphemes I. Inflectional suffix

Competence and Performance

I. Linguistics coopetence: knowledge of

Istics • Change in Social Conditions

• Passive bilingualism - refers to being able to MULTILINGUALISM

➢ How do children acquire their mother

➢ The behaviourists’ school of thought

The thought of mentalists can be understood

Chomsky suggests that the learner of any

How mentalist approach is different from

It can be concluded that Chomsky

One word has

THE CLASSIFICATION OF MACRO 1.The Emotive Function

6.The Code 6. The Metalinguistic Function

Micro Functions of Language 6. Communicating function

More than one function:-

There’s a cat stuck under the gate (Request) Code Switching

Idiolect 1. The Referential Function

2. Heterogeneous Speech 4. The Conative Function

• Phonology: description of system and

Chapter #10 Pragmatics Chapter #11 Discourse

Chapter #14 second language

Chapter #18 Language and Chapter 19. language and

▪ Sociolinguistics deals with Hyponymy

Style level in language Presupposition

Characteristics of speech sounds Invisible

Many words ending in “ly” are adverbs: quickly,

any such institution. In general, collective nouns are nouns that

of fine wool. Example:

The Different Types of Who told you to do that?

Pronouns Which dog won the race?