THERMODYNAMICS

Therm - Heat (non-organised)

Dynamics - Motion (Caused by force) Action of force on moving
body is ‘h’ as work.
Conversion of non-organised form of energy into organised form
of energy.
Main aim of thermodynamics is to convert heat into work.
Thermodynamics is branch of science deal with the heat and work
interaction and its effect on properties of system.
Importance of thermodynamics:
1. There is a property which distinguish this subject from other
sciences that is temperature and everything have certain
temperature. So, everything comes under consideration of
thermodynamics.
2. The subject thermodynamics is based on certain laws like law of
conservation of mass, etc. Laws are the statements which are
universally true but can’t be proved mathematically.
3. Most importantly thermodynamics tells us “what thins are not
possible”.
Example:
According to 2nd law of thermodynamics no heat engine can give
100% efficiency.

1
HOW TO STUDY:
There are two ways to study thermodynamics
1) Microscopic view point (Statistical thermo)
2) Macroscopic view point.
3) Postulate thermodynamics (recent)
1) Microscopic view point:
In microscopic view point, behaviour of each & every
molecule is taken into consideration & to know the overall
behaviour we will use same statistical means. That why it is ‘k’
as statistical thermodynamics.
Only useful for low densities. This approach is used for
ramified gas (low pressure gas) (vacuum).
2) Macroscopic view point:
In macroscopic point of view, our attention is focused on
certain quantity of matter without going to the event occurring at
molecular level.
It is also known as classical thermodynamics average
behaviour at molecule taken into the consideration.
In our course, we will follow classical thermodynamics
only.
In classical thermodynamics, we will try to establish
relation between measurable and non-measurable properties
Measurable properties → temperature, pressure, volume
Non-measurable properties → enthalpy, entropy, internal energy,
etc.
2
CONCEPT OF CONTINUUM:

ρ(dm/dV)

dV
dm

Domain of Domain of
Molecular effect Continumm

ρ(dm/dV)
ρ

Volume V

In microscopic point. of view, we always concern with a small

volume which is very large compared to molecular dimension.
Concepts of continuum give the criterion to apply macroscopic point
of view. Even the small volume contains very large no. of molecules.
We have to consider that small volume in such a way that statistical a
varying is meaningful and material can be considered as continuous.
Thermodynamic system, surrounding & boundary:

Surrounding
System

Universe

 System is defined as quantity of matter or region in a space where

our attention is focused.
 Everything external to the system is surrounding.
3
  The thing which separates system from
surrounding is known as boundary
Thermodynamic boundary

Real Imaginary

Fixed moving

Note:
To get works from close system minimum one boundary should
be moving.
Thermodynamic boundary
1. Adiabatic
(No heat transfer high thermal resistance.)
(R th → ∞)
2. Diathermal
Low thermal resistance
(R th → 0)

TYPES OF SYSTEM:
1. Closed system:
In closed system, there is no mass transfer across the
boundary. It has fixed mass ‘k’ as control mass. It is also c/a
control mass of system. Energy transfer may take place.
Example:
ⅰ) Rigid container

4
 Gas
m = Constant
Q
Q

For closed system minimum one boundary should be open.

Here, all boundaries are fixed.
∴W=0
ⅱ) Piston-cylinder arrangement without piston

Q
m = Constant W
Q

W≠0
(W≠0 one moving boundary)
(∴ One moving Boundary)
2. Open system:
In open system, mass transfer may also take place along
with energy-transfer.
Example: Turbine, pump, nozzle, compressor, radiator, etc.
Q

m1

blades
W

m2

Journal open system

5
 For open system analysis attention is focused on certain
volume in space surrounded by a surface known as control
surface. Matter as well as energy can cross the control volume.
3. Isolated system:
In isolated system neither mass nor energy interaction take
place.
Example:
Thermal flask which is perfectly insulated the best example
for isolated system is our universe.
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES:
Properties are characteristic by which you can identify the
system.
Thermodynamic properties
1. Intensive
(Independent of mass or size of system)
Example:
Temperature, Density, Specific heat, Pressure, etc., Velocity.
2. Extensive
(Depends on mass or size of system)
Example:
Volume, Mass, Energy, Weight

6
 M M
M
2 2
V V V
2 2
P
P P
T
T T
ρ
ρ ρ

Note:
 Ratios of two extensive properties are always intensive.
M
ρ= (M → Intensive, V → Intensive, ρ → extensive)
V

 Specific properties are always intensive properties.

Specific property = extensive property = ext. prop/mass
(Per unit mass)
 Properties are independent of past history. Properties are the point
or state function.
 Properties are exact differential. If z is function o0f x & y and can
be represented as
dz = Mdx + Ndy
And z is exact differential if
∂M ∂N
( ) = ( )y = constant
∂y x = constant ∂x

E.g. for ideal gas, function is

dT V
z=∫ − dp
T T
dT V
dz = − dp
T T

7
 1
M=
T
V
N=
T

dx = dT
x=T
dy = dp
y=P
∂1
T
( ) =0
∂P
T
V
∂(− )
T
( ) = 0 For ideal gas PV = RT
∂T
P
V R
=
T P
R
∂(− P)
( ) =0
∂T
P

Hence, it is a property.
STATE OF SYSTEM:
State represents condition of system. When all properties of
system have definite value than system is said to be in state.
State of system is represented by a point in a diagram where properties
are co-ordinate.

1
P1
P Process

2
P2

V1 V2
V

8
GIB’S PHASE RULE:
In a gib’s phase rule,
Let there are total M number of properties of the system in which
N are independent it means if we fix N number of independent
properties the M - N properties will automatically have fixed.
To find no. of independent properties required to identify the
gib’s phase rule is used. According to which,
P+F=C+2
Where, P = no. of phases.
F = Degree of freedom /no of independent properties to
identify the system
C = no. of components
P=1
Water
C=1 H2 O
F =?
P+F=C+2
F=2
Two independent properties like pressure& temperature.
Example:
23°C @1atm pressure is complete description of system
Steam
Water
P = 2 C = 1 F =?
P+F=C+2
F=1

9
Either temperature or pressure is independent property.
Steam
Water
Ice

P = 3 C = 1 F =?
P+F=C+2
F = 0 → Triple point of water
Note:
Invariable chemical composition irrespective of phase is k as pure
substance (e.g. water is pure substance.)
Air is not pure substance in liquid phase as chemical composition
changes when it is converted from air to liquid.
 At triple point of water all properties are fixed,
 Ttp = 0.01℃/273.15 K
Ptp = 0.006 bar

PROCESS AND PATH:

Change of state is known as process and series of
equilibrium states through which a system passes during its process is
known as path of process.
1
Equilibrium
states

2
path

10
 Process

Reversible Irreversible

Reversible:
A process is said to be reversible if it reverses then follow the
same path without leaving any effect on the system as well as
surrounding.

1 Q2
Q1

 For reversible process, it must follow same path and should not
affect system& surrounding.
Irreversible
Irreversibility mainly caused due to friction.
 All spontaneous process is irreversible. For the processes to be
reversible if friction is zero then process must be slow.
Quasi – Static process:
Quasi means almost.
Can't decide
1 exact path

P
W
2

So, divide block into different pieces,

11
 P

Actual path

Frictionless quasi static process is known as reversible process.

 All reversible process is quasi static but all quasi-static need not
be reversible.
THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE:
A system is said to be undergone a cycle if initial & final state
of system is same.

1 1

The minimum no. of process required to complete a cycle is 2.

Through no cycle has 2 no of process in practical. For a cycle, change
in property is zero. 3 step cycle --------.

12
THERMODYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM:
A system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium if
there is no any unbalances potential (driving force) within the system.
To meet the condition of thermodynamic equilibrium three types of
equilibriums are required.
1) Thermal equilibrium [equality of temperature/no heat transfer]
2) Mechanical equilibrium [equality of all those properties which may
cause work transfer (or) no work transfer]
3) Chemical equilibrium [A system is said to be in chemical
equilibrium where there is no any mass transfer or chemical reaction
takes place within system.]
IDEAL GAS:
Obeys ideal gas equation. At all pressure and temperature.
PV = mRT
P → Absolute pressure (k pa)
V → Volume (m3 )
M → Mass (kg)
R → Characteristic gas constant (kJ/kg k)
T → Absolute temperature
For air, R = 0.287 kJ/kg k.
A gas is said to be ideal gas if there are no any intermolecular forces.
Any gas can behave like ideal gas at very low pressure (or) very high
temperature.

13
 Ideal gas

Perfect gas Semi-perfect gas

(Cp & Cv Are constant) (Cp & Cv Depends on temperature)

No. of moles = mass (m)/molecular weight M

m1 = n M ∴ PV = nMRT
AVOGADRO’S HYPOTHESIS:
According to Avogadro’s hypothesis all gases at same
pressure, temperature and volume, no of moles are constant.
MR = Constant.
= Universal gas constant 𝑅̅
̅T
PV = nR
̅ = 8.314 kj/kmol. k
R
Conservation of mass Ma Mb
∑ m = ma + mb + mc + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ Pa Pb
V = Va = Vb = Vc = ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ Va Vb
Zeroth law of thermodynamics Ta Tb
T = Ta = Tb = Tc = ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ Ra Rb
Daltons law of partial pressure ha hb
P = Pa = Pb = Pc = ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯
̅T
PV = nR
̅ Ta
Pa Va = na R
̅T
Pa V = na R
̅T
Pb V = nb R

14
 ̅T
Pc V = nc R

̅T
(Pa + Pb + Pc + ⋯ ⋯ )V = (na + nb + nc + ⋯ ⋯ )R
̅T
PV = ∑ nR
P = Pa + Pb + Pc + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯
∑ n = na + nb + nc + ⋯ ⋯
Mole fraction: (x)
It is defined as ratio of number of moles of a gas to the total
number of moles in a mixture.
n na
xa = ∑ a =
n na + nb + nc + ⋯⋯
n nb
xb = ∑ b =
n na + nb + nc + ⋯⋯
n nc
xc = ∑ c =
n na + nb + nc + ⋯⋯

(xa + xb + xc + ⋯ ⋯ ) = 1
∴ xa + xb + xc + ⋯ ⋯ = 1
̅T
Pa V = na R
̅ T ⋯ ⋯ for ith gas → (ⅰ)
Pi V = ni R
̅T
PV = ∑ n R → (ⅱ)
eqn (ⅰ) Pi n
= = ∑i
eqn(ⅱ) P n
Pi
= xi
P

