DJM2043 THERMOFLUIDS Topic 2- Fluids Applications

TOPIC 2
FLUID APPLICATIONS

2.1 Show relationship between pressure and depth

2.1.1 Write basic equation based on relationship pressure and depth
2.1.2 Describe pressure at same and different depths
2.1.3 Solve problems related to relationship between pressure and depth

PRESSURE & DEPTH

The pressure of a liquid is directly proportional to the depth. The formula that gives the pressure,
P on an object submerged:

P = ρgh

P, pressure
�, ,density of the fluid
g , acceleration of gravity
h , height of the fluid above the object

The deeper an object is placed in the fluid, the more pressure it experiences. This is because of
the weight of the fluid above it. The more dense the fluid above it, the more pressure is exerted
on the object that is submerged, due to the weight of the fluid.

PA = ρgh1
PB = ρgh2
PC = ρghh
h1 PC > PB > PA
•A h2

•B
•C

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2.2 Apply Pascal’s Law and hydraulic jack

2.2.1 State Pascal’s Law
2.2.2 Describe hydraulic jack
2.2.3 Solve problems regarding Pascal’s Law and hydraulic jack

PASCAL’S LAW

Pressure acting on the molecule of fluid at rest are the same value in any direction. OR
A change in pressure at any point in an enclosed fluid at rest is transmitted to all points in the
fluid.
P1
P2
P6
P6

P3
Pressure, P
P5 P1= P2= P3= P4= P5= P6
P4

HYDRAULIC JACK

A jack hydraulic is a device that uses minimum force to lift heavy loads.

A force, F is applied to the piston of the small cylinder and forces liquid (oil or water) out into
the large cylinder, raising the piston supporting the load, W. The force, F acting on area, a
produced a pressure p1 which is transmitted equally in all direction through the liquid.

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THREE (3) types of piston position

Piston position Formula

1. Both piston at the same level

F, force (N)
W, weight (N)
a, cross-sectional area of small piston (m2)
A, cross-sectional area of large piston (m2)

2. Small piston upper than large piston

F, force (N)
W, weight (N)
a, cross-sectional area of small piston (m2)
A, cross-sectional area of large piston (m2)
�, density of the fluid (kg/m3)
g , acceleration of gravity (m/s2)
h , height between two pistons (m)

3. Small piston lower than large piston

F, force (N)
W, weight (N)
a, cross-sectional area of small piston (m2)
A, cross-sectional area of large piston (m2)
�, density of the fluid (kg/m3)
g , acceleration of gravity (m/s2)
h , height between two pistons (m)

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2.3 Apply concept of manometer, piezometer and barometer

2.3.1 Explain concept of manometer, piezometer and barometer
2.3.2 Solve problems regarding manometer;
a. Simple U-Tube manometer
b. Differential U-Tube manometer
c. Inverted U-Tube manometer
2.3.3 Solve problems regarding piezometer and barometer

CONCEPT OF PIEZOMETER, BAROMETER & MANOMETER.

1. Piezometer
A Piezometer is used for measuring pressure inside a vessel or
pipe in which liquid is there. A tube may be attached to the walls
of the container (or pipe) in which the liquid resides so that liquid
can rise in the tube. By determining the height to which liquid
rises and using the relation p1 = ρgh, gauge pressure of the liquid
can be determined. Although the Piezometer tube is a very simple
and accurate pressure measuring device, it has several
disadvantages. It is only suitable if the pressure in the container
(pipe or vessel) is greater than the atmospheric pressure. Also, the
fluid in the container in which the pressure is to be measured must
be a liquid rather than a gas.

