GENERAL BIOLOGY II
1 QUARTER S.Y ‘19-’20
ST
REVIEWER
 COMPARE AND CONTRAST: NUTRIENT
PROCUREMENT AND PROCESSING IN PLANTS AND
ANIMALS
Nutrient - refers to any substance required for the growth and
maintenance of an organism.
2 TYPES OF ORGANISM BASED ON HOW THEY ACQUIRE
NUTRIENTS
A. autotrophs – organisms that obtain energy from sunlight and
chemicals to produce their own food.
Examples: plants; chemosynthetic bacteria
B. heterotrophs – organisms that cannot make their own food
and obtain their energy from other organisms. Examples: animals,
fungi
NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF PLANTS:
A. water
B. carbon dioxide
C. essential nutrients or elements – which include macronutrients
which are normally required in amounts above 0.5% of the plant’s
dry weight; and micronutrients which are required in minute or
trace amounts;
examples of macronutrients: C, H, O, N, K, Ca, Mg, P, S
examples of micronutrients: Cl, Fe, B, Mn, Zn, Co, Mo
ROUTES FOR THE ABSORPTION OF WATER AND
MINERALS ACROSS PLANT ROOTS
A. Symplast route – through plasmodesmata
B. Apoplast route – along cell walls 
 SYSTEM:
ABSORPTIVE STRUCTURES OF PLANTS
A. root hairs – slender extensions of specialized epidermal cells
that greatly increase the surface area available for absorption.
B. root nodules – localized swellings in roots of certain plants
where bacterial cells exist symbiotically with the plant. The
bacteria help the plant fix nitrogen and in turn, the bacteria are
able to utilize some organic compounds provided by the plant.
*mycorrhizae (singular, mycorrhiza) – a symbiotic interaction
between a young root and a fungus. The fungus obtains sugars
and nitrogen-containing compounds from root cells while the plant
is able to get some scarce minerals that the fungus is better able
to absorb from the soil. 
 pharynx through an opening in the diaphragm to the stomach
NUTRITIONAL ADAPTATION BY PLANTS:
A. Symbiosis of plants and soil microbes
B. Symbiosis of plants and fungi
C. Parasitism
D. Predation
CALORIE- is a unit of energy that indicates the amount of
energy contained in food.
NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF ANIMALS:
A. Carbohydrates
B. Proteins
C. Fats
D. Essential Nutrients
a) Essential Amino Acids
b) Essential Fatty Acids
c) Vitamins
d) Trace Elements/Minerals
TYPES OF ANIMALS BASED ON FEEDING MECHANISMS:
I. Substrate-feeders – animals that live in or on their food
source.
Examples: earthworms, caterpillars, flatworms
II. Filter-feeders – include many aquatic animals which draw in
water and strain small organisms and food particles
present in the medium.
Examples: whales and coelenterates; Jellyfish, Corals,
Sea anemones
III. Fluid-feeders – suck fluids containing nutrients from a living
host.
Examples: mosquitoes, leeches, head lice, aphids
IV. Bulk-feeders – eat relatively large chunks of food and have
adaptations like jaws, teeth, tentacles, claws, pincers, etc.
that help in securing the food and tearing it to pieces.
Examples: snakes, cats, man 

DIFFERENT KINDS OF DIGESTIVE COMPARTMENTS IN
ANIMALS:
I. Food vacuoles in unicellular organisms – these fuse with
lysosomes that contain hydrolytic enzymes. Example: food
vacuole in a protozoa like Paramecium
II. Gastrovascular cavity or incomplete digestive system –
composed of a single opening through which food is taken in and
where wastes are disposed of; it is a saclike body cavity.
Examples: in the cnidarian Hydra and in flatworm Planaria
III. Complete digestive system – essentially like a tube with an
opening at one end for taking in food (mouth) and an opening at
the other end where unabsorbed waste materials are eliminated
(anus). In between the mouth and anus, are specialized organs
that carry out transport, processing, and absorption of digested
nutrients.