15
MIXTURE OF IDEAL GASES:
Equivalent gas constant:
M1 M2 → Me = Equivalent mass constant
P1 P2 → P = P1 + P2 + P3 + ⋯ ⋯
V1 V2 → V1 = V2 = V3 = ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯
T1 T2 → T1 = T2 = T3 = ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯
R1 R2 → R e = Equivalent gas constant
n1 n2 → ∑ n = n1 + n2 + n3 + ⋯ ⋯
P1 V = m1 R1 T
P2 V = m2 R 2 T
P3 V = m3 R 3 T

(P1 + P2 + P3 + ⋯ ⋯ )V = (m1 R1 + m2 R 2 + m3 R 3 + ⋯ ⋯ )T →(ⅰ)

PV = ∑ m R e T →(ⅱ)
From equate (ⅰ) & (ⅱ)
∑ m R e = (m1 R1 + m2 R 2 + m3 R 3 + ⋯ ⋯ )
m1 R1 + m2 R2 + m3 R3 + ⋯⋯
Re =
m1 + m2 + m3 + ⋯⋯

Equivalent gas constant

m=nM
m1 = n1 M1
m2 = n2 M2
m3 = n3 M3

(m1 + m2 + m3 + ⋯ ⋯ ) = (n1 M1 + n2 M2 + n3 M3 + ⋯ ⋯ ) → (ⅰ)

16
 ∑ m = ∑ n Me →(ⅱ)
n1 M1 + n2 M2 + n3 M3 + ⋯⋯
Me =
n1 + n2 + n3 + ⋯⋯

Equivalent molecular weight

Note:
m
Mass fraction (M. F) = ∑ a
m

Mass fraction = mass of molecule/total mass

Relation between mass fraction and mole fraction
Pi V = mi R i T → (ⅰ)
PV = ∑ m R e T → (ⅱ)
(ⅰ) − (ⅱ)
Pi mi Ri
=∑ ×
P m Re
Ri
xi = M. F ×
Re

̅
M. R = R
R̅
Me
(M. F)i = xi × R̅
Mi

Mi
(M. F)i = xi ×
Me

Problems with answers:

1. An ideal gas mixture consists of 2 kilo mole of N2 and 6 kilo
mole CO2 the mass fraction of CO2 in mixture is.
N2 = 2 kilo mole
CO2 = 6 kilo mole
mCO2
(M. F)CO2 =
mN2 + mCO2

17
 mCO2 = nCO2 MCO2
= 6 × 44 = 264 Kg
mN2 = nN2 MN2
= 2 × 28 = 56 Kg
(M. F) = 264/(264 + 56)
M.F = 0.825
2. An ideal gas mixture, whose apparent molar mass 36 kj/k mol
consist of N2 and 3 other if the mole fraction of nitrogen is 0.3
then what mass fraction of is N2 .
M = 36 KJ/K mole
No of gases = 4
xN2 = 0.3
Ri Me
xN2 = M. F × = M. F × ( )
Re Mi
36
0.3 = (M. F)N2 =
28

(M. F)N2 = 0.23

3. An ideal gas mixture consist of 2 kilo mole of N2 and 4 kilo
mole of CO2 the apparent gas constant of mixture is,
nN2 = 2
nCO2 = 4
M1 R1 n1 +M2 R2 n2
Re =
M1 n1 +M2 n2
(2+4) 8.314 (6×8.314)
= =
[(2×28) + (4×44)] 56 +176
KJ
R e = 0.215 K
Kg

18
4. The rigid tank is divided into 2 compartments by a partition.
One compartment contains 3 k mole of N2 at 600 K pa & other
compartment contains 7 K mole of CO2 at 200 K pa. Now the
position is removed& two gases from homogeneous mixture &
at 300 K pa. The partial pressure of N2 in mixture is -----
nN2 = 3 K mole
pN2 = 600 K pa
nCO2 = 7 K mole
pCO2 = 200 K pa
3×28
xi =
3×28+7×28
3
x N2 = = 0.3
3+7
pi
= 0.3
300

pi = 90 Kpa
5. An 80 litre rigid tank contains an ideal gas mixture of 5gm of N2
and 5 gm of CO2 at specified pressure& temp. If N2 were
separated from the mixture & stored at mixture temp. And
pressure its volume would be --------
80L 5gm
5gm N2
N2
+ 5gm CO2

T P T P
5
nN2 =
28
5
nCO2 =
44

19
 PV = n RT
p = pN2 + pCO2
5
pi 28
= 5 5 = 0.611
p +
28 44

pN2 = 0.611 p
Now,
PN2 VN2 = mN2 R N2 TN2
PV = mN2 R N2 TN2
VN2 P
=
V P N2

VN2 = 80 × 0.611
VN2 = 48.80 litre

ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS &

CONCEPT OF TEMPERATURE:
Temperature:
(Degree of hotness and coldness)
Macroscopic approach:
The temperature is property by virtue of difference of that
property heat flows.
Microscopic approach:
Temperature is defined as average kinetic energy of the molecules
of a system.
Internal energy:
Sum of kinetic energy of the molecule.

20
Zeroth law:
When two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with third body then
there are in equilibrium with each other.
equilibrium
A B
A equilibrium
B C
B
A is in equilibrium with C
C
Reference Body

This is basic law used for temperature measurement.

Principle of thermometry:
In thermometry principle, a property which vary with
temperature. Is found first and with help of that property unknown
temp. Can be measured. The property which helps to find unknown
temp is known as thermometric property.
Types of thermometer Thermometric property
Hg glass tube Length
thermometer
Constant volume gas Pressure
thermometer
Constant pressure gas Volume
thermometer
Thermistor Electric resistance

21
 thermistor
R R2
i
G

R2 R4

Thermocouple (based on see back effect)

emf
T1 T2

See back effect:

If two metals from junction such that both are at different
temperature, then EMF is generated.
What is Peltier effect?
If two different metals form
Measurement of temperature:
1) Method used before 1954:
In this method, two reference points are used
a) Ice point of water (0°c)
b) Steam point of water (100°c)
T=a+bP
At ice point
Tice = a + b Pice
0 = a + b PI …….. (ⅰ)
At steam point
Tsteam = a + b Psteam

22
 100 = a + b PS ……. (ⅰⅰ)
From (ⅰ) & (ⅱ)
100 100PI
b= ;a=
PS − PI PI − PS
−100PI 100
T= + ×P
−(PI − PS ) PS −PI
−100P 100
T= + ×P
PS − PI PS − PI

2) Method used after 1954:

In this method, single reference point is used that is triple point
of water (0.1°c or 273.15 K)
T=aP
At triple point,
273.15 = a Ptp
273.15
a=
Ptp

273.15
T= ×P
Ptp

Note:
All temperature scales are arbitrary
Up to 130°C → Refrigeration.
Below 130°C → Cryogenic
Problems with solution:
1. The reading TA & TB of thermometer A & B agree at ice point and
steam point. And related by equation, TA = l + mTB + nTB 2
When A reads 51°C then B reads 50°C.
Determine the reading of A When B reads 25°C.
TA = TB = 0 at ice point
23
 L=0
TA = TB = 100℃
TA = l + mTB + nTB 2
100 = m × 100 + n × 1002
1 = m + 100n ……… (ⅰ)
51 = m × 50 + n × 502
51 = m × 50 + n × 2500n ……. (ⅱ)
1 = m + 100n
50 = m × 50 + n × 5000n
−51 = m × 50 ± n × 2500n
−1 = (2500)n
n = −4 × 10−4
m = 1.04
TA = 25.75℃
TB = 25℃
2. In a new temperature scale, say °P the boiling & freezing point of
water at atmosphere are 100°P and 300°P respective co-relate this
scale with centigrade scale and find the value of zero-degree P on
centigrade scale.
in °P in °c
TB = 100°P TB = 100℃
TF = 300°P TF = 300℃
T=a+bP
At ice point 0 = a + b (300)
At steam point 100 = a + b (100)
24
 100 = b (200)
b = -0.5
a = 150
∴ T = 150 - 0.5P
At P = 0 °P T = 150 °C
ENERGY INTERACTION:
For closed system and its surrounding, energy interaction takes
place in 2 ways.
1) Work interaction
2) Heat interaction
Work interaction:
In mechanics, action of force on moving body is known as work.
W = F × displacement.

Battery Battery

Electrical work Electrical work

25
 m m

Battery Battery

Mechanical works No works

In thermodynamics, the work is said to be done by system

if sole effect external to the system can be reduced to the rising
of weight.
The weight may not be actually raised but the net effect
external to the system can be reduced in form of lifting weight,
work transfer is a boundary phenomenon, it is recognised only
when it crosses the boundary of system.
At boundary if work is done by temperature difference then
it is heat transfer otherwise work transfer.

Heat Electrical
Transfer Work Transfer
Convection of work transfer:
 Work done by the system is +ve
 Work done on the system is –ve

26
 W W

Gas Gas

Expansion Process Compression Process

+ve work -ve work

Expansion work is always +ve whereas compression work is always

–ve.
CLOSED SYSTEM WORK/NON-FLOW WORK:
(Displacement work/p. dv work)

1
P1V1 P2V2 P1
Gas
P
System A P
2
P2

V1 dV V2
dx
V

Closed system reversible process

P = F/A → F = PA
dw = F × dx
= PA × dx
dw = P dv
2
Total work w = ∫1 P dv (Closed system reversible process)
dA = P dv

27
 2
Total area A = ∫1 P dv (Closed system reversible work)
 Area under the curve when projected on volume axis gives closed
system reversible work on P-V diagram.

