IGCSE Biology (9-1) Triple Award
active site has changed its shape
Characteristics of living things
Movement
Respiration
Sensitivity
Growth
Reproduction
Excretion
Nutrition
Cells
Eukaryotic cell- Has membrane bound organelles
Prokaryotic cell- Has NO membrane bound organelles
 Cell membrane controls entry and exit of substances into a cell.
 Cytoplasm is where chemical reactions take place.
 Nucleus controls the activities of the cell.
 Mitochondrion is where aerobic respiration takes place.
 Ribosomes play a role in protein synthesis.
 Vacuoles are filled with cell sap that contains dissolved sugars
and mineral salts
 Chloroplasts carry out photosynthesis and is filled with
chlorophyll
 Cell wall is made of cellulose, protects and supports the cell
CELL TISSUE  TISSUE  ORGAN  ORGAN SYSTEM
 A group of _____ working together to perform the same
function.
 Organ systems- Digestive system, Endocrine System,
Reproductive system, Circulatory system, Respiratory
system, Nervous system, Excretory system
Differentiation- process where cells are specialised.
Stem cells- Have the ability to divide many times without differenciating.
 Embryonic can differenciate into any time of cell.
 Adult cannot differenciate and only produces Red Blood Cells.
Kingdoms – Plants, Protoctists, Animals, Fungi, Bacteria
 Bacterial cell- Pathogenic/non-pathogenic and Unicellular
 Viruses – Non-living, Pathogenic and DO NOT-excrete,
respire, grow
 Protoctists – Unicellular/multicellular
 Fungi – have thread-like structures called hyphae that form
a network called mycelium, carry out saprotrophic
nutrition- extracellular secretion of enzymes onto dead matter.
(glucose  ethanol + carbon dioxide) -yeast
Biological Molecules
Carbohydrates carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
Proteins carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, [sulfur]
Lipids carbon, hydrogen, oxygen [3 fatty acids + glycerol]
EnzymesBiological catalysts that speed up the reaction without
being used up.
 Amylase digests starch to glucose [salivary glands, small
intestine, pancreas]
 Protease digests proteins to amino acids [salivary glands,
small intestine, pancreas]
 Lipase digests lipids to fatty acids + glycerol [small intestine,
pancreas]
Effect of Temperature on enzyme activity
 At low temperatures, enzyme substrates have very little kinetic
energy.
 Too high temperatures cause enzymes to denature and the
Effect of pH level on enzyme activity.
 Enzymes have different optimum pH levels.
Transport
 Diffusion Net movement of particles from an area of a high
concentration to an area of low concentration.
 Osmosis Net movement of water molecules from an area of
high water potential to an area of low water potential.
 Active transport Net movement of particles from an area of
low concentration to area of high concentration using energy.
[Amoeba single celled and has high surface area to volume ratio to
increase diffusion rate.]
Photosynthesis
 Light is absorbed by chloroplast that contain chlorophyll.
 Carbon dioxide enters leaf through stomata.
Carbon dioxide + water  glucose +
oxygen
6 CO2 + 6 H2O  C6H12O6 + 6 O2
Limiting factors
 Temperature
 Carbon dioxide
 Light intensity
Role of Diffusion in gas exchange in plants
 Oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse into the leaf through stomata
 During day, excess oxygen diffuses out of the leaf into atmosphere
leaf structure
Adaptation large surface area, thin, flat
Functions
 Waxy cuticle To prevent transpiration
 Upper epidermis transparent to allow sunlight to enter leaf.
 Palisade mesophyll contains a lot of chloroplasts which
absorb light for photosynthesis
 Spongy mesophyll air spaces to allow diffusion of gases
 Vein contains xylem and phloem
 Guard cells control opening and closure of stomata
 Stomataallows carbon dioxide in and oxygen out of leaf
Glucose made in photosynthesis used to make proteins, fats, cellulose for
cell walls, starch for storage.
Mineral ions are absorbed by active transport into root hair cell
 Magnesium to make chlorophyll [deficiency= yellow leaves]
 Nitratesto build proteins [deficiency=stunted growth]
Digestive system Breakdown of large insoluble molecules into small
soluble ones.
Peristalsis  muscular contractions push the bolus of food down the
oesophagus
Hydrochloric acid breaks down food, kills pathogens
Bile made in LIVER, stored in GALL BLADDER and released in small
intestine.
 Emulsifier it breaks down large fat droplets into small ones to
increase surface area for LIPASE to work more easily.
  Neutralises hydrochloric acid Goblet cells secrete mucus that traps pathogens

Villi structure Cilia have hairs which waft the bacteria ladened mucus out of lungs

 Thin surface layer, capillaries, lacteal, blood vessel Inhalation

Adaptation of small intestine  EXTERNAL intercoastal muscles contract.