ACCESSORY FOR DIGESTION IN COMPLETE DIGESTIVE
1. Liver- secretes bile for emulsifying fats
2. Gall bladder- stores bile produced by the liver
3. Pancreas- secretes enzymes that breakdown all major food
molecules; secretes buffer against HCl from the stomach;
secretes hormones insulin for control of glucose metabolism.
ORGANS OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL:
A. Mouth - anterior opening of th tube for the entrance of food;
digestion of carbohydrates begins here.
B. Pharynx - posterior part of the oral cavity for passage of food
and air; where swallowing takes place
C. Esophagus - collapsible muscular tube extending from the
D. Stomach - highly muscular pouch found in the epigastric and
left hypochondriac portions of the abdominal cavity; digestion of
proteins begins here.
CELLS IN THE STOMACH
1. Parietal Cell - secretes HCL which converts
pepsinogen to pepsin (breaks down proteins in
stomach)
2. Mucus Neck Cell - secretes mucus
3. Chief Cell - secretes pepsinogen
E. Small intestine - longest part of the digestive tube; where
pancreas is connected
3 portions:
Anterior duodenum - Final digestion
Middle jejunum - absorption
Posterior ileum - absorption
F. Large intestine - for water and Na ion absorption and
temporary storage of the fecal matter
G. Anus - terminal opening of the digestive tube
mmjtt
 GENERAL BIOLOGY II
1 QUARTER S.Y ‘19-’20
ST
REVIEWER
 COMPARE AND CONTRAST: GAS EXCHANGE IN
PLANTS AND ANIMALS
GAS EXCHANGE - Is the uptake of molecular oxygen from the
environment and the discharge of carbon dioxide to the
environment
STRUCTURES FOR GAS EXCHANGE IN PLANTS:
1. Stomata in Leaves
2. Lenticels in Stem
3. Root Hairs in Aerial Roots
4. Pneumatophores or Lateral Roots of Mangroves
RESPIRATORY SURFACES IN INVERTEBRATES
1. Cell surface or cell membrane – used in unicellular organisms;
Examples: protozoa, paramecium
2. Integumentary exchange – refers to the general body surface
or skin used by animals with high surface-to-volume ratio;
Examples: earthworm, flatworm
3. External Gills – used by invertebrates that live in aquatic
habitats; gills are highly folded, thin-walled, vascularized
epidermis that project outward from the body e.g. crayfish, lobster,
sea star, nudibranch
4. Tracheal System – (arthropods) utilizes fine air-conducting
tubules to provide gaseous exchange at the cellular level; it is not
dependent on a circulatory system e.g. insects, spiders
RESPIRATORY SURFACES IN VERTEBRATES
1. External Gills – thin, vascularized epidermis that project from
the body surface of a few amphibians; e.g. larval salamander
2. Internal Gills - rows of slits or pockets in adult fishes
positioned at the back of the mouth such that water that enters
the mouth can flow over them as it exits just behind the head; E.g
fishes (Carp, Mackerel, Gold fish etc.)