2. Barometer
A Barometer is a device used for measuring atmospheric pressure.
A simple Barometer consists of a tube of more than 30 inch (760
mm) long inserted into an open container of mercury with a closed
and evacuated end at the top and open tube end at the bottom and
with mercury extending from the container up into the tube. The
space above the liquid cannot be a true vacuum. It contains
mercury vapour at its saturated vapour pressure, but this is
extremely small at room temperatures (e.g. 0.173 Pa at 20oC). The
atmospheric pressure is calculated from the relation patm = ρgh
where ρ is the density of fluid in the barometer. There are two
types of Barometer;
Mercury Barometer and Aneroid Barometer.**

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DJM2043 THERMOFLUIDS Topic 2- Fluids Applications

Barometer, a device for measuring atmospheric pressure (the pressure resulting from the weight of the air above a
given point). Because a change in atmospheric pressure is a sign of changing weather, this instrument is one of the
chief tools of the weather forecaster. A falling" barometer, indicating reduced pressure, shows that a low-pressure
mass of air is approaching. Such low-pressure systems generally bring storms. A rising" barometer generally means
an approaching high-pressure air mass and fairer weather.

Another use of a barometer is as an altimeter, a device that measures heights. As altitude increases, atmospheric
pressure decreases because there is less air to press down. A barometer used as an altimeter has a scale marked in
feet or meters above sea level.

Two forms of barometers in common use are the mercury barometer and the aneroid barometer.

Mercury Barometer

The mercury barometer consists of a hollow glass tube, about three feet (0.9 m) long, closed at one end and filled
with mercury. The open end is placed in an open vessel of mercury called a cistern. The mercury column in the tube
will drop until the weight (pressure) of the air pushing down on the mercury in the cistern is equal to the weight of the
mercury remaining in the tube. The higher the atmospheric pressure, the higher the mercury will stand in the tube.
Similarly, the lower the atmospheric pressure, the lower the mercury will stand.

A change in the height of the mercury, or barometric column, therefore, indicates a corresponding change in the
weight of the atmosphere. These changes may be measured by means of markings on the tube. The average height
of the barometric column at sea level is 29.92 inches (760 mm). This height indicates a pressure of one atmosphere,
or about 14.7 pounds per square inch (101,300 pascals). (On weather maps, barometric pressure is usually
expressed in millibars; one atmosphere is equal to about 1,013 millibars.)

The mercury barometer was invented in 1643 by Evangelista Torricelli, an Italian physicist. It is used mainly in
laboratories and weather stations.

Aneroid Barometer

A more rugged and easily portable instrument is the aneroid, or dry, barometer. While not as accurate as the mercury
type, the aneroid barometer will show much smaller changes in atmospheric pressure.

The aneroid barometer contains a cylindrical container with a flexible top. Air is partially removed from inside the
container, and the top, or diaphragm, flexes with each change of atmospheric pressure. Delicate levers transmit these
movements to a pointer that moves over a graduated scale.

Aneroid barometers with altitude scales are commonly used for aircraft altimeters. In determining altitude,
adjustments must be made to account for changes in air pressure due to the weather. Barometers sold for home use
are generally of the aneroid type.

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The horizontal position which the difference liquid attached in the left-hand limb is known as a
reference surface or DATUM LINE.

3. Simple U-Tube manometer Calculate PA:

4. Simple U-Tube manometer Calculate PA:

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5. Differential U-Tube manometer Calculate PA – PB:

6. Inverted U-Tube manometer Calculate PA – PB:

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2.4 Explain concept of a bourdon gauge

2.4.1 Sketch important parts of bourdon gauge
2.4.2 Explain mechanism of a bourdon gauge

Concept of a bourdon gauge:

Bourdon Gauge is used to measure pressure

differences that are more than 1.2 bar. The
pressure to be measured is applied to a curved
tube, oval in cross section. Pressure applied to
the tube tends to cause the tube to straighten out,
and the deflection of the end of the tube is
communicated through a system of levers to a
recording needle. This gauge is widely used for
steam and compressed gases. The pressure
indicated is the difference between that
communicated by the system to the external
pressure, and is usually referred to as the gauge
pressure.

Mechanism of a bourdon gauge:

i. The pressure sensing element is a tube of

oval cross-section bent to a circular
shape.
ii. One end of the tube is fixed to the gauge
case and is connected to the fluid whose
pressure is to be measured.
iii. The other end is closed and is free to
move as it is connected by mechanical
linkage and gear sector to a pointer.
iv. As measured fluid pressure increases
above the surroundings, the tube cross-
Schematic diagram of bourdon gauge section tends to become circular and
causes the tube to deflect at the second
end.
v. This motion is transmitted by linkage to
the pointer, which would directly indicate
on the calibrated scale or dial on the
gauge pressure.