1
b

P a
2

Through the ends points are same for process A and B but the
work transfer is not same because area below the curve is not same.
Therefore, work transfer depends on path followed by system.
Work transfer is path function it is not a property. It is inexact
differential.
CLOSED SYSTEM WORK FOR VARIOUS
PROCESSES:
1) Constant volume process:

Gas
Q

Q
Rigid container with
all boundaries fixed

V = Constant
Ideal gas equation

28
 P1 T1
=
P2 T2

dv = 0
W = ∫ P dv = 0
Heat supplied
2 1
P
Heat rejected

1 2

2) Constant pressure processes:

P
1 2

V1 V2

P = Constant
Ideal gas equation
V1 T1
= V∝T
V2 T2

dp = 0
2 2
W = ∫1 P dv = P ∫1 dv = p[v]12
W = P (V2 − V1 )

29
 Patm pWt = 2 bar
W W

pg = 2 bar
Gas
pg = pWt + patm

Q Q
Heat supplied

1 2
P
Heat rejected
2 1

3) Isothermal process (Constant temperature process):

Q
Q

T = Constant
Ideal gas equation
V1 T1
= PV = mRT
V2 T2

PV = C
P1 V1 = P2 V2
C
P=
V
2 2 C V
W = ∫1 P dv = ∫1 ( ) dv = C ln [ 2 ] s
V V1
V2 V2
W = P1 V1 ln = P2 V2 ln
V1 V1
Vfinal
W = Pinitial Vinitial ln
Vinitial

Piston - independent
30
 Pressure - dependent
Isothermal expansion is possible when heat is added to
system where as isothermal compression is possible if heat is
rejected from the system.

Heat supplied
P

Heat rejected

Note:
Isothermal curve on p-v diagram is rectangular hyperbola.
4) Adiabatic process:
(No heat transfer)
Ideal gas equation for adiabatic process,
PV γ = C
γ = Adiabatic index
cp
γ=
cv
2
W = ∫1 P dv
P1 V1 γ = P2 V2 γ
2 C
W = ∫1 dv
Vγ
2
−Vγ+1
w = c[ ]
−γ+1 1

V2 γ+1 − V1 γ+1
w=c[ ]
−γ+1

31
 P2 V2 .V2 γ+1 − P1 V1 .V1 γ+1
w=
−γ + 1
P2 V2 − P1 V1
w=
−γ+1
P1 V1 − P2 V2
w=
γ−1

1
2
Expansion
P
Gas 2
Compression
1
V

Note:
 Different form of ideal gas equation for adiabatic process.
PV γ = C
P1 V1 γ = P2 V2 γ
PV V γ−1 = C
PV = mRT
TV γ−1 = C
T1 V1 γ−1 = T2 V2 γ−1
T2 V1 γ−1
=
T1 V2 γ−1

P1 V2 γ
=
P2 V1 γ
1
V1 P γ
= ( 2)
V2 P1
γ−1
T2 P2 γ
=( )
T1 P1

32
5) Polytrophic process:
Ideal gas equation,
PV n = C
n → Polytrophic index.
1<n<γ &
P1 V1 − P2 V2
wpolytropic =
n −1

Note:
All process in p-v diagram can be represented by PV k = C where
K is dependent on type of process for constant pressure process,
K=0
Isothermal process,
K=1
Adiabatic, k = γ
Polytrophic, k = n
Constant volume = k = ∞
 Representation of various processes on p-v diagram.
K=0
P K=1
K=n

K=ꝏ K = r Increasing
For Expansion
V
Increasing
K=r K=ꝏ
K=n

K=1

K=0

For Compression

33
SLOPE OF VARIOUS LINES ON P-V DIAGRAM:
1. Constant pressure line:

θ=0
Slope = m = 0
Slope = tanθ = tan0 = 0
2. Constant volume process:

θ = 90°
Slope = tan 90°
m=∞
3. Isothermal process:

dy dp
Slope = =
dx dv
p
m=−
v

34
 dp d c
= ( )
dv dv v

pdv + vdp = 0
dp p
=−
dv v
p
slope = −
v

4. Adiabatic line:
PV γ = C
Pγ V γ−1 dv + V γ dp = 0
Dp p
= γ (− )
dv v
p
Slope of adiabatic curve = γ (− )
v

 Slope of adiabatic curve on p-v diagram

= γ (slope of isothermal curve on p − v)
Note:
 Net work done in cycle is equal to the area of closed region or
area of cycle.
 All clockwise cycle on p-v diagram are powers producing cycle.
(example: - Carnot cycle, etc.) All anticlockwise cycles on p-v
diagram are power consuming cycle.
(example: - refrigeration cycle)
W = ∫ P dv
(Closed system, reversible process & energy should cross the
boundary.)

35
Problems and Solutions:
1. An imaginary engine receive heat and perform work on slowly
moving piston in such way that cycle of operation of 1 kg of
working fluid can be represented as a circle of 10cm diameter on
p-v diagram. In which 1cm = 300k pa & 1cm = 0.1m3 /kg find
network during a cycle.
Network = Area of circle
π
= × (d2 ) × 300 × 0.1
4

Wnet = 2356.1KJ/Kg
2. An engine cylinder has piston area of 0.12m2 & contains gas at
pressure of 1.5M Pa the gas expands according to a process which
is represented by a straight line on p-v diagram. the pressure is
0.15MPa calculate work done by gas on piston, if stroke is 0.3m.
A = 0.12m2 P1 =1.5M Pa P2 = 0.15M Pa L = 0.3m

1.5 Mpa = 1500 kPa

P1

0.15 Mpa = 150 kPa

P2

Clearance V1 V2
Volume

0.3 m
Stroke length

V2 − V1 = 0.3 × 0.12 = 0.036m3

Wnet = area under the curve
1
Wnet = (150 × 0.3 × 0.12) − [0.3 × 0.12 × (1500 − 150)]
2
36
 Wnet = 29.7 KJ
P1
3. A gas expands from pressure P1 to P2 (P2 = ). If pressure
10

expansion is isothermal the volume at end of expansion is

V2 = 0.55m3 . If process of expansion is adiabatic then volume at
expansion is?

1
P1
pv1.4 = c T=C

P2 2
21

V1 V2 0.55

P1 V1 = P2 V2
P1
= 10
P2

10 × V1 = 0.55
V1 = 0.055
Now, for adiabatic process,
P1 V1 γ = P2 V2 γ
P1 V2 γ
=( )
P2 V1

V2 γ
10 = ( )
0.055

γ = 1.4
1
V2
10 = (
γ )
0.055

V2 = 0.286m3

37
4. The gas space above water above water in storage tank contains
N2 AT 25°C & 100K Pa the total volume is 1m3 & there is
500kg water at 25°C and additional 500kg is now forced into
tank assuming constant temperature throughout find final
pressure on N2 & work done on N2 in the process.
250C
100 kPa
N2

water

P1 = x 250C
P1 = 100 kPa

V2 4m3 V1
500
Volumewater = V1 = = 0.5m3
1000

V2 = 0.5m3 V1 = 3.5 m3
P1N2 = 100K Pa
P2N2 =?
Final volume, v11 = 1m3 v21 = 3m3
P1N2 V1N2 = P2N2 V2N2
(100 × 3.5 = P2N2 × 3)
P2N2 = 116.66KPa
V2
Wnet = P1 V1 ln
V1
3
= 100 × 0.5 ln ( ) = −53.95 KJ
3.5

Work done on N2 = 53.95 KJ.

38
5. A piston cylinder device contains 0.05m3 of gas initially at
200k pa at this state a linear spring which have spring constant of
15K N/m is just touching the piston is transmitted to gas causing
the piston rise and compress the spring until volume inside a
cylinder is double. If cross section are of piston is 0.25m2 find
final pressure inside the cylinder & work done by the gas.
F k×x
P= =
A A
0.05 V2 − V1
Stroke length = × = 0.2
0.25 A
150 × 0.2
P= = 120
0.25

P2 = Patm + Pp + Ps = 200 + 120

P2 = 320 K Pa
 If there were no spring pressure will remain constant

200 kPa
P1

P2

V1 V2

Pat Ppisto
m n

200 kPa

39
 Patm Ppiston Patm Ppiston Psurrounding

100 kPa

Work done by gas = W@constant pressure + Wspring

= Wexpansion + Wspring
1
= P(V2 − V1 ) + kx 2
2
1
= 200(1 − 0.05) + × 150 × (0.2)2
2

Wgas = 13 KJ
Short trick to find area
2
320
1
200

0.05 0.1
Wgas = A (below the curve)
= 0.05 × 200 + 0.05 × 120
Wgas = 13 KJ

40
6. An insulated vertical tank contains 0.1kg of organ gas with the
help of piston as shown in fig. the mass of piston is 5 kg & initially
at rest on the bottom of cylinder the cylinder is connected to
nitrogen cylinder the valve the valve is opened and nitrogen
slowly enter to the cylinder. During this process piston is lifted to
a height of 10cm by nitrogen. The initial pressure & temperature
of organ is 1 bar and 300k and final temperature of organ is 320k
calculates the work done by organ and by𝑁2 . R = 0.208 KJ/Kg K
γ = 1.67 for organ
Ar = 0.1 kg
1 bar 300k 10 cm

N2
100 bar

morg = 0.1 Kg For organ

mp = 5 Kg PV = m RT

P1N2 = 100 bar 1 × V = 0.1 × 0.208 × 300

x = 10cm V1Ar = 6.24

γ−1
T2 V2
P1Ar = 1 bar =( ) γ
T1 V1
T1Ar = 300K
V2 = 5.34m3
T2Ar = 320K

Work done by organ

P1 V1 − P2 V2
WAr =
γ−1

41
 mR (T1 − T2 )
=
γ−1
0.1×0.208(300 − 320)
=
1.67 − 1

WAr = −0.627 KJ
Now, work done by N2 ,
WN2 = War + Wpiston
mgh
= 0.627 + ( )
1000
5×9.81×0.1
= 0.627 +
1000

WN2 = 0.6249 KJ
7. A sealed elevated storage tank of capacity 50m3 initially
containing air at 1 bar & 25°C is to be pumped with water from a
lake also @ 25°C g = 9.7 m/s2 the pump is operated until the
3
tank is full and during this operation the temp of air & water do
4

not change the average elevation of water in tank is 35m above

the surface of lake. Take ρwater = 1000kg/m3 & assume air as
ideal gas.

