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What Are Human Rights?

Human rights are rights inherent to all human beings, regardless of race, sex, nationality, ethnicity,
language, religion, or any other status. Human rights include the right to life and liberty, freedom from
slavery and torture, freedom of opinion and expression, the right to work and education, and many
more. Everyone is entitled to these rights, without discrimination.

International Human Rights Law

International human rights law lays down the obligations of Governments to act in certain ways or to
refrain from certain acts, in order to promote and protect human rights and fundamental freedoms of
individuals or groups.

One of the great achievements of the United Nations is the creation of a comprehensive body of human
rights law—a universal and internationally protected code to which all nations can subscribe and all
people aspire. The United Nations has defined a broad range of internationally accepted rights, including
civil, cultural, economic, political and social rights. It has also established mechanisms to promote and
protect these rights and to assist states in carrying out their responsibilities.

The foundations of this body of law are the Charter of the United Nations and the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights, adopted by the General Assembly in 1945 and 1948, respectively. Since then, the United
Nations has gradually expanded human rights law to encompass specific standards for women, children,
persons with disabilities, minorities and other vulnerable groups, who now possess rights that protect
them from discrimination that had long been common in many societies.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)is a milestone document in the history of human
rights. Drafted by representatives with different legal and cultural backgrounds from all regions of the
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world, the Declaration was proclaimed by the United Nations General Assembly in Paris on 10 December
1948 by General Assembly resolution 217 A (III) as a common standard of achievements for all peoples
and all nations. It sets out, for the first time, fundamental human rights to be universally protected. Since
its adoption in 1948, the UDHR has been translated into more than 500 languages – the most translated
document in the world - and has inspired the constitutions of many newly independent States and many
new democracies. The UDHR, together with the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and
its two Optional Protocols (on the complaints procedure and on the death penalty) and the International
Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and its Optional Protocol, form the so-
called International Bill of Human Rights.

Economic, social and cultural rights

The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights entered into force in 1976. The
human rights that the Covenant seeks to promote and protect include:
 the right to work in just and favourable conditions;
 the right to social protection, to an adequate standard of living and to the highest attainable standards
of physical and mental well-being;
 the right to education and the enjoyment of benefits of cultural freedom and scientific progress.

Civil and political rights

The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and its First Optional Protocol entered into force
in 1976. The Second Optional Protocol was adopted in 1989.

The Covenant deals with such rights as freedom of movement; equality before the law; the right to a fair
trial and presumption of innocence; freedom of thought, conscience and religion; freedom of opinion and
expression; peaceful assembly; freedom of association; participation in public affairs and elections; and
protection of minority rights. It prohibits arbitrary deprivation of life; torture, cruel or degrading
treatment or punishment; slavery and forced labour; arbitrary arrest or detention; arbitrary interference
with privacy; war propaganda; discrimination; and advocacy of racial or religious hatred.

Human Rights Conventions

A series of international human rights treaties and other instruments adopted since 1945 have expanded
the body of international human rights law. They include the Convention on the Prevention and
Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948), the International Convention on the Elimination of All
Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965), the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination
against Women (1979), the Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) and the Convention on the
Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006), among others.

Human Rights Council

The Human Rights Council, established on 15 March 2006 by the General Assembly and reporting directly
to it, replaced the 60-year-old UN Commission on Human Rights as the key UN intergovernmental body
responsible for human rights. The Council is made up of 47 State representatives and is tasked with
strengthening the promotion and protection of human rights around the globe by addressing situations of
human rights violations and making recommendations on them, including responding to human rights
emergencies.

The most innovative feature of the Human Rights Council is the Universal Periodic Review. This unique
mechanism involves a review of the human rights records of all 192 UN member states once every four
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years. The Review is a cooperative, state-driven process, under the auspices of the Council, which
provides the opportunity for each state to present measures taken and challenges to be met to improve
the human rights situation in their country and to meet their international obligations. The Review is
designed to ensure universality and equality of treatment for every country.

UN High Commissioner for Human Rights

The United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights exercises principal responsibility for UN
human rights activities. The High Commissioner is mandated to respond to serious violations of human
rights and to undertake preventive action.

The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) is the focal point for United Nations
human rights activities. It serves as the secretariat for the Human Rights Council, the treaty bodies
(expert committees that monitor treaty compliance) and other UN human rights organs. It also
undertakes human rights field activities

Most of the core human rights treaties have an oversight body which is responsible for reviewing the
implementation of that treaty by the countries that have ratified it. Individuals, whose rights have been
violated can file complaints directly to Committees overseeing human rights treaties.