 Ribs move UP and OUT.
 Large surface area  Diaphragm CONTRACTS and FLATTENS.
 Lots of capillaries  Volume in thorax INCREASES and pressure DECREASES.
 Thin wall, short diffusion distance  Air is sucked INTO lungs.
 Lacteals for absorption of fats
Exhalation
Large intestine where water is reabsorbed into blood
 INTERNAL intercoastal muscles contract.
Rectum  faeces stored there before passing out via anus  Ribs move DOWN and IN.
 Diaphragm RELAXES and becomes DOME SHAPED.
 Egestion removal of faeces from anus  Volume in thorax DECREASES and pressure INCREASES.
 Excretion removal of waste products of metabolism  Air is forced OUT of lungs.
 Ingestiontaking food in your body
 Metabolism the rate of a which chemical reactions happen Alveoli adaptations
 Assimilation building up large molecules from small ones
 Large surface area
Balanced diet  contains carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins,  Good blood supply
minerals, fibre, water  Thin walls} Short diffusion pathway
 Moist} Dissolve gases
Carbohydratessource of energy [ bread, rice]
Effects of SMOKING on LUNGS
Proteins important for growth and repair of muscles [chicken, beef
Lack of protein= KWASHIORKOR  Cilia are paralysed build up of mucus smokers cough
infection bronchitis
FatsVery concentrated source of energy and used in insulation. [dairy,  Alveoli Walls damaged walls break down decreased
butter, cream] surface area for gas exchange Emphysema
 Carcinogens Tumor growth Lung cancer
VitaminsC, D, A  Carbon monoxide combines irreversibly with haemoglobin
Carboxyhaemoglobin less oxygen transported.
C- Helps to stick cells together in your mouth. [citrus, lemon, orange juice]
Lack of Vitamin C= SCURVY XYLEM and PHLOEM

D-Needed for stronger bones [ fish oils] Xylem Transports water and mineral ions up the plant.
Lack of Vitamin D= Rickets
 Continuous column, dead cells, lignin
A-allows to see in dim light [fish oils, margarine, carrots]  Mineral Ions absorbed through Active transport.
Lack of Vitamin A= NIGHT BLINDNESS  Water is absorbed by Osmosis into root hair cell.

Iron needed to manufacture haemoglobin found in red blood cells. [red Phloem Transports Glucose [made during Photosynthesis] from leaves
meat, spanich] to other parts of plants.
Lack of Iron= ANAEMIA
 Sieve plates elements and companion cells or energy.
Calciumneeded for stronger teeth and bones [milk]
Lack of calcium= RICKETS Transpiration
 Water molecules are attracted to each other.
FibreEssential to help food move through digestive system [fruits and  Transpiration stream in Xylem
vegetables]  Transpiration out of stomata
Lack of fibre= CONSTIPATION
Transpiration Stream Continuous column of water moving up the xylem
Respiration Process carried out in the mitochondria which from roots to leaves.
releases energy [ATP]-energy storage
Factors affecting Transpiration rate
ATP used for cell division
Increasing
 to build up large molecules from small ones
 HOT water evaporates faster
 Active transport  DRY increases the concentration gradient between leaf and
 Muscle contraction the surrounding air.
 WINDY water is blown off the leaf increasing concentration
Aerobic respiration gradient
Oxygen + Glucose Carbon dioxide + Water  SUNNY stomata open to allow more CO2 into leaf.