P2
P

P1

V1 V2
V

1 bar = 1.01 × 102 k pa

Volume of tank = 50 m3
Pair = 1 bar

42
 Tair = 25℃ = 298K
Twater = 25℃
g = 9.7 m/s2
ρwater = 1000 kg/m3
3
volume = Vwater = × 50 = 37.5
4

mwater = 1000 × 37.5 = 37500 kg

h = 35m
P.E = mgh
P2 V1
=
P1 V2
50
P2 = 100 × = 400kpa
12.5
V2
Work done = P1 V1 ln
V1
12.5
= 100 × 50 ln ( )
50

= −6931.47 KJ
9.7 × 35 × 37500
Wpump = 6931.47 +
1000

Wpump = 6931.47 + 12731.25

Wpump = 19662.7KJ
Wpump = Wair compressure + Wp.e

HEAT
Heat is transient form of energy which transfers due to negative
temperature gradient. (High temp to low temp).
Heat has its meaning only if it is crossing the system.
Q∝m

43
 Q ∝ ∆T
Q ∝ m∆T
Q = mc∆T
Q
C=
m∆T

(Specific heat)
Put m = 1 ∆T = 1 ∴C=Q
Specific heat is amount of heat required to increase the
temperature of 1-unit mass of substance through 1°c temperature.
SPECIFIC HEAT OF GASES:

m
m
Ti Tf
Ti Tf

QV QP

dv = 0 dv ≠ 0
w=0 w≠0
Only intermolecular energy Intermolecular energy +
external energy

Qp > Qv
mcp ∆T > mCv ∆T
Cp > C v
Cp
γ= γ>1
Cv

44
 Specific heat at constant pressure is greater than specific heat at
constant volume because Cp includes internal energy as well as external
work whereas Cv includes only internal energy.
For monatomic gases (Ar, He etc.)
γ = 1.67
For diatomic gas,
γ = 1.4
For polyatomic gases,
γ = 1.33
 Specific heat of solids and liquids:
In case of solids & liquids with the applications of
pressure, change in volume is negligibly small (incompressible).
Therefore, for solid& liquid,
Cp = Cv = C
Note:
Cp 2
γ= =1+
Cv n

Where, n = Degree of freedom of module.

For monatomic molecule, n = 3
For diatomic molecule, n = 5
For triatomic molecule, n = 6
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS:
First law of thermodynamics is based on law of conservation of
energy heat & works are different form of same entity called energy
which is conserved.

45
Statement of closed system undergoing cycle:
First law of thermodynamic for closed system undergoing cycle:
“For a closed system undergoing a cycle heat transfer is equal to the
network transfer”.
∑ Q = ∑ w (Valid for closed system undergoing cycle)
Result from first law of thermodynamic:
1) Heat is a path function:
c
P

For cycle 1a2b1

(dQ)1a2 + (dQ)2b1 = (dW)1a2 + (dW)2b1 … … . . (ⅰ)
For cycle 1a2c1
(dQ)1a2 + (dQ)2c1 = (dW)1a2 + (dW)2c1 … … … (ⅱ)
Equation (ⅰ) - (ⅱ)
(dQ)2b1 − (dQ)2c1 = (dW)2b1 − (dW)2c1 … … . . (A)
Work is a path function,
(dW)2b1 ≠ (dW)2c1
(dW)2b1 − (dW)2c1 ≠ 0
(dQ)2b1 − (dQ)2c1 ≠ 0
(dQ)2b1 ≠ (dQ)2c1

46
 Conclusion:
Through end points are same for path b & c but heat transfer
is not same. Therefore, heat transfer is a path function.
2) From equation (A):
(dQ)2b1 − (dQ)2c1 = (dW)2b1 − (dW)2c1
(dQ − dW)2b1 = (dQ − dW)2c1 = dE
The quantity (dQ − dW) is same for path b & c hence, it
does not depend on the so it must be a property, this property is
known as energy.
dQ − dW = dE
(First law of thermodynamics for closed system undergoing
a process)
3) Energy of system can be divided as
1. Macroscopic
1
a. Kinetic energy ( mv 2 )
2

b. Potential energy (mgh)

2. Microscopic
a. Translational motion of molecule
b. Rotational motion of molecule
c. Vibration motion of molecule
[Internal energy [energy associated with molecules]
E = K. E + P. E + I. E
dE = d(K. E) + d(P. E) + d(I. E)
Neglected, change in K.E & P.E neglected.
dE = dU
47
 dQ = dU + dW
(First law of thermodynamics for closed system undergoing
a process neglecting change in K.E & P.E of system.)
4) Energy of isolated system is constant
dQ = dE + dW
For isolates system,
dQ = 0
dW = 0
dE = 0
E=c
Energy for universe is constant.
5) Perpetual motion of 1st kind: (PMM-1)
Perpetual motion = Continuous motion i.e. (cycle)
The word perpetual means continuous. If a system is
producing continuous work, then it must be operating on cycle
PMM-1 is a machine which give continuous work without any
energy input.

Q=0

PMM – 1 W

For cycle, [cycle is clockwise (work)]

∴ (Power producing)
∑Q = ∑w
Q=0

48
 W=0
So, according to 1st law PMM-1 is not possible.
If such a device is developed, then it will violate 1st law
of thermodynamics.
For ideal gas, dU = mcv dT ; U = f(T) only
dH = mcp dT (Joules law)

ENTHALPY: (H)
In thermodynamics the term U + PV appears frequently so for
our convince this term is taken as enthalpy. It is extensive property %
specific enthalpy is given as,
H = U + PV
Specific enthalpy h = U + PV (h → Intensive)
In closed system,
Internal energy is very important.
But in open system,
Enthalpy plays vital role.
PV = Flow work
U = Internal energy
Heat transfer in various non-flow/closed systems:
1) Constant volume process:
V=C
dQ = dU + dW
For constant volume process
dW = 0
dQ = dU
49
 For ideal gas,
dU = mcv dT ⇒ dQ = dU = mcv dT
2) Constant pressure process:
P = Constant
dw = PdV = d(PV)
dQ = dU + dW = dU + d(PV)
dQ = d(U + PV)
dQ = d(H)
For ideal gas
∴ dH = mcp dT
dQ = dH = mcp dT
3) Isothermal process:
PV = C &
T=C
dQ = dU + dW
For ideal gas
U = f(T)
If T = Constant, then U = Constant
∴ dU = 0
dQ = dW
V2
dW = P1 V1 ln
V1
V2
∴ dQ = dW = P1 V1 ln
V1

50
4) Adiabatic process:
dQ = 0
dQ = dU + dW
dU + dW = 0
dW = −dU
Note:
Show that Cp − Cv = R for ideal gas
H = (U + PV)
dH = d(U + PV)
= dU + d(PV)
dH = mCp dT
dU = mCv dT
mCp dT = mCv dT + d(mRT)
Cp − Cv = R Valid for ideal gas
Cp R R
= γ & Cv = , Cp =
Cv γ −1 γ−1

5) Polytrophic process:
dQ = dU + dW
P1 V1 − P2 V2
= dU +
n−1

For ideal gas,

P1 V1 − P2 V2
dQ = mcv dT +
n−1
P1 V1 − P2 V2
dQ = mcv (T2 − T1 ) +
n−1
mcv P1 V1 − P2 V2
= ( P2 V2 − P1 V1 ) +
mR n−1

51
 P2 V2 − P1 V1 P1 V1 − P2 V2
dQ = [ ]−[ ]
γ−1 n−1
1 1
= P2 V2 − P1 V1 [ − ]
γ−1 n−1
n−γ P2 V2 − P1 V1
= − 1[ ]
γ−1 n−1
γ−n P1 V1 − P2 V2
dQ = [ ]
γ−1 n−1
γ−n
dQ = Wpoly
γ−1

SPECIFIC HEAT FOR POLYTROPHIC

PROCESS:
γ − n P1 V1 − P2 V2
dQ = [ ]
γ−1 n−1
γ − n mR (T1 − T2 )
= [ ]
γ−1 n−1
n−γ
=m cv dT
n−1
n−γ
( cv → Cpoly )
n−1

Convection of heat transfer heat supplied to system +ve heat rejected

for system -ve
n−γ
Cpoly = cγ
n−1

γ>n>1
Cpoly is always negative
Cpoly = −ve

52
In polytrophic process,

system
Q

If we supply the heat, then also the temperature of

system decreases. This is because in such a polytrophic process work
transfer is more than heat transfer and excess amount of work comes
from the internal energy of the system as there is decrease in internal
energy. Temperature of system decreases.
Note:
Show that PV γ = Constant for ideal gas undergoing adiabatic process.
For a process,
dQ = dU + dW
dQ = dU + PdV
For adiabatic process,
dQ = 0
For ideal gas, dU = mcv dT
0 = mcv dT + PdV … … … … . . (ⅰ)
mcv dT = −PdV
(H = U + PV)
[dU + d(PV)]
dH = dU + PdV + VdP
dH = dU + d(PV)
dH = dU + PdV + VdP

53
 For ideal gas,
mcp dT = 0 + VdP … … … . (ⅱ)
cp VdP
Equation (ⅱ)/Equation (ⅰ) → =
cv −PdV
dv dP
γ( ) = −
v v
dP dv
+ γ( ) = 0
v v

Integrating,
dP dv
∫ + ∫γ( ) = 0
P v

lnP + γ lnV = ln C
PV γ = C
(Ideal gas undergoing adiabatic process)
SPECIAL CASE OF WORK TRANSFER:

Electric
works by
B The system

54
1.

Electric
works on
The system
B

w = −ve; V = Constant

dV = 0
PdV = 0

Cannot apply W = PdV as PdV is displacement work

And in this system work is electrical.

Gas Vacuum

System → gas + vacuum

W=0
(If partition is removed); V = constant
PdV = 0

55
2.

Gas Vacuum

dV ≠ 0 (Change is volume non-zero)

PdV = 0
w=0
Since, there is nothing to resist hence, work done is
zero. This condition is called as free expansion.
Free expansion is defined as the expansion against
vacuum or unrestricted expansion.
Free expansion work is zero because as the gas is
expanding against the vacuum there is no resistance offered
from surrounding and hence work is zero.

Gas Vacuum

dQ = dU + dW
dU = 0
U = Constant; Ui = Uf
For ideal gas, U = f(T)
Ti = Tf
H = U + PV

56
 For ideal gas,
H = f(T) + mRT
H = f(T)
Hi = Hf
Problems with Solutions:
1. A well-sealed room contain 60kg of air at 200° k pa & 25℃ ,
now solar energy enters the room at an average rate of 0.8 KJ/sec.
while a 120Watt fan is turned on to circulate the air in room. If
heat transferred through the wall is zero, the air temperature in
room after 30min.