Human Rights and the UN System

Human rights is a cross-cutting theme in all UN policies and programmes in the key areas of peace and
security, development, humanitarian assistance, and economic and social affairs. As a result, virtually
every UN body and specialized agency is involved to some degree in the protection of human rights. Some
examples are the right to development, which is at the core of the Sustainable Development Goals; the
right to food, championed by the UN Food and Agriculture Organization, labour rights, defined and
protected by the International Labour Organization, gender equality, which is promulgated by UN
Women, the rights of children, indigenous peoples, and disabled persons.

Human rights day is observed every year on 10 December.

A Short History of Human Rights

The belief that everyone, by virtue of her or his humanity, is entitled to certain human rights is fairly new.
Its roots, however, lie in earlier tradition and documents of many cultures; it took the catalyst of World War
II to propel human rights onto the global stage and into the global conscience.

Throughout much of history, people acquired rights and responsibilities through their membership in a
group – a family, indigenous nation, religion, class, community, or state. Most societies have had traditions
similar to the "golden rule" of "Do unto others as you would have them do unto you." The Hindu Vedas, the
Babylonian Code of Hammurabi, the Bible, the Quran (Koran), and the Analects of Confucius are five of the
oldest written sources which address questions of people’s duties, rights, and responsibilities. In addition,
the Inca and Aztec codes of conduct and justice and an Iroquois Constitution were Native American sources
that existed well before the 18th century. In fact, all societies, whether in oral or written tradition, have had
systems of propriety and justice as well as ways of tending to the health and welfare of their members.

Precursors of 20th Century Human Rights Documents

Documents asserting individual rights, such the Magna Carta (1215), the English Bill of Rights (1689), the
French Declaration on the Rights of Man and Citizen (1789), and the US Constitution and Bill of Rights
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(1791) are the written precursors to many of today’s human rights documents. Yet many of these
documents, when originally translated into policy, excluded women, people of color, and members of
certain social, religious, economic, and political groups. Nevertheless, oppressed people throughout the
world have drawn on the principles these documents express to support revolutions that assert the right
to self-determination.

Contemporary international human rights law and the establishment of the United Nations (UN) have
important historical antecedents. Efforts in the 19th century to prohibit the slave trade and to limit the
horrors of war are prime examples. In 1919, countries established the International Labor Organization
(ILO) to oversee treaties protecting workers with respect to their rights, including their health and safety.
Concern over the protection of certain minority groups was raised by the League of Nations at the end of
the First World War. However, this organization for international peace and cooperation, created by the
victorious European allies, never achieved its goals. The League floundered because the United States
refused to join and because the League failed to prevent Japan’s invasion of China and Manchuria (1931)
and Italy’s attack on Ethiopia (1935). It finally died with the onset of the Second World War (1939).

The Birth of the United Nations

The idea of human rights emerged stronger after World War II. The extermination by Nazi Germany of over
six million Jews, Sinti and Romani (gypsies), homosexuals, and persons with disabilities horrified the world.
Trials were held in Nuremberg and Tokyo after World War II, and officials from the defeated countries were
punished for committing war crimes, "crimes against peace," and "crimes against humanity."

Governments then committed themselves to establishing the United Nations, with the primary goal of
bolstering international peace and preventing conflict. People wanted to ensure that never again would
anyone be unjustly denied life, freedom, food, shelter, and nationality. The essence of these emerging
human rights principles was captured in President Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s 1941 State of the Union
Address when he spoke of a world founded on four essential freedoms: freedom of speech and religion and
freedom from want and fear (See Using Human Rights Here & Now). The calls came from across the globe
for human rights standards to protect citizens from abuses by their governments, standards against which
nations could be held accountable for the treatment of those living within their borders. These voices
played a critical role in the San Francisco meeting that drafted the United Nations Charter in 1945.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Member states of the United Nations pledged to promote respect for the human rights of all. To advance
this goal, the UN established a Commission on Human Rights and charged it with the task of drafting a
document spelling out the meaning of the fundamental rights and freedoms proclaimed in the Charter. The
Commission, guided by Eleanor Roosevelt’s forceful leadership, captured the world’s attention.

On December 10, 1948, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) was adopted by the 56
members of the United Nations. The vote was unanimous, although eight nations chose to abstain.