C6 H12 O6 + 6O2  6H2O + 6CO2

Decreasing
Anaerobic respiration [Insufficient Oxygen]- Glucose  Lactate + [energy]
 COLD water evaporates slower
Oxygen dept Oxygen required to breakdown lactate in muscles.  HUMID 
small Glucose Ethanol + Carbon dioxide
Anaerobic Respiration [ Yeast]
C6 H12 O6  2 C2 H5 OH + 2 CO2

Respiratory system concentration gradient between leaf and air

  STILL AIR water is not removed from surface of leaf
 NO SUN stomata close as no photosynthesis taking place.
Role of TRANSPIRATION STREAM
 Transport mineral Ions
 Keep plant cells turgid
 Cools the plant
 Supplies water for leaves for photosynthesis.
Blood Components
 White Blood Cells
 Platelets Clot the blood at the site of the wound.
 [Soluble fibrinogen is converted to insoluble fibrin]
 Plasma Carbon dioxide, urea, amino acids, hormones, glucose
 Red Blood Cell
 No nucleus, Biconcave disc shape to maximise surface
area to volume ratio to transport more oxygen
 Contain haemoglobin that binds with oxygen forming
oxyhaemoglobin.
3. Blood enters right ventricle and leaves via
pulmonary artery.
4. Blood flows to Lungs
5. Blood becomes oxygenated
6. Blood returns to the heart and enters the left atrium
via pulmonary vein.
7. Left atrium contracts forcing blood through bicuspid
valve into left ventricle.
8. Left ventricle contracts forcing blood into aorta.
9. Oxygenated blood lows around body and used in
Respiration.
 Walls of Ventricles are thicker than atriums because they pump
blood at high pressure.
 Walls of left ventricle are thicker than Right ventricle as they
pump blood further and at high pressure
Arteries carry Blood AWAY from heart.
Coronary Heart Disease [CHD]
 Coronary arteries supply heart with its own oxygen needs.

Immune System Factors increasing chance of getting [CHD]

Pathogen prevention  Sedentary lifestyle, High fat diet

 Smoking
 Skin act as barrier.  Stress
 HCL destroys pathogens.  Hereditary
 Tears, eye lashes and nose hair trap.

White Blood Cells

Questions
PHAGOCYTES Engulf/ Ingest pathogens and secrete digestive enzymes.
LYMPHOCYTES recognise antigens on pathogens and secrete antibodies
to destroy them.
 LABEL the pathogen so it is easily recognised by
phagocytes.
 NEUTRALISES TOXINS.
 Causes bacterial cell to BURST open.
 Causes pathogens to STICK together.
Vaccinations Contain DEAD/ WEAKENED attenuated forms of the
pathogen.
Why reducing blood supply to heart muscle cells can cause a
heart attack?
Answer: Less oxygen, less aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration,
lactic acid, low pH level.
How our heart rate is increased?
Answer: Adrenaline increases heart rate, when we exercise, our
muscles produce carbon dioxide. Receptors in Aorta and Carotid
artery detect this increase in Carbon dioxide. Electrical impulses are
sent to medulla and accelerator nerve increases heart rate.

1. Dead pathogen injected. ArteriesNarrow Lumen, Thick wall made of muscle and elastic
2. Lymphocytes recognise the antigens and produce antibodies. fibres.
3. Memory cells are made.
4. Produce antibodies much faster next time. Veins Large Lumen, Thin wall made of muscle and elastic fibres.
Contain valves to prevent backflow of blood.
Vaccinations containing
Capillaries Narrow Lumen, Thin wall only one cell thick.
 DEAD PATHOGENS whooping cough
 WEAKENED PATHOGENS TB and Measles Excretion removal of waste products of metabolism
 ANTIGENS ONLY Influenza
Waste gases produced Carbon dioxide, Oxygen
Circulatory System
Excretion in humans

 Sweat from skin

 Urea from Kidneys
 Carbon dioxide from Lungs

Ultrafiltration small molecules [ glucose, urea, water, ions] are forced

out of the blood unto the bowman’s capsule under pressure.

 Proteins are too large to enter the bowman’s capsule so

they stay in blood.

Selective reabsorption ALL GLUCOSE, some IONS, NO UREA move back

into blood [requires energy]

Osmoregulation Controlling the amount of water in blood.

Movement of blood around body
1. Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium through
vena cava.
2. Right atrium contacts forcing blood through LOW water consumption
Tricuspid valve into right ventricle.
 Hypothalamus detects low levels of water in blood.
  Sends signal to pituitary gland which releases MORE ADH
 Walls od collecting ducts are then more permeable to water.
 Urine is concentrated, low in volume, dark in colour.
HIGH water consumption
 Hypothalamus detects high levels of water in blood.
 Sends signal to pituitary gland which releases LESS ADH.
 Walls of collecting ducts are then less permeable to water.
 Urine is dilute, high in volume, pale in colour.
 MUSCLE- receives kinetic energy
 TONGUE- receives chemical energy
 NOSE- receives chemical energy
 SKIN- receives kinetic and heat energy
Hormones chemical messengers which travel in blood.
Difference between HORMONAL and NERVOUS responses.
HORMONAL NERVOUS

Homeostasis Maintenance of a steady internal environment Involves chemicals carried in blood. Involves electrical impulses.