- 0.12 kJ/sec

for air Cv = 0.718 KJ/Kgk

Cp = 1.005 KJ/Kgk
R = 0.287 KJ/Kgk ; γ = 1.4
m = 60kg
For air
Cv = 0.718
T = 25℃ P = 200Kpa
Q = 0.8KJ/sec
P = W = 120 Watt = 0.12 KJ/sec
t = 30min

57
 dQ = dW + dU
30 × 60 × 0.8 = dU − 0.12 × 30 × 60
dU = 1656
mCv dT = 1656/[60 × 0.718(T2 − 25)]
T2 = 63.44℃
2. A two-kilo watt base board electric resistance heater in a vacant
room is turned on & kept on for 15min. the mass of air in room at
75kg and room is perfectly sealed find the temp rise of air at end
of 15min.
W = 2 kW

P = 2Kw = 2KJ/sec
m = 75kg
dQ = 0
dW = dU
mCv dT = 2 × 15 × 60
75 × 0.718 × (dT) = 2 × 15 × 60
dT = 33.42℃
3. Room contains 60kg of air at 100 k pa & 15℃ the room has
250watt refrigerator 120W TV, a 1 KW electric resistance &
150W fan. During cold winter day it is observed that the
refrigerator & TV &fan & electric resistance heater is running
continuously but air temp in room remains constant. The rate of
heat loss from the room in KJ/hr.

58
 dQ = dW + dU
dQ = mCv dT − (0.250 + 0.120 + 1 + 0.05) × 60 × 60
dT = 0
dQ = 0 − 5112
dQ = −5112KJ/hr
Heat loss
dQ = 5112KJ/hr
4. Helium at 20 atm and 40℃ is contained in small steel cylinder
having a volume of 15cm3 = 15 × (10−2 )3 m3 . The cylinder is
placed in large container having a volume of 1500cm3 . The large
cylinder is perfectly evacuated and insulated by an appropriate
means helium discharged to fill the container calculate final
pressure of helium.

15cm3
1500cm3
20 atm

Work = 0 (free expansion)

Tinitial = Tf
Tf = 40℃
dT = 0
dU = 0
Now,
Tinitial = Tf

59
 Pi Vi = Pf Vf
20 × 15 = Pf × 1500
Pf = 0.2 atm
5. A gas undergoes a thermodynamics cycle consisting of following
processes
(ⅰ) Process 1-2 → Constant pressure
P = 1.4 bar ; V1 = 0.028m3 ; W1−2 = 10.5KJ
(ⅱ) Process 2-3 → Compression with PV = C
U3 = U2
(ⅲ) Process 3-1→ Constant volume
U1 − U3 = −26.4 KJ
(i) Find heat transfer & change in internal energy for 1-2
(ii) Find heat transfer in 2-3
(iii) Find heat transfer in 3-1
P1
3

1.4 = P2
1 2

V1 V2

(ⅰ) W1−2 = 10.5KJ

10.5 = P(V2 − V1 )
10.5 = 1.4 × 100 × (V2 − 0.028)
V2 = 0.103m3
dQ = dW + dU
dU = U2 − U1

60
 = U3 − U1 (U2 = U3 )
dU = 26.4KJ
dQ = 10.5 + 26.4
dQ = 36.9KJ
(ⅱ) dQ = dW + dU
dU = 0 (U2 = U3 )
V2
dQ = dw = P2 V2 ln
V1
0.103
= 1.4 × 102 × 0.103 × ln ( )
0.028

dQ = −18.78KJ
(ⅲ) 3-1
dQ = dW + dU
= (U1 − U3 ) + 0
dQ = −26.4KJ
6. A rigid insulated tank of 3m3 volume have two compartments. 1st
compartment of 1m3 contains ideal gas at 0.1MPa & 300K. while
the 2nd compartment contains same gas 1MPa & 100K. If the
partition is removed, then determine the final temp& pressure of
gas.

1m3 2m3
Pf
0.1 MPa 1 MPa
Tf
300K 1000K

V1 = 1m3 ; V2 = 2m3 ; Vf = 3m3

dQ = 0
Q loss = Q gain

61
 P1 V1 = M1 R1 T1 & P2 V2 = M2 R 2 T2
Same gas
P1 V1 = n1 R1 T1
0.1 × 103 × 1 = n1 × R × 300
̅
n1 = (3 × 10−1 )/R
n1 = 0.360
P2 V2 = n2 R 2 T2
2 × 103 × 1 = n2 × R × 1000
̅
n2 = (2 × 10−3 )/R
n2 = 2.40
Q loss = Q gain
m2 (1000 − Tf ) = m1 (Tf − 300)
Mn2 (1000 − Tf ) = M n1 (Tf − 300)
n2 (1000 − Tf ) = n1 (Tf − 300)
2.4(1000 − Tf ) = 0.36(Tf − 300)
6.66(1000 − Tf ) = Tf − 300
Tf = 900K
Pf Vf = ∑ nR f Tf
Pf × 3 = (2.4 × 0.36) × 0.8314 × 900
Pf = 700 KPa
Pf = 0.7 MPa

62
7. A gas of mass 1.5kg undergoes a quasi-static expansion which
follows the relationship P = a + bV where a & b are constant the
initial & final pressure are 1000kg & 200kpa respectively &
corresponding volumes are 0.2m3 & 1.2m3 . The specific internal
energy is given as μ = 1.5 ρV − 85KJ/kg where 𝜌 in k pa &
ϑ = m3 /kg. Calculate the net heat transfer & maximum internal
energy of gas during expansion.
m = 1.5kg
P = a + bV
Pi = 1000KPa
(1000)Pi 1

(200) Pi 2

0.2 1.2

Pf = 200KPa
Vi = 0.2m3
Vf = 1.2m3
μ = 1.5;
ρV − 85 KJ/kg
P = a + bV (Linear relation)
1000 = a + b(0.2)
200 = a ± b(1.2)
800 = b(−1)
b = −800

63
 a = 1000 + 800(0.2)
a = 1160
0.2
ui = 1.5 × (1000) × ( ) − 85 = 115
1.5
1.2
uf = 1.5 × (200) × ( ) − 85 = 155
1.5

dU = md(Ui ) = 40 × 1.5 = 60
dQ = dU + dW
1
= 60 + (1 × 200) + × 1 × 800
2
dQ = 660 KJ
m × U = 1.5PV × m − 85m
U = 1.5PV − 85 × 1.5
U1 = 1.5P1 V1 − 8.5 × 1.5
U2 = 1.5P2 V2 − 8.5 × 1.5
dU = 60 KJ
dQ = 60 + 600 = 660 KJ
U = 1.5PV − 85 × 1.5
dU d
= [ 1.5(a + bV) × V − 85 × 1.5]
dV dV
d
= [ 1.5(aV + bV 2 ) − 85 × 1.5]
dV

= 1.5a + 1.5 × 2 × b × V − 85 × 1.5

= 1.5 × 1160 + 1.5 × 2 × (−800) × V − 127.5
= −1600 × V + 1612.5
V = 0.725m3
Umax = 1.5 × (1160 − 800 × (0.725)) × 0.725 − 85 × 1.5
Umax = 503 KJ
64
OPEN SYSTEM:
When there is mass transfer along with energy transfer
across system boundary then system is called as open system.
Steady flow:
A flow is said to be steady flow, if properties do not
change w. r. to time at given location.
Uniform flow:
A flow is said to be uniform if properties do not change
w.r.to location (space) at a given time.
Note:
In closed system we talked about fixed mass but in open
system we will talk about mass flow rate.
In open system analysis, a fixed volume is considered
known as control volume.
In control volume mass can enter or leave energy can
enter or leave but volume of system remains constant.
MASS BALANCE:
(Law of conservation of mass)
If there is no accumulation of mass (control volume).
Then, rate of mass entering is equal to rate of mass leaving.
In case of steady flow, there is no accumulation of mass.
m1 = m2 = m → Steady flow
m
ρ=
vol
ρAL m
=
time time

65
 m = ρAL
For steady flow
m1 = m2
ρ1 A1 V1 = ρ2 A2 V2 → continuty equation
In case of unsteady flow,
m1 ≠ m2
OPEN SYSTEM WORK
1) External work
2) Flow work
Open system work

External work Flow work

External Work:
The work transfer across the control volume other than due to normal
fluid force
Example: shaft work
Flow work:
It is the work involved in causing the fluid element
either enter to C.v or leave the C.v.
Flow work is analogous to “displacement work”.

66
Work:

1 dm,d
v
P

dv = ϑdm
2

dWflow = PdV = Pvdm

dWflow
=Pv
dm
flow × work
=Pv
mass

Total flow work = P v M

= PV
At energy, flow work = −P1 V1
At exit, flow work = P2 V2
ENERGY BALANCE:
1) Steady flow:
In steady flow there is no accumulation of mass &
energy within the system (Control volume).
Mass entering m1 = mass leaving m2
Energy entering E1 = energy leaving E2

67
 P1
V1 WCV
C1
U1
Z1 M1

P2
2 V2
Q
C2
U2
Z2 M2

m1 = m2 = m
E1 = E2 = E
1
E1 = m1 C1 2 + m1 gZ1 + U1 + Q
2
1
E2 = m2 C2 2 + m2 gZ2 + U2 + W
2

We have
W = WCv − P1 V1 + P2 V2
For steady flow,
E1 = E2
1 1
m1 C1 2 + m1 gZ1 + U1 + Q = m2 C2 2 + m2 gZ2 + U2 + W
2 2

m1 = m2 = m ; W = WCv − P1 V1 + P2 V2
C1 2 C2 2
h1 + + gZ1 + q = h2 + + gZ2 + WCv
2 2

1st law of thermodynamics for open system steady flow.

Examples of Steady flow process:
1) Nozzle:
Nozzle is a device which is used to increase the velocity
of fluid in expanse of pressure energy.