The UDHR, commonly referred to as the international Magna Carta, extended the revolution in
international law ushered in by the United Nations Charter – namely, that how a government treats its own
citizens is now a matter of legitimate international concern, and not simply a domestic issue. It claims that
all rights are interdependent and indivisible. Its Preamble eloquently asserts that:

[R]ecognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human
family is the foundation of freedom, justice, and peace in the world.
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The influence of the UDHR has been substantial. Its principles have been incorporated into the constitutions
of most of the more than 185 nations now in the UN. Although a declaration is not a legally binding
document, the Universal Declaration has achieved the status of customary international law because people
regard it "as a common standard of achievement for all people and all nations."

The Human Rights Covenants

With the goal of establishing mechanisms for enforcing the UDHR, the UN Commission on Human Rights
proceeded to draft two treaties: the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and its
optional Protocol and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR).
Together with the Universal Declaration, they are commonly referred to as the International Bill of Human
Rights. The ICCPR focuses on such issues as the right to life, freedom of speech, religion, and voting. The
ICESCR focuses on such issues as food, education, health, and shelter. Both covenants trumpet the extension
of rights to all persons and prohibit discrimination.

As of 1997, over 130 nations have ratified these covenants. The United States, however, has ratified only
the ICCPR, and even that with many reservations, or formal exceptions, to its full compliance. (See From
Concept to Convention: How Human Rights Law Evolves).

Subsequent Human Rights Documents

In addition to the covenants in the International Bill of Human Rights, the United Nations has adopted more
than 20 principal treaties further elaborating human rights. These include conventions to prevent and
prohibit specific abuses like torture and genocide and to protect especially vulnerable populations, such as
refugees (Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, 1951), women (Convention on the Elimination of
All Forms of Discrimination against Women, 1979), and children (Convention on the Rights of the Child,
1989). As of 1997 the United States has ratified only these conventions:

 The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination

 The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
 The Convention on the Political Rights of Women
 The Slavery Convention of 1926
 The Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment

In Europe, the Americas, and Africa, regional documents for the protection and promotion of human rights
extend the International Bill of Human Rights. For example, African states have created their own Charter
of Human and People’s Rights (1981), and Muslim states have created the Cairo Declaration on Human
Rights in Islam (1990). The dramatic changes in Eastern Europe, Africa, and Latin America since 1989 have
powerfully demonstrated a surge in demand for respect of human rights. Popular movements in China,
Korea, and other Asian nations reveal a similar commitment to these principles.

The Role of Nongovernmental Organizations

Globally the champions of human rights have most often been citizens, not government officials. In
particular, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) have played a cardinal role in focusing the international
community on human rights issues. For example, NGO activities surrounding the 1995 United Nations
Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, China, drew unprecedented attention to serious violations
of the human rights of women. NGOs such as Amnesty International, the Antislavery Society, the
International Commission of Jurists, the International Working Group on Indigenous Affairs, Human Rights
Watch, Minnesota Advocates for Human Rights, and Survivors International monitor the actions of
governments and pressure them to act according to human rights principles.
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Government officials who understand the human rights framework can also effect far reaching change for
freedom. Many United States Presidents such as Abraham Lincoln, Franklin Roosevelt, Lyndon B. Johnson,
and Jimmy Carter have taken strong stands for human rights. In other countries leaders like Nelson
Mandela and Vaclev Havel have brought about great changes under the banner of human rights.

Human rights is an idea whose time has come. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is a call to
freedom and justice for people throughout the world. Every day governments that violate the rights of their
citizens are challenged and called to task. Every day human beings worldwide mobilize and confront
injustice and inhumanity. Like drops of water falling on a rock, they wear down the forces of oppression
and move the world closer to achieving the principles expressed in the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights.

Source: Adapted from David Shiman, Teaching Human Rights, (Denver: Center for Teaching International
Relations Publications, U of Denver, 1993): 6-7.

HISTORY – GREEK

In the 5th Century BCE, Greek philosophers of the Sophist School argued that all human beings are equal
by nature. Laws and institutions that failed to respect this basic equality, e.g. slavery, were thus branded
as being contrary to nature.

Both Plato and his disciple Aristotle, each in his own way, argued for a common nature of being human,
which is realized in a legally instituted community, i.e. the “polis”. Aristotle goes so far as to define human
being as a “social animal”, more specifically as a “political animal” (zoon politikon). The foundations for
living together as human beings are liberty, equality and justice. The civil society is a community of free
human beings.

http://www.ombudsman.gov.ph/UNDP4/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/s0urce-b00k-on-human-
rights.pdf page 73 History Origin