Role of skin Response SLOWER Response FASTER

 Sense organ for pain, touch and pressure LONG-LIVED SHORT-LIVED

 Tough outer layer
 Controls heat loss WIDE SPREAD VERY LOCALISED
 Barrier-prevents entry of pathogens
 Prevents water loss Central Nervous System [CNS] contains BRAIN and SPINAL CORD.

When body temperature is too HIGH Effector MUSCLE [contracts] /GLAND [secretes Hormones]

 Hairs lay flat [ less insulating air trapped close to body Synapse Gap between two neurons
 Vasodilation [arterioles dilate]MORE heat is radiated
 Neurotransmitter diffuses across the synapse and binds post-
 Sweat evaporates and cools the body
synaptic membrane
When body temperature is too LOW
Reflex Actions FASTER and INVOLUNTARY
 Hairs stand up [ more insulating air trapped close to body]
 STIMULUS  RECEPTOR  SENSORY NEURONE  RELAY
 Vasoconstriction [arterioles constrict] LESS heat radiated
 Shiver [contraction of muscles release heat] NEURONE  MOTOR NEURONE EFFECTOR  RESPONSE
[Involves electrical impulses and synapse]
Effect of adrenaline on body
Nervous Response
 Prepares body for ‘fight or flight’
 Pupils dilate to allow more light to enter the eye  STIMULUS  RECEPTOR  SENSORY NEURONE  CNS 
 Hairs stand up on end to appear more intimidating MOTORNEURONE  EFFECTOR  RESPONSE
 Breathing rate increases to allow more oxygen to enter body
 Heart rate increases to deliver more oxygen around body The EYE
 Blood diverted from gut to muscles.

Insulinsecreted by Pancreas and converts glucose to glycogen.

Auxins [Plant hormones]

 In a stem
 Auxins concentrate on the side furthest from light
 Cell elongation causes the stem to bend towards
light.
 ColeoptilesCereal seedlings used to investigate tropisms. Cornea refracts light
 Clinostats to negate the effect of gravity or light.
Pupils to allow light into the eye
Stimulus change in environment
Iris controls size of pupil with circular and radical muscles.
 Plants respond to LIGHT and GRAVITY
Lensrefracts light
Tropisma plant’s response to directional stimulus
Retina contains photoreceptors [RODS and CONES] which are light
Phototropism a plant’s response to light sensitive

 Stem=positive Rods sensitive in dim light

 Roots=negative
Cones sensitive to colour
Geotropism a plant’s response to gravity
Optic nerveconverts light signals into electrical impulses
 Stem=negative
 Roots=positive Sclera tough outer casing to protect the eye

Choroidstops light reflecting around inside eye.

LENS

The Nervous System Accommodation Changes that occur to lens to focus light from different
distances
Sense organs in Humans
Focusing on objects FARAWAY
 EYE- receives light energy
 EAR- receives sound and kinetic energy 1. Lens THIN
 2. Ciliary muscle RELAXES 1. Seed coat bursts
3. Suspensory ligaments TAUTEN 2. Radicle grows down
3. Shoots grow up
Focusing on objects NEARBY 4. Food store is used up.

1. Lens FAT Human reproductive system [female]

2. Ciliary muscles CONTRACT
3. Suspensory ligaments STACKEN  Ovaries Makes eggs and Oestrogen
 Fallopian tubes Deliver eggs to uterus [site of fertilisation]
Lots of light pupil CONSTRICTS  Uterus where ZYGOTE implants and embryo develops
 Cervix Entrance to Uterus
Dim light pupil DILATES  Urethra Transports urine out of body
Sexual Reproduction fusion of gametes at fertilisation which produces Human reproductive system [male]
genetically varied offspring.
 Testes make sperms and testosterone
ZYGOTE EMBRYO [ MITOTIC DIVISION]  Sperm duct a tube that transports semen from testes to
urethra
Fertilisation Joining of two gametes [EGG + SPERM]
 Urethra transport semen and urine out of body
How a 32cell embryo is formed?  Prostate Gland and seminal vesicles contribute to seminal
fluid
1. Sperm and Egg join at FERTILISATION SPERM VAGINA  CERVIX  UTERUS  FALLOPIAN TUBE
2. Zygote divides by MITOSIS
3. 2cells 4cells8cells16cells32cells. Placenta