68
 1 2

Q = 0; Z1 = Z2 WCv = 0
C1 2 C2 2
h1 + + gZ1 + 0 = h2 + + gZ2 + 0
2 2
C1 2 C2 2
h1 + = h2 +
2 2
C1 2 J m
→ ; C1 → ; h → KJ/Kg
2 Kg s

Hence,
C1 2 C2 2
h1 + = h2 +
2000 2000

C2 >>>> C1
C1 Can be neglected,
When C1 value is net given
C2 2
h1 = h2 +
2000

C2 = √2000(h1 − h2 )
2) Turbine:
It is used to produce work

W = +ve

Z1
Z2

Q=0 Z1 = Z2

69
 Neglecting kinetic energy changes,
C1 2 C2 2
h1 + + gZ1 + q = h2 + + gZ2 + wT
2 2

C1 − C2 Very small
So, it can be neglected
WT = h1 − h2 (Steady flow, fully insulated and change in
K.E & P.E is neglected)
3) Compressor:

1 2

It consumes work, to compress the gas.

Q = 0; Z1 = Z1 WC = −ve
WC = h2 − h1
4) Throttling process:
Example:
a) Flow through very small opened valve.
b) Flow through very small opening.

1 2

Q = 0; Z1 = Z1 WC = 0
No change in kinetic energy.
h1 = h2
Throttling is an Iso-Enthalpy process. It is used in refrigerator.
70
OPEN & CLOSED SYSTEMS OF REVERSIBLE
WORK:
Open system reversible work
Wopen = ∫ −vdP
Closed system reversible work
1
P
dP 2

V V

WClose = PdV
dA = vdP
Total area =∫ VdP
 Area under the curve when projected on pressure axis gives open
system reversible work.
OPEN SYSTEM WORK FOR VARIOUS
PROCESSES:
1) Constant volume process:
V=C
Wopen = v(P1 − P2 )
 Flow does not take place from high pressure to flow pressure it
takes place from high energy to low energy.

71
2) Constant pressure process:
P=C
dP = 0
Wopen = 0
3) Isothermal pressure:
Pv = Constant
C
v=
P
C
Wopen = ∫ − dP
P

Wopen = −C[ln P]12

P1
Wopen = C ln
P2
P1
Wopen = P1 V1 ln
P2
P1 V2
P1 V1 = P2 V2 ⇒ =
P2 V1
V2
Wopen = P1 V1 ln
V1

= Closed system work

In isothermal process,
Wopen = Wclosed

72
Problems and solutions:
1. At nozzle inlet enthalpy of fluid passing 3000 KJ/Kg & velocity
is 60m/sec at discharge end the enthalpy is 2762KJ/Kg. the nozzle
is horizontal & perfectly insulated
A1 = 0.1m2 ; V1 = 0.187m3 /Kg; V2 = 0.498m2 /Kg
a. Find the velocity at nozzle exit.
b. Find mass flow rate.
c. Exit area of nozzle.
for nozzle
V1 2 V2 2
h1 + = h2 +
2000 2000
602 V2 2
3000 + = 2762 +
2000 2000

V2 = 692.53 m/s
ρ1 V1 A1 = A2 ρ2 V2 = m
1
= VA
ϑ1 1 1
1
= × 0.1 × 60
0.187

m = 32.08
V1 A1 A2 V2
=
ϑ1 ϑ2
0.1×60 A2 ×692.53
=
0.187 0.498

A2 = 0.023m3

73
2. In test of water jacketed compressor, the shaft work required
is 90KJ/Kg during compression increase in enthalpy at air is
30KJ/Kg & increase in enthalpy of circulating is 40KJ/Kg. the
change in velocity is negligible the atm of heat lost from
compressor by air.
dQ = dU + dW
W = h2 − h1
Water

1
2

Water

For air,
h1 + Q = h2 + W
Q = (h2 − h1 ) + W
= 30 − 90 = −60
Heat last by air = +60
Heat loss by air = 60
= Q water + Q atm
Q atm = 20KJ

74
3. A turbine operates under steady flow condition receiving steam
at following state pressure is 1.2MPa. Temperature 188°C.
Enthalpy 2785 KJ/Kg velocity 33.33m/s and elevation 3m. The
steam leaves the turbine at following state. Pressure 20KPa
enthalpy 2512 KJ/Kg velocity 100m/s elevation 0 heat is lost to
surrounding at the rate of 0.29 KJ/sec. If rate of steam flow
through the turbine is 0.12 Kg/sec what is power output of turbine
in KW.
P1 = 1.2MPa
T1 = 188℃ V1 = 33.33m/sec
h1 = 2785 KJ/Kg ; Z1 = 3m
h2 = 2512 KJ/Kg ; V2 = 100m/s Z2 = 0
Q lost(surrounding) = 0.29 KJ/sec
m = 0.42Kg/sec; P =?
V1 2 V2 2
m[h1 + + gZ1 ] + q = m[h2 + + gZ2 ] + WT
2 2
(33.33)2 9.81
0.42 [2785 + + × 3] + 0.29
2000 1000
(100)2 9.81
= 0.42[2512 + + × 0] + WT
2000 1000

WT = 112.5 KJ/sec

75
STEADY FLOW ENERGY EQUATION FOR
MULTI STREAM FLOW:

m1

m3

W
m2

m4

Steady flow equation (energy balance equation)

C1 2 C2 2
ṁ 1 [h1 + + gZ1 ] + ṁ 2 [h2 + + gZ2 ] + Q
2 2
C3 2 C4 2
= ṁ 3 [h3 + + gZ3 ] + ṁ 4 [h4 + + gZ4 ] + WCv
2 2

Mass balance equation:

ṁ 1 + ṁ 2 = ṁ 3 + ṁ 4
Problems with solutions:
1. The steam supply to the engine comprise two stream which mix
before enetering engine one steam is at rate of 0.01Kg/sec with
enthalpy 2952KJ/Kg and velocity 20m/s. the other steam is
supplied at 0.1Kg/sec with enthalpy 2569KJ/Kg and velocity
120m/s at the exit from the engine fluid leaves at 2 stream one of
water at rate of 0.001Kg/sec with enthalpy 420KJ/Kg and other
of a stream the fluid velocity at the exit is neglegibly small the
engine develoip shaft power of 25KW heat transfer is negligible
evaluate the enthalpy of second exit stream & mass flow rate.

76
 ṁ 1 = 0.01Kg/sec; h1 = 2952KJ/Kg; C1 = 20m/s
ṁ 2 = 0.1Kg/sec; h2 = 2569KJ/Kg; C2 = 120m/s
ṁ 3 = 0.001Kg/sec; h3 = 420KJ/Kg; WCv = 25KW; Q = 0
Mass balance equation
ṁ 1 + ṁ 2 = ṁ 3 + ṁ 4
ṁ 4 = 0.109Kg/sec
Effect of Z is negligible
Hence,
gZ1 = gZ2 = gZ3 = gZ4 = 0
C1 2 C2 2
ṁ 1 [h1 + + gZ1 ] + ṁ 2 [h2 + + gZ2 ] + Q̇
2 2

C3 2 C4 2
= ṁ 3 [h3 + + gZ3 ] + ṁ 4 [h4 + + gZ4 ] + WCv
2 2
C1 2 C2 2
ṁ 1 [h1 + + 0] + ṁ 2 [h2 + + 0] + Q̇
2000 2000

C3 2 C4 2
= ṁ 3 [h3 + + 0] + ṁ 4 [h4 + + 0] + WCv
2000 2000
(20)2 (120)2
0.01 [2952 + ] + 0.1 [2569 + ]+0
2000 2000
(0)2
= 0.001 [420 + ] + 0.109[h4 ] + 25
2000

h4 = 2401 KJ/Kg
2. The stream of air & gasoline vapour in ratio of 14:1 by mass enter
in a gasoline engine at temperature 30°C & leave as combustion
product and temperature of 190°C. the engine has specific fuel
consumption 0.3 Kg/Kwhr. The net heat transfer rate from the
fuel air stream to the jacketed cooling water & to the surrounding
is 35Kw. The shaft power delivered by the engine is 26Kw

77
compute the increase in specific enthalpy of fuel air stream
assuming the changes in K.E & P.E is negligibley small.
ma 14
=
mg 1

SFC = 0.3 Kg/Kwhr

Q = 35 Kw W = 26Kw
ma = m1 & mg = m2
Air
m
Gasoline

ṁ(h1 ) + Q = ṁ(h2 ) + WCv

ṁ(h2 − h1 ) = −35 − 26
61
h2 − h1 = −
m

Specific fuel consumption is defined for output power

(SFC = To produce specific power how much fuel consumption
is required.)
SFC = 0.3Kg/Kwhr
0.3×26
= Kg/sec
3600

ṁ g = m2 = 2.16 × 10−3 Kg/sec

mair = m1 = 14 × 0.0021 = 0.03Kg/sec
ṁ = ṁ g + ṁ a
ṁ = 0.321Kg/sec
−61
∴ ∆h = = −1877KJ
m

78
UNSTEADY FLOW:
Many flow problems such as filling up & evacuated cylinder
are not steady in unsteady state the rate at which the mass of fluid
within control volume is accumulated is equal to the net rate of mass
flow across the control volume.

Mi

Me

I = Condition of fluid at inlet

E = Condition of fluid at outlet1
1 = Initial condition of system
2 = Final condition of system (C.V)
Mass balance,
Rate of accumulation of mass within system
= Rate of mass entering - Rate of mass leaving
mi = Mass entering
me = Mass leaving
Mass balance:
The Rate of accumulation of mass within system
= Rate of mass entering - Rate of mass leaving.
dm
( ) = Mass accumulation within control volume
dt Cv

79
 dm dmi dme
( ) = ( )−( )
dt Cv dt dt

dm
( ) = m i − me
dt Cv

This is mass balance for unsteady state flow.

Energy balance:
Ei = Energy of fluid at inlet
Ci 2
Ei = mi hi + mi + mi gzi + Q
2

Ee = Energy of fluid at outlet

Ce 2
Ei = me he + me + me gze + WCv
2

A/c to energy balance equation for unsteady state flow:

The rate of energy accumulated within the control volume is equal to
difference between rate of energy entering to rate of energy leaving.
dE dEi dEe
( ) =( )−( )
dt Cv dt dt

dE d
( ) = [Ei − Ee ]
dt Cv dt

d Ci 2 Ce 2
= [(mi hi + mi + mi gzi + Q) − (me he + me + me gze +
dt 2 2
WCv )]

Now neglecting K.E & P.E changes

Energy = K.E + P.E + I.E
E = I.E
dU d
( ) = [mi hi + Q̇ − me he − WCv ]
dt Cv dt

dU d d
( ) = (mi hi ) + Q̇ − (me he ) − WĊ v
dt Cv dt dt

hi & he Are constant with respect to time.