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2.5 Explain concept of buoyancy

2.5.1 Define buoyancy force
2.5.2 Solve problems related to buoyancy force

It states that a fluid will exert an upward force, called buoyant force on an object immersed in it
equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object. If the buoyancy exceeds the weight, the
object floats. If the weight exceeds the buoyancy, the object sinks.

B = ρgV
Buoyant Force, B (N)
Density of fluid, ρ (kg/m3)
Displaced Volume, V (m3)

Example of buoyancy

Question 10: (Concept of buoyancy)

A box with 30 cm length, 45 cm width and 20 cm high submerged in the water. Calculate:
a) The weight of the box
b) The mass of the box
c) The depth of the box if it submerged in the sea water (mass density of sea water, � sea water
= 1025 kg/m3).
(Answer: 264.87 N, 27 kg, 0.195 m)

Question 11: (Concept of buoyancy)

An ice-cube with 0.5 m length, 0.25 m width and 0.25 m high (specific gravity of ice-cube, S ice-
cube = 0.9) floating in a reservoir containing water. Calculate an ice-cube high exposed.
(Answer: 0.02 m)

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EXERCISES

Question 1: (Pressure and depth)

Find the depth of a point below surface in sea if the pressure reading is 105.55 kN/m2. Specific
gravity of sea water is 1.025.
(Answer: 10.49 m)

Question 2: (Hydraulic jack)

A force, P of 650 N is applied to the smaller cylinder of the hydraulic jack. The area, a of a small
piston is 15 cm2 and the area, A of a larger piston is 150 cm2. Sketch the figure at each situation
below and calculate the load, W can be lifted on the larger piston if:

i. The pistons are at the same level

ii. The larger piston is 0.65 m below the smaller piston
iii. The small piston is 0.40 m below the larger piston
(mass density of the liquid in the hydraulic jack is 1000 kg/m3)

(Answer: 6500 N, 6595.65N, 6441.14 N)

Question 3: (Simple U-tube manometer)

Figure 3 shows simple U-tube manometer included mercury to measure water pressure. Given
specific gravity of mercury, Smercury = 13.6, h1 = 0.45m and h2 = 0.7m. Calculate the gauge
pressure at A.

Figure 3
(Answer: 88.98 kN/m2)

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Question 4: (Simple U-tube manometer)

Figure 4 shows simple U-tube manometer included mercury to measure water pressure. Given
specific gravity of mercury, Smercury = 13.6, h1 = 1.0m and h2 = 0.4m. Calculate the gauge pressure
at A.

Figure 4
(Answer: 38.12 kN/m2)

Question 5: (Simple U-tube manometer)

Figure 5 shows simple U-tube manometer included mercury to measure oil pressure. Calculate
the gauge pressure at A if differential mercury level is 50 cm. Given mass density of oil, �oil =
800 kg/m3.

Figure 5

(Answer: 68.67 kN/m2)

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Question 6: (Differential U-Tube manometer)

In the figure 6, shows a U-tube manometer is used to measure the fluid pressure difference
between pipe A and pipe B. U-tube containing the mercury. Calculate the pressure between the
pipe A and pipe B if given h1 = 160 cm, h2 = 50 cm and h3 = 80 cm. Fluid A and B (�water =1000
kg/m3) and specific gravity of mercury is 13.6.

Figure 6

(Answer: 53.96 kN/m2)

Question 7: (Differential U-Tube manometer)

In the figure 7, a differential U-tube manometer is used to measure the pressure difference in two
pipes. If the pressure between A and B is 5.4 kN/m2, c = 23 cm, d = 11 cm and e = 5 cm,
calculate the relative density of the oil. (Given Smercury = 13.6).

Figure 7
(Answer: 0.81)

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Question 8: (Inverted U-Tube manometer)

In the figure 8, an inverted manometer connected at two points A and B. U-tube manometer
containing oil (Soil = 0.95). Calculate the pressure difference between pipe A and B if given p =
22 cm, q = 80 cm and r = 10 cm. Mass density of water is 1000 kg/m3).