Asexual Reproduction Involves one parent and much faster than sexual
reproduction and produces genetically identical offspring.
 Strawberry runners
 Potato tubers
 Supplies Foetus with Oxygen, glucose, amino acids.
 Removes Urea and Carbon dioxide and waste materials
 Produces PROGESTERONE
FSH [ Follicle Stimulating Hormone] Matures eggs in Ovary.

Sexual Reproduction in Plants LH [ Lutenising Hormone] causes OVULATION

MALE parts of the flower [Stamen] Oestrogen Responsible for secondary sexual characteristics

 Anther  Hips widen

 Filament  Breasts develop
 Pubic and armpit hair
POLLEN  Male gamete  Sexual drive develops

FEMALE parts of the flower [Carpel] Inhibits FSH production

 Stigma Repairs uterus lining

 Style
 Ovary Progesterone [ Made in Corpus Luteum, Placenta] maintains the
thickness of uterine lining.
Pollination Transfer of pollen from ANTHER to STIGMA.
Testosterone [Men] supports the development of secondary sexual
Seed Formation characteristics

1. Pollen Lands on stigma  Pubic and Arm pit hair

2. Pollen tube grows down the style into ovary  Voice breaks
3. Male gamete fuses with female gamete  Sperm production
4. Ovule becomes seed  Widening shoulders
5. Ovule wall becomes seed coat  Sexual drive develops
6. Ovary becomes fruit
Protein Synthesis
Self Pollination Pollen from a plant lands on stigma of the SAME plant.
 GENOME entire DNA of and organism
Insect pollinated  NUCLEUS controls the activities of the cell
 GENE section of DNA that codes for a protein
 Bright, Large and Colourful petals
 NECTARY provides sugar for insects
 Enclosed stigma and anther so insect is forced to pick up pollen
 Strong scent to Attract insects

DNA double helix structure and made up of sugar [deoxyribose]

phosphate backbone.

Bases Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine

Wind pollinated
Nucleotide deoxyribose sugar, phosphate, Bases [ A, T, C or G]
 Anther and Stigma exposed
 Dull coloured and small petals  RNA Ribose sugar, Bases [ A, U, C, G ] URACIL and NO THYMINE
 Absence of nectary  Single stranded
 Small pollen grains, feathery stigma  DNA deoxyribose sugar
 No scent  Double stranded

Germination [Conditions Warmth, Oxygen, Water] CODON a sequence of 3 bases found on a mRNA corresponds to a single
amino acid.
Anticodon a sequence of 3 bases on tRNA that matches the  The bacteria reproduce and pass on these favourable alleles to
complementary codon on mRNA. future bacteria
 Soon the whole population of bacteria is resistant to antibiotics
Protein synthesis stages
ECOLOGY
 Transcription
 DNA unwinds to expose bases  Environment the total non-biological living components in a
 Unpaired bases in nucleus match up with exposed DNA ecosystem [soil, water]
bases.  Habitat space where particular organisms live
 mRNA leaves nucleus and attaches to ribosome.
 Translationoccurs in Ribosomes  Population all the organisms that belong to a particular
 One end of tRNA has an anticodon and the other end has species found in an ecosystem.
an amino acid attached.  Community the population of all species found within an
 Two amino acids join together using peptide bond. ecosystem.
 Producer a plant that photosynthesises to produce food.
Mutation a rare, random change in DNA of an organism.  Consumer an animal which breaks down dead material and
recycles nutrients.
 Can cause a change in DNA and therefore a change in proteins and  Parasite an organism which lives in another organisms,
the phenotype of an organism. feeding and causing harm
 Duplication  Biodiversity variety of plants and animals found within an
 Deletion ecosystem.
 Substitution  Biotic Factors [ Living]
 Inversion  Competition for food
 Caused by Ionising radiation, UV, X-RAYS, CARCINOGENS [tar]  Nesting sites
 Disease
Allele different form of the same gene.  Abiotic Factors [ Non-Living]
 Soil pH
Genotype Alleles of an organism.  Temperature
 Carbon dioxide
Phenotype physical appearance of an organism.  Number of daylight hours
Homozygous  Two of same alleles.  Biomass Mass of living material

Heterozygous Different alleles. Why only 10% of energy is transferred from one trophic level to next?