80
 dU d d
( ) = hi (mi ) + Q̇ − he (me ) − WĊ v
dt Cv dt dt

dU
( ) = ṁ i hi + Q̇ − ṁ e he − WĊ v (Energy balance)
dt Cv

CHARGING OF TANK:
An insulated storage tank that is initially evacuated is connected
to a supply pipe line carrying a fluid which specific internal energy is
Ui & specific enthalpy hi the valve is open & fluid flow in the tank
through supply pipe line & reaches the pressure same as pressure of
supply pipe line show that final specific internal energy of final
temperature of fluid inside the tank if fluid flowing is ideal gas and
supply line temp is Ti .

Ui, hi, Ti, Pi

Mi = 0
Me = 0
Q=0 W=0
Mass balance,
dM
( ) = ṁ i − ṁ e
dt Cv

M1 − M2 = ṁ i − ṁ e
M2 = ṁ i …….. (ⅰ)

81
 Energy balance,
dM
( ) = ṁ i hi + Q − ṁ e he − WĊ v
dt Cv

U1 − U2 = ṁ i hi
U1 = 0
U2 = m2 hi
U2
= hi
m2

U2 = hi …...... (ⅱ)
For ideal gas
du = Cv dT
dh = Cp dT
u2 − u1 = Cv (T2 − T1 )
T1 → 0 u1 → 0
u2 = Cv T2
hi = Cp Ti
(he = 0 Te = 0)
From (ⅱ)
For ideal gas,
Cv T2 = Cp Ti
Cp
T2 = ( ) Ti
Cv

∴ T2 = γTi T2 > Ti
 There no problem with 1st law of thermodynamics it is
quantitative law. Process is possible or not is not the criterion of
1st law.

82
SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS:
 According to 1st law of thermodynamics, energy is conserved
during process or cycle and energy balance hold good but it does
not give any information regarding process is possible or not.
 It is the 2nd law of thermodynamics, which provide the criterion
for possibility of any process and give the direction for particular
process through the concept of entropy. It is also known as
directional law.
 1st law is quantitative law of energy and 2nd law is quantitative
law of energy.
Note:
All natural spontaneous process is occurring only in one direction
(high potential to low potential)
Thermal Reservoir

Source Sink
T1 T2

Q1 (Supply) Q2 (Absorb)

Source:
Source thermal reservoir which can supply any amount of energy
without undergoing any temp change
Example: Sun

83
Sink:
Sink is thermal reservoir which can absorb any amount of energy
without undergoing any temperature change.
Example: Atmosphere
2nd law given by joule mathematical representation – Clausius
2nd law of thermodynamic for cycle:
Joules experiments demonstrated that work can be
completely converted into heat but complete conversion of law
grade energy (heat) to higher grade energy (work) is not
possible for a cycle.
KELVIN – PLANK STATEMENT OF SECOND
LAW (PMM-Ⅱ):
It is not possible to construct a device which continuously delivers
the work while exchanging heat a single reservoir.

PMM-II W

PMM-Ⅱ has 100% efficiency (i.e. not possible)

84
CONCEPT OF HEAT ENGINE:
If more than one reservoir is used, then it is possible to convert
low grade energy to high grade energy.
Source
T1
Power
Q1 Producing
Clockwise
HE W

Q2

T2
Sink

1st law applied to system

∑ Q = ∑ QW
Q1 − Q 2 = W
O/P W Q1 − Q2
η= = =
I/P Q1 Q1
Q2
η=1− Valid for reversible & irreversible both.
Q1
(As no assumption mode.)
CLAUSES STATEMENT OF 2ND LAW:
It is not possible to construct a device which operates on a
cycle and transfer heat from low temperature to high temperature body
without any energy input.
Source
T1

Q1

HE W

Q2

T2
Sink

85
Heat at low temperature → low grade energy (low significance)
Heat at high temperature → high grade energy (high significance)
CONCEPT OF REFRIGERATOR:
Refrigerator is a device which creates & maintains lower
temperature than surrounding as lower temperature is to maintain
continuously the system must operate on cycle.
1st law, ∑ Q = ∑ QW
Q 2 − Q1 = −W
Source
T1
Power
Consuming
Q1
anticlockwise
cycle
R W

Q2

T2
Sink

Coefficient of performance (COP)

= Desired effect /input
Q2
= (Valid for reversible & irreversible)
W
Q1
COP = ……… (1)
Q1 − Q2

86
HEAT PUMP:
Heat pump is device which maintains higher temperature than
surrounding.
Source
T1

Q1

HP W

Q2

T2
Sink

desired effect
(COP)HP =
input
Q1
(COP)HP =
Q1 − Q2

(COP)HP − (COP)R = 1
(COP)HP = 1 + (COP)R
(Valid for same temperature limit)
Note:
Clauses & Kelvin-plank statements are parallel statements of 2nd
law of thermodynamic if we violate any one of them automatically
another is violated.

87
VIOLATION OF CLAUSES:
Source
T1 at (T1)

Q1 Q1 Q1 Q1

HE HE
W = Q1 – Q2
Q2 Q3 Q2 Q3

T2 T2
Sink
Violation of Clausius law Violation of Kelvin plank law

Violation of Kelvin-plank statement:

T1 T1

Q1 Q1 Q1 Q3 = Q1 + Q2

W W W W
Re Re

Q3 Q2

T2 T2

Violation of Kelvin plank law Violation of Clausius law

T1

Q1 Q3 = Q1 + Q2

W W
HE R

Q2

T2

Violation of Clausius statement

88
CARNOT CYCLE:
Qin
1
2

4 3
Q Rejected

1-2 → Isothermal expansion (heat add)

2-3 → Adiabatic expansion (Q = 0)
3-4 → Isothermal compression.
4-1 → Adiabatic compression.
Carnot cycle consist of two isothermal & two adiabatic process
isothermal process is very slow whereas, adiabatic vs. very fast. Hence,
the combination of these two processes in cycle is not possible.
Carnot cycle is theoretical cycle which is used for compression
of other actual cycles.
CARNOT THEOREM:
For various cycles operated between same temperature limit
non-has efficiency greater than reversible cycle.
Let us consider two engines E1 & E2 E1 is a reversible engine & E2 is
irreversible engine in same temp difference.
T1

Q1 Q1
W
E1 E2 W

Q2 Q3

T2

89
 E1 → Rev engine
E2 → Irre engine
Let us assume, ηirr > ηrev
W2 W1
> (W2 > W1 )
Q1 Q2

Now reversible the direction in reversible engine,

T1

Q1 Q1 Q1 Q1

W1 W2 W1 W2
E1 E2 E1 E2

Q2 Q3 Q2 Q3
Wnet = W2 – W1 W2 – W1
T2 T2

Violation of Kelvin-plank so our assumption is wrong,

∴ ηrev > ηirr
A cycle is said to be reversible cycle if all the processes of cycle are
reversible if single cycle is irreversible, then cycle is irreversible cycle.
CLAUSIS THEOREM:
(Clausis inequality)
dQ
According to this theorem, the cyclic integral of is less than or
T

equal to zero.
dQ
∮ ≤0
T
dQ
⇒∮ = 0 ….. Reversible cycle
T
dQ
∮ < 0 …... Irreversible cycle
T

90
 dQ
If ∮ > 0 ….. Cycle is not possible
T
dQ
∮ ≤0
T

This is 2nd law of thermodynamics for cycle.

REVERSIBLE HEAT ENGINE:
T1

Q1

HE W

T2

Closed system undergoing cycle.

Apply 1st law
∑Q = ∑W
Q1 - Q 2 = W
Apply 2nd law
For reversible heat engine
dQ
∮ =0
T
Q1 −Q2
+( )=0 (T is in K)
T1 T2
Q1 Q2
- =0
T1 T2
Q1 Q2
=
T1 T2
Q1 T1
=
Q2 T2

91
 Q2
ɳ=1-
Q1

It is valid for reversible as well as irreversible

For reversible,
Q1 T1
=
Q2 T2
T2
ɳ=1-
T1

It is only valid for reversible.

REVERSIBLE HEAT PUMP:

T1
System
Q1

HP W

T2

Apply 1st law

∑Q = ∑W
Q 2 - Q1 = -W
∴ W = Q1 - Q 2
Apply 2nd law
dQ
∮ = 0 …… Reversible.
T
Q2 Q1
- =0
T2 T1
Q1 T1
=
Q2 T2

92
 Q1 1 1
Cop = = Q = T
Q1 − Q2 1 − Q2 1 − T2
1 1

T1
Cop =
T1 − T2

It is only for reversible process

Similarly, for reversible refrigerator:
T2
Cop =
T1 − T2

It is valid for reversible only.

COUPLED ENGINE:
(Engine in series)

T1

Q1

E1 W1

Q2

E2 W2

T2

W1 = Q1 – Q
T
ɳ1 = 1 -
T1

W2 = Q – Q 2
T2
ɳ2 = 1 -
T

93
 a. When work from both the engine is same
W1 = W2
Q1 – Q = Q – Q 2
Q1 Q2
–1=1-
Q Q
T1 T2
–1=1-
T T
T1
T=
T1 + T2

b. Efficiency of both engines are same

ɳ1 = ɳ2
T T2
1- =1-
T1 T

T = √T1 × T2
Note:
T2 T2 T
1. = ×
T1 T T1

(1 − ɳ) = (1 - ɳ2 ) (1 - ɳ1 )
1 − ɳ = 1 - ɳ1 - ɳ2 + ɳ1 ɳ2
ɳnet = ɳ1 + ɳ2 - ɳ1 ɳ2
ɳ > ɳ1
ɳ > ɳ2
2. Two constant property line can never intersect each other.
Two adiabatic line can never intersect each other.