3. Lungs - internal respiratory surfaces shaped as a cavity or
sac; lung provide a membrane for gaseous exchange since they
are not in direct contact with all other parts of the body, lungs
require a circulatory. (reptiles, some amphibians, birds,
mammals)
RESPIRATORY PROBLEMS AND IMPACT ON PUBLIC
HEALTH
1. Asthma - Muscles around bronchioles contract more than
usual, increasing resistance to airflow
2. Emphysema - Abnormal condition of the lungs marked by
decreased respiratory function; associated with smoking or
chronic bronchitis or old age
 COMPARE AND CONTRAST: TRANSPORT AND
CIRCULATION IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS
Functions of Xylem and Phloem
Plant transport involves:
1. Absorption of water through roots
2. Up and down movement of substances in phloem
*Absorption of water plus macronutrients and micronutrients
through the root system by diffusion
*Root hairs increase the surface area for transport
*Epidermis>cortex> endodermis> pericycle>move upwards by
means of xylem vessels
Two major hypotheses on how substances can move up and
down the plant body:
I. Ascent of xylem sap
1. “push” from below by the water molecules gushing
upwards through xylem vessels
2. “pull” from above by a combination of transpiration
(evaporation of water from the plant body) and cohesion of
water molecules through hydrogen bonds
II. Pressure flow or bulk flow
1. “source” cell is where photosynthesis occurs (leaf cells)
2. “sink” cell is where the nutrients are needed (sucrose and
other substances, growing parts of the plants e.g. buds,
flowers, fruits, root tips)
ANIMAL CIRCULATION
Typical tetrapod blood pumped
1. By pulmonary arteries, (away)from heart to lungs
2. By pulmonary veins,(towards) back to heart
Fish Circulation: e.g catfish, carp, mackerel
A. 2-chambered heart
B. Single Circulation
Ventricle>Gill Capillaries>Body Capillaries>Atrium
Amphiban/Most Reptiles e.g lizard, frog, larval salamander
A. 3-chambered heart
B. Double Circulation
Ventricle>Lungs capillaries>Left Atrium>Ventricle
(Mixed blood)>Body capillaries>Right Atrium
Mammals/Birds/Some reptiles e.g dolphine, whale, lion, tiger,
crocodile, human
A. 4-chambered heart
B. Double Circulation
(Pulmonary Circulation): Right Ventricle>Lung
Capillaries>Left Atrium>(Systemic Circulation): Left
Ventricle>Body Capillaries>Right Atrium
 COMPARE AND CONTRAST PROCESS IN PLANTS AND
ANIMALS: REPRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT
TYPES OF REPRODUCTION:
1. Asexual Reproduction - Mode of reproduction that does not
involve the use of gametes or sex cells
TYPES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
A. Binary Fission - involving the division of body into two or
more equal parts
ex. Paramecium
B. Budding - where a new individual arises as an outgrowth
(bud) from its parent, develops organs like those of the
parent, and then detaches itself.
ex. Hydra
C. Fragmentation- where the body breaks into two or more
parts, with each fragment capable of becoming a
complete individual; in animals, fragmentation is
usually followed by regeneration where the missing
parts are produced.
- filamentous alga, i.e. Spirogyra or Oedogonium, and
a detached starfish arm growing lost parts
D. Sporulation - where a new individual forms from an
aggregation of cells surrounded by a resistant
capsule or spore, which later on germinates.
ex. fungus, i.e. Rhizopus, as example
mmjtt
 GENERAL BIOLOGY II
1 QUARTER S.Y ‘19-’20
ST
REVIEWER
2. Sexual reproduction - Mode of reproduction that involves the
use of gametes or sex cells
SPECIAL TERMS FOR SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
A. Bisexual reproduction - Type of sexual reproduction
involving the union of gametes from two genetically different
parents
ex. in humans, and papaya among others
B. Hermaphrodite - An individual with both male and female
reproductive tissues. In animals “self fertilization” is not
common. In worms, a hermaphrodite needs a male to
donate sperms in order to fertilize the oocytes in its body.
ex. barnacles; worms
FLOWER - Reproductive structure in flowering plants; made up of
four major whorls
4 MAJOR WHORLS
1. Sepals - The outermost whorls of a flower; collectively called
the calyx
2. Petals - Whorl inner to the sepals; may be brightly colored in
some; collectively called the corolla
3. Stamen - Whorl inner to the petals; the male reproductive
structure of the flower; bears the male sporangia (also known as
microsporangia)
A. Anther - Part of the stamen that contains the
microsporangia that develops into pollen grains
B. Filament - Part of the stamen that serves as the stalk of
the anther
4. Pistil or carpels - Innermost whorl of the flower; the female
reproductive structure of the flower; bears the female
sporangia (also known as the megasporangia)
a. Stigma - pollen grain derived from the
microsporangium attaches during pollination.