Figure 8

(Answer: -1.71 kN/m2)

Question 9: (Inverted U-Tube manometer)

In the figure 9, shows an inverted U-tube manometer is used to measure the pressure difference
in two pipes. U-tube containing oil (Soil = 0.8). Calculate the pressure difference between pipe A
and pipe B.

Figure 9
(Answer: 13.34 kN/m2)

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2.6 Describe difference types of flow

2.6.1 Define types of flow
a. Uniform flow
b. Steady flow
c. Unsteady flow
d. Laminar flow
e. Turbulent flow
2.6.2 Describe different characteristics of laminar and turbulent flow

2.6 Fluid flow

Motion of a fluid subjected to unbalanced forces or stresses. The motion continues as long as
unbalanced forces are applied.

2.6.1 Types Of Flow

a) Uniform flow
The cross-sectional area and velocity of the stream of fluid are the same at each successive
cross-section.

b) Steady flow
The cross-sectional area and velocity of the stream of fluid are different at each successive
cross-section.

c) Unsteady flow
The cross-sectional area and velocity of the stream may vary from cross-section, but for each
cross-section they change/fluctuate with time.

d) Laminar flow
Also known as streamline or viscous flow, in which the particles of the fluid move in an
orderly manner and retain the same relative positions in successive cross-sections. OR

In laminar flow the motion of the particles of fluid is very orderly with all particles moving in
straight lines parallel to the pipe walls.

e) Turbulent flow

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Turbulent flow is a non-steady flow in which the particles of fluid move in a disorderly
manner, occupying different relative positions in successive cross-sections.

2.6.2 Characteristics Of Laminar And Turbulent Flow

Laminar flow
 Re < 2000
 'low' velocity
 Dye does not mix with water
 Fluid particles move in straight lines
 Simple mathematical analysis possible
 Rare in practice in water systems.
Transitional flow
 2000 > Re < 4000
 'medium' velocity
 Dye stream wavers in water - mixes slightly.
Turbulent flow
 Re > 4000
 'high' velocity
 Dye mixes rapidly and completely
 Particle paths completely irregular
 Average motion is in the direction of the flow
 Changes/fluctuations are very difficult to detect.
 Mathematical analysis very difficult

2.7 Describe flow rate

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2.7.1 Define volume flow rate and mass flow rate

2.7.2 Find volume flow rate and mass flow rate

2.7 Flow Rate or Discharge - is the volume of fluid which moving through a pipe or channel
per unit time.

Q, Flow rate (m3/s)

A, Cross-sectional area (m2)
v, Velocity (m/s)

2.71 Mass Flow Rate - is the mass of a substance which moving through a pipe or channel per
unit time.

, mass flow rate (kg/s)

, mass density (kg/m3)

, flow rate (m3/s)

2.7.2 Find volume flow rate and mass flow rate

EXAMPLE 1:

The diameter of a 360 cm length of pipe increases uniformly from 30 cm to 90 cm as shown in

figure 1. Kerosene flows through the pipe with a velocity of 1.8 m/s at the 30 cm diameter of the
pipe. (Specific gravity of Kerosene oil is 0.82). Determine the ;

i. velocity at the 90 cm diameter of the pipe.

ii. flow rate (discharge).
iii. Mass flow rate

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360 cm

30 cm diameter 90 cm diameter

Figure 1

ANSWER:

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2.8 Apply continuity equation law

2.8.1 State continuity equation law
2.8.2 Solve problems related to continuity equation in single and branch pipe.

2.8 Continuity Equation

The continuity equation is simply a mathematical expression of the principle of conservation of

mass. For a control volume that has a single inlet and a single outlet, the principle of
conservation of mass states that the mass flow rate into the volume must equal the mass flow rate
out.

2.8.1 State continuity equation law

For a control volume with multiple inlets and outlets, the principle of conservation of mass
required that the sum of the mass flow rates into the control volume equal the sum of the mass
flow rates out of the control volume.

One of the simplest applications of the continuity equation is determining the change in fluid
velocity due to an expansion or contraction in the diameter of a pipe.

Types of inlet and outlet system Continuity Equation

1.