Recessive [dd] allele only expressed if the dominant allele is not 1. Not all of the plant is eaten
present. 2. Some parts are indigestible
3. Some form excretory products
Dominant [DD] allele is expressed even if only one is present. 4. Respiration leads to loss of Carbon dioxide and water
5. Maintenance of steady body temperature.
Codominance when both alleles are expressed.
Carbon Cycle
 Example: Red Snap Dragon Plants
o White flowers are codominant to red flowers. 1. Carbon is absorbed by green plants for photosynthesis and used
o When a white flower is crossed with a red flower, to make glucose and proteins.
pink flowers are produced. 2. Plants respire releasing Carbon dioxide
3. Plants eaten by animals and carbon becomes part of their
Mitosis used in GROWTH, REPAIR, CLONING, ASEXUAL REPROUCTION. bodies.
4. Animals respire releasing carbon dioxide
Meiosisused to make gametes. 5. Plants and animals die and are decomposed by microorganisms
which respire.
4 Stages Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase. 6. Combustion of fuels release carbon dioxide

Chromosomes in cells formed Mitosis= Diploid/ Meiosis= haploid

Cell divisions Mitosis= 1 / Meiosis=2

Species Individuals which reproduce to produce fertile offspring.

Variation in species Due to GENETICS and ENVIRONMENT.

Nitrogen Cycle

Evolution 1. Nitrates in soil are absorbed by root hair cells by active

transport.
 Many organisms alive today, and many more which ae now extinct, 2. Nitrates used to build plant proteins
first evolved from simple life forms which first evolved more than 3. Plants die and decompose and are converted to nitrates by
3.2 Billion years ago nitrifying bacteria.
4. Denitrifying bacteria converts nitrates into nitrogen
Natural Selection 5. Nitrogen fixing bacteria are present on root nodules of beans
and peas and convert nitrogen gas into nitrates which are
1. Variation within a species due to mutation
added to soil.
2. Individuals better adapted more likely to survive and reproduce
6. Lightening and the Haber Process are other sources of nitrogen.
3. Alleles passed onto offspring
4. Repeats over many generations.
Human impact on environment
How do BACTERIA become resistant to antibiotics?  Fertilisers are leached into rivers and streams
 Plants grow quickly due to nitrates ‘algal bloom’
 Some have mutations which make them more likely to survive
 Plants die due to competition for light.
  Death pf plants provide lots of food for decomposers.  Targets specific pest only
o Decomposers feed off the dead plant material.  Self- sustaining
o Decomposers and microorganisms use up oxygen in
aerobic respiration Disadvantages
o No oxygen means aquatic animals die.
 Never fully removes pests
Greenhouse gases Carbon dioxide, Methane, Water vapour, nitrous  Introducing alien species can have undesired results
 Slow process
oxides.
Fermenter A vessel containing microorganisms that are involved in
Effect of enhanced greenhouse gases
fermentation reactions.
 Global warming
 Ice caps melt  Suitable conditions
o NUTRIENTS a controlled supply to feed microorganisms
 Sea levels rise
o pH LEVELkept constant at optimum level by adding acid
 Low lying land floods
 Loss of biodiversity or alkali if necessary
 Extreme weather o AIR SUPPLY provides oxygen necessary for aerobic
 Change in bird migration patterns respiration
o TEMPERATURE controlled to increase rate but prevent
CFC’s  Found in AEROSOLS and FRIDGES. over-heating and denaturing
o AGITATION microorganisms constantly stirred to give
 Damage the ozone layer more exposure to nutrients and reduce temperature.
 Sulfur impurities in petrol releases sulfur dioxide when burnt
Which makes sulfuric acid. [Acid rain] Fish Farming
 Nitrogen and Oxygen react in high temperatures found in car
engines Nitrogen oxides  Nitric acid 1. Lots of fish kept together in tanks / enclosures
2. Water quality constantly monitored to provide optimum
Acid rain  damages trees, limestone buildings and makes lakes and conditions.
ponds too acidic. 3. Waste products are constantly removed
4. Diet carefully controlled
Carbon Monoxide released by incomplete combustion in car engines. 5. Fish isolated from predators to protect them
6. Sorted by size to prevent bigger fish eating smaller fish of same
 Combines irreversibly with haemoglobin in red blood cells. species
7. Fish with desirable characteristics selectively bred.
Deforestation Cutting down trees for fuel, wood or space.
Advantages
 More carbon dioxide is released in atmosphere
 Animals habitats destroyed  Control diet, oxygen levels
 Leaching of nutrients due to lack of tree roots  Remove diseased fish or provide antibiotics
 Soil erosion leads to widespread flooding and landslides  Protect fish from predators
 Less transpiration which causes change in weather  Selective breeding