b. Style - serves as the stalk of the stigma; leads to the
ovary
c. Ovary - base of the pistil; contains one or more
ovules; becomes the fruit.
d. Ovule - Contains the female sporangia or
megasporangia; eventually becomes the seed
TYPES OF FLOWERS BASED ON THE PRESENCE OF
REPRODUCTIVE WHORLS
1. Perfect / Bisexual - has both stamens and carpels, and may
be described as "bisexual" or "hermaphroditic“.
e.g tomatoes, morning glories, snapdragons, petunias,
lilies and irises.
2. Imperfect / Unisexual - contain only one sex organ.
A. Staminate flower
B. Carpellate flower
e.g asparagus, spinach, willow and cottonwood.
PLANT TYPES BASED ON THE PRESENCE OF
REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES
I. Gametophyte - Development through gametogenesis
A. Male gametophyte
B. Female gametophyte
II. Pollination
A. Transfer of pollen grain from the anther to the stigma
B. May be animal-aided or wind-aided
III. Double Fertilization (Process)
A. The pollen grain adheres to the stigma, which contains
two cells; a generative cell and a tube cell
B. The pollen tube cell grows into the style
C.The generative cell travels inside the pollen tube and
divides to form two sperm
D. The pollen tube penetrates an opening in the ovule
E. One of the sperm fertilizes the egg and the other sperm
fertilizes the two polar nuclei
STAGES OF ANIMAL DEVELOPMENT
1. Gametogenesis- Stage of development that yields haploid
gametes
2. Fertilization- Stage of development that results in a unicellular
diploid zygote
3. Cleavage- Stage of development involving a series of mitotic
divisions to produce a multicellular blastula from a unicellular
zygote
4. Gastrulation- Stage of development involving morphogenetic
movements of the cells to produce a gastrula with distinct germ
cell layers; in vertebrates, this will result in three layers: the
outermost ectoderm; the inner endoderm, and the middle layer,
the mesoderm
5. Organogenesis- Stage of development where the different
germ layers differentiate into specific organ systems
6.Growth- Stage of development characterized by an increase in
size of an individual
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
1. Testis- Where sperms are produced
2. Epididymis- Where sperms are temporarily stored
3. Scrotal sac/scrotum - Supports the testis and epididymis
4. Vas deferens - Where the sperm passes through from the
testis before it joins the urethra
5. Urethra - Connected to the urethra and the urinary bladder;
serves as passageway of both sperm and urine and terminates in
the external urinary meatus of the penis
6. Seminal vesicle - Secretes fluid that forms part of the semen
7. Prostate gland - Secretes fluid that also provides alkalinity to
the semen
8. Bulbourethral glands- Paired glands that produce clear,
viscous secretion known as pre-ejaculate that helps to lubricate
the urethra for sperm to pass through, neutralizing traces of acidic
urine in the urethra, and helps flush out any residual urine or
foreign matter
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
1. Clitoris- The homologue (equivalent) of the penis in females
2.Vagina- Main entrance to the female reproductive tract;
receives the penis during sexual intercourse
3.Cervix- Where the vagina ends; projection of the uterus into the
vagina; leads to the uterus
4.Uterus- Also known as the womb; where the embryo develops;
with thick muscular walls, blood vessels; and the endometrial
lining
5. Endometrial lining/endometrium- Innermost lining of the uterus
where the embryo implants and develop
6.Fallopian tubes- Also known as oviducts; paired tubes that are
connected to the uterus and terminate near the ovaries; this is
where fertilization takes place
7. Ovaries- Female gonads that release the oocytes during
ovulation, which are then caught by the fimbrae of the fallopian
tubes in order for the oocytes to pass on to the fallopian tubes.
mmjtt