2.

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3.

2.8.2 Solve problems related to continuity equation in single and branch pipe.

EXAMPLE 2
Figure 2 shows a round pipe A with a diameter of 20 mm. Oil flow splits into two at the end.
Pipe B with a diameter of 10 mm has a velocity, v B = 0.3 m/s and pipe C with diameter 15 mm
has velocity, vC = 0.6 m/s. Calculate QB, QC and vA.

Ø10mm B
0.3m/s
Ø20mm
A

C
Ø15mm
Rajah X 0.6m/s

Figure 2
EXAMPLE 3
The main pipe A with a diameter of 50 mm flows oil with the flow rate of QA = 2QB .The pipe
then split into 2 pipes, where pipe B has a diameter of 95 mm and velocity of 2 m/s. Pipe C has a
flow velocity of 0.6 m/s. Calculate:
i. Discharge in pipe B, A and C
ii. Diameter of pipe C

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2.9 Apply Bernoulli Theorem

2.9.1 State Bernoulli Theorem
2.9.2 State the limits of Bernouli Theorem
2.9.3 Solve problems related to Bernoulli Theorem in:
a. Horizontal pipe
b. Incline pipe
c. Horizontal venturi meter
d. Incline venturi meter
e. Orifice meter
f. Pitot tube
2.9.4 Illustrate the important parts of venturi meter

2.9 BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE (Bernoulli’s Theorem)

The history of Bernoulli’s Principle

Bernoulli's was named after the Swiss scientist Daniel Bernoulli

(1700-1782) who lived during the eighteenth century. Bernoulli
studied the relationship of the speed (velocity) of a fluid and
pressure. The principle states that "THE PRESSURE OF A FLUID
(LIQUID OR GAS) DECREASES AS THE SPEED (VELOCITY) OF
Daniel Bernoulli
THE FLUID INCREASES."

2.9.1 Definition of Bernoulli’s Equation

Bernoulli’s Theorem states that the total head of energy of each particle (molecules) of fluid
entering the system is equal to the total head of energy of each particle (molecules) of fluid
leaving the system. The types of the head of potential, pressure and kinetic energy may vary, but
the total remains constant.

By Bernoulli’s Theorem,
Total energy per unit volume at section 1 = Total energy per unit volume at section 2

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2
p1 v2 p v
H  z1   1  z2  2  2
 2g  2g
z = potential head of energy

pressure head of energy

kinetic head of energy

H = Total head of energy

Unit for head of energy is meter (m).

2.9.2 The limitation of Bernoulli’s Equation

Bernoulli’s Equation is the most important and useful equation in fluid mechanics. It may
be written,

2
p v2 p v
z1  1  1  z 2  2  2
 2g  2g

Bernoulli’s Equation has some restrictions (limitation) in its applicability:

o the flow is steady

o friction losses are negligible
o the density is constant
o the equation relates at two points along a single streamline

2.9.3 Application Of Bernoulli’s Equation

a) Horizontal Pipe
b) Incline Pipe
c) Horizontal ventury meter
d) Incline ventury meter

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e) Orifice
f) Pitot Tube

Exercise (1): (HORIZONTAL PIPE)

(a)

36m
m
m

Figure (a)

Water flows through a pipe 36 m from the sea level as shown in figure (a). Pressure in the
pipe is 410 kN/m2 and the velocity is 4.8 m/s. Calculate the total head of energy in the
pipe.

(b) A horizontal pipe 14.00 cm in diameter has a smooth reduction to a pipe 7.00 cm in
diameter. If the velocity of the water in the larger pipe 30 m/s and the pressure in the
larger pipe is 850x103 Pa, calculate the pressure in the larger pipe.

Exercise (2): (INCLINE PIPE)

(a)
M

5m 5m
3m

Figure (a)

A tapper pipe labeled MN measures 5 m and 3 m respectively above the datum line.
The diameter M and N are both 20 cm and 5 cm. The water pressure is 490.5 kN/m2.
If the velocity at M is 1.0 m/s, determine the pressure at N in kN/m2.

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= 0.055(12.6)

= 0.693 m

0.693 m

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0.693 m