How do glasshouses and Polythene tunnels increase crop yield? Disadvantages

 Increased risk of disease

 Allow natural light in during summer and provide artificial
 Antibiotics can enter food chain
light during winter.
 Pesticides used may be toxic to other animals
 Provide warmer environment than outside due to
trapping heat energy and reducing convection. Selective breeding in plants
 Can be heated electronically
 Provide humid atmosphere to reduce water loss by  Humans choose plants with desirable characteristics
transpiration.  Cross pollinate select plants
 Plants with desirable characteristics are bred
 Adding fertilisers replaces leached or lost nitrates and mineral ions.  Process repeats over many generations
 Nitrates are used by plants to build proteins.

Genetic Engineering
Pesticide chemical which kills pests
 Insulin lowers our blood sugar levels after a meal
Advantages
INSULIN making using BACTERIAL CELL
 Effective at controlling pests
 Readily available 1. Cut open plasmid using restriction enzyme
 Easy to use 2. Use restriction enzyme to cut out insulin gene
3. Insert insulin gene into plasmid using ligase enzyme
Disadvantages 4. Put bacterial cell into the fermenter

 Expensive Recombinant plasmid plasmid with a gene inserted.

 Persistent
 Stored in tissues of living organisms [bioaccumulation] and Vector transport biological material from one place to other. [ mosquito
becomes more concentrated along a food chain in transmission of malaria]
 Toxic and non-specific
Plasmid
Biological Control using animals to kill pests [ Ladybirds added to kill
aphids]  Small circular pieces of DNA
 Isolated from bacteria
Advantages  Desired gene inserted into plasmid to create recombinant
plasmid
 Non-toxic  Recombinant plasmids inserted back into bacteria
Virus

 Bacteriophage are a type of virus

 Desired gene inserted into bacteriophage
 Bacteriophage attaches to cell walls of bacteria
 Injects its genetic material
 Desired gene taken up by bacterial DNA

Genetically modifying plants

Herbicide WEED killer

Specific uses of genetically modified plants

 Extend shelf life

 Frost resistant
 ‘’golden rice’’ rice containing beta carotene that prevents
night blindness
 Resistant to herbicides
 Modified tobacco plants produce hepatitis B antigens
[potentially used to manufacture vaccines]
 Modified tobacco plants and soy beans produce antibodies to
fight against diseases.

Transgenic organism genes are transferred from one species to another

Cloning producing genetically identical offspring

1. Body cell removed from animal to be cloned

2. Remove egg cell from animal of same species
3. Enucleate both cells
4. Insert nucleus rom body cell into empty egg cell
[fuse with electric shock]
5. Insert egg cell into uterus of surrogate mother
6. Cell divides by mitosis to form embryo

Advantages

 Faster
 More offspring produced
 No need for two parents

Cloning in plants

1. Taking a cutting
 Cutting is dipped in rooting powder and transferred
from soil

2. Micropropagation
 Small parts of plant are obtained
 Place into sterile, agar jelly containing nutrients and
hormones
 Provide optimum temperature, pH, water and
carbon dioxide levels

Advantages

 Large numbers of cloned plants can be produced very quickly

 Can occur at any time of year

Cloning transgenic animals can be used to produce human proteins

 Cloning can be used to produce large number of animals

 These animals can then make human proteins.

Trypsin damages liver and lungs

 AAT destroys Trypsin

o Transgenic sheep are genetically engineered to
produce AAT in their milk.

NOTES WRITTEN BY NEERAJ LOHANA.

Hope they help you �