94
 adiabatic

isothermal
P
Qin

⇒ Only one reservoir producing work. Hence violation of

kelvin planks statement
Problems with Solutions:
1. A heat engine working on Carnot cycle receive heat at 40KW
from a source of 1200K & reject it to the sink at 300K. Find
heat rejected.
T1
Q2

HE W

T2
T2
40 = 1 -
T1
T2 Q2
=
T1 Q1
40 Q2
⇒ =
1200 300

Q 2 = 10KW
2. An inventor claims that heat engine has following specification.
Power developed = 50KW. Fuel burned for hour = 3kg, heating
value of fuel = 75000kJ/kg, temperature limits = 627 & 270 C.
Cost = 30 Rs/kg, value of power = 5 Rs/Kwh

95
1st Method
The performance of engine,
W = 50KW
Q1 = (3 × 75000) ÷ 3600
= 62.5KW
T2
ɳmax = 1 - = 66.6%
T1
output Wout 50
ɳactual = = =
input Qin 62.5

ɳactual = 80%
ɳactual > ɳmax
….. not possible
2nd Method

900 K

Qih = 62.5

HE 50

12.5
300 K

dQ 62.5 12.5
∮ = -
T 90 300

= 0.02 (+ve)
Hence violation of 2nd law
∴ Not possible
ɳmax = ɳactual → economical
ɳmax > ɳactual → possible
ɳmax < ɳactual → not possible

96
3. If efficiency of Carnot engine is given as 0.75. if cycle direction
is reversed then value of cop for Carnot refrigerator.
Q1
0.75 =
Q1 − Q2
1
0.75 = Q
1 − Q2
1

Q2 4
1− =
Q1 3
Q2 T2
⇒ =
Q1 T1
T2 1
(Cop)ref = = T
T1 − T2 1 − T2
1

(Cop)ref = 0.33
4. In given figure E is heat engine with efficiency 0.4, and R is
refrigerator given that Q 2 + Q 4 = 3Q1 . Then what is cop of
refrigerator.

Q1
Q1
E R
Q2
Q3

-Win = - Q 3 + Q 4
-0.4Q1 = - Q 3 + 2.4Q1
Q 3 = 2Q1
Q1
0.4 =
Q1 − Q2

-0.4 Q 2 = Q1 – 0.4 Q1
Q 2 = 0.6Q1
W = Q1 - Q 2
97
 W = 0.4 Q1
Q3
ɳr =
Q4 − Q3

Q 2 + Q 4 = 3Q1
0.6 Q1 + Q 4 = 3Q1
Q 4 = 2.4 Q1
2Q1
(Cop)r = =5
2.4Q1 − 2Q1

5. Using the engine of 30% thermal efficiency to drive the

refrigerator having Cop = 5. What is the heat input into the
engine for each mega joule removed from cold body by
refrigerator?

T1

Q1
W
R
Q2

T2

T1

Q3
W
E

Q4
T2

ɳ = 30% = 0.03
Cop = 5
Q2
5=
Q1 − Q2

5Q1 - 5Q 2 = Q 2

98
 5Q1 = 6Q 2
Q1 = 1.2Q 2
Q3 − Q4
0.3 =
Q3

0.3Q 3 = Q 3 − Q 4
Q 4 = 0.7Q 3
Q1 = 1.2 MJ
Q1 − Q 2 = Q 4 − Q 3
1.2 MJ – 1 = Q 3 (0.3)
Q 3 = 0.66MJ
6. A heat engine is used to drive a heat pump. The heat transfers
from heat engine and from heat pump are used to heat the water,
circulating through the radiator of building the efficiency of heat
engine is 27% & COP heat pump 4. Evaluate the ratio of heat
transfer to circulating water to heat transfer to the heat engine.
T1

Q1
W = Q1 - Q2
E
Q2

T2

T3

Q3
W = Q1 - Q2
P

Q4
T4

Q1 − Q2
ɳ=
Q1

99
 Q1 − Q2
0.27 =
Q1
Q2
= 0.73
Q1

Win = Q1 − Q 2
= 0.27 Q1
Q3
COP =
Q3 − Q4

Q 3 = 4 (Q 3 − Q 4 )
3Q 3 = Q 4
Q 4 = 3Q 3
(Q1 − Q 2 ) + Q 4 = Q 3
0.27 Q1 + 4Q 3 = Q 3
0.27 Q1 = - 3Q 3
Q2 + Q3 (0.73 + 1.08)Q1
= = 1.81
Q1 Q1

7. A house is to be maintained at temperature of 200 C by means of

heat pump pumping heat from atmosphere. Heat losses through
walls of house are estimated as 0.65KW per unit of temperature
difference between the inside of house & atmosphere. If
atmospheric temperature is - 100 C. What is minimum power
required to dry the pump.
It is proposed to use the same pump to cool the house in
summer for same room temperature, same heat loss rate and
same power input to the pump what is the maximum permissible
atmospheric temperature.

100
 T1 = 200C

Q1
W = Q1 - Q2

Q2
T2 = 100C

T1 = 200 C
T2 = −100 C
Q1 = 0.65 × (T1 - T2 )
= 0.65 × (293 - 263)
Q1 = 19.5 kW
T1 Q1
=
T2 Q2
263
Q 2 = 19.5 ×
293

Q 2 = 17.5
Wpower = 19.5 – 17.5 = 2 kW

T1 = ?

Q1
W = Q1 - Q2

Q2
T2 = 200C

Q1 − Q 2 = 2kW
Q1 = 2 + Q 2
Q1 = 2 + 19.5
Q1 = 21.5

101
 T1 Q1
=
T2 Q2
x 21.5
=
200 19.5

x = 323K
x = 500 C
∴ T1 = 500 C
8. The refrigerator is maintained at 20 C. every time the door
opened warm material is placed inside introducing an average of
420KJ but making only a small change in temperature of
refrigerator. The door is opened 20 times in day & refrigerator
operates at 15% ideal COP. The cost of work is 32 paisa/kWhr.
What is monthly bill for refrigerator. The atmospheric
temperature 300 C.

T1 = 313

Q1
Win
R

Q2
T2 = 279

Q1 = 420 × 20 × 30 = 8400
15 273 + 2
(COP)R = × = 1.47
100 28
Q1
(COP)R =
Win
420 × 20 × 30
Win =
1.47

Win = 171428.57 KJ/sec

102
 KJ × hr
Win = 171428.57
3600 × sec

= 47.61 KW/hr
Cost = 47.61 × 0.32
= ₹15.80
ENTROPY:
dQ
∮ ≤ 0 → 2nd law for cycle.
T

Case 1: Reversible cycle,

1
P c
b

a
2

For reversible cycle, |a2 b|

dQ dQ
( ) +( ) = 0 …… (1)
T 1a2 T 2b1

For reversible |a2 c|,

dQ dQ
( ) +( ) = 0 …… (2)
T 1a2 T 2c1

Equation (1) & (2)

dQ dQ
( ) -( ) =0
T 2b1 T 2c1
dQ dQ
( ) = ( )
T 2b1 T 2c1
dQ
The quantity ( ) is same for both the path b & c. it only
T reversible

depends on end points. So, it must be a property.

103
 1
P c
b

This property is known as entropy.

Entropy (C ′ ) = Entropy
Entropy is a property it does not depend upon the path.
Entropy is same if the end points are same.
Entropy depends only on end points. Hence, as long as
end points are same the entropy remain same for reversible as well as
irreversible path.
Between two end points entropy is only defined for
reversible path & same for irreversible path.
In order to find out entropy change of irreversible path it must be
replaced by reversible path between same end points.
ENTROPY CHANGE OF SYSTEM FOR
REVERSIBLE PROCESS:
Case 1:
When heat is added to the system.
dQ
ds =
T

ds = + ve
s2 − s1 = +ve
The entropy of system increases when heat is added to a system.

104
 dQ
ds = ( )
T reversible

This is 2nd law of thermodynamics for process.

Irreversible cycle

1
P c

For reversible cycle |2b|,

dQ dQ
( ) +( ) =0
T 1a2 T 2b1
dQ dQ
( ) = -( )
T 1a2 T 2b1

For irreversible cycle |a2 c ′ |,

dQ dQ
( ) +( ) <0
T 1a2 T 2c′ 1
dQ dQ
-( ) < ( )
T 2b1 T 2c′ 1
dQ
ds > ( )
T 2c′ 1
dQ
ds > ( )
T irreversible
dQ dQ
( ) >( )
T reversible T irreversible

ds = Entropy
Case 2:
When heat is rejected,
dQ
ds =
T

105
 ds = -ve
s2 − s1 = -ve
Entropy of a system decreases when heat is rejected.
 Entropy of universe always increases
Case 3:
Reversible adiabatic process
dQ = 0
∴ ds = 0
s2 − s1 = 0
s2 = s1
In this process entropy is same hence it is called isentropic process.
For reversible process entropy of system is constant.
Note:
System entropy can increase or decrease or become
constant depending upon type of heat transfer.
ENTROPY CHANGE FOR IRREVERSIBLE
PROCESS:
dQ
ds > ( )
T irreversible
dQ
ds = ( ) + (δs)generation
T irreversible

1
P d
c

106
For reversible process,
(δs)generation = 0
The end points are same for irreversible path
c ′ & d′ ,
The entropy change will be same but
dQ dQ
( ) ≠( )
T 2c′ 1 T 2b′ 1

So, ((δs)generation ) ≠ ((δs)generation )

2c′ 1 2b′ 1

So, Entropy is a property so it does not depend on the path followed

by process, but entropy generation is not a property.
It depends on path followed by the process.
(δs)generation is measure of irreversibility of a system.
In case of reversible process,
(δs)generation = 0
and if δs for 2c ′ 1 is greater than 2d′ 1 then c ′ will be more
irreversible.
(δs)2c′ 1 > (δs)2d′ 1
For irreversible path,
dQ
ds = ( ) + (δs)generation
T irreversible

For non- adiabatic & heat rejection

dQ
( ) =-a
T irreversible

At same time (δs)generation = a

∴ ds = -a + a = 0
s2 − s1 = 0

107
 s2 = s1 (Isentropic)
Reversible adiabatic process is always isentropic but
isentropic process need not to be reversible adiabatic.
A Non-adiabatic irreversible process also can be isentropic.
ADIABATIC PROCESS:
1. Reversible
dQ
ds = ( )
T reversible

ds = 0
s2 = s1 (Isentropic)
2. Irreversible
dQ
ds = ( ) + (δs)generation
T

ds = + ve
Note:
Adiabatic process need not to be isentropic always. If
adiabatic process is reversible then only it is isentropic & if it is
reversible then it must be non-isentropic.
 During adiabatic process, system entropy never decreases.
Physical meaning of entropy:
Entropy is the measure of molecular disturbance. Greater
the disturbance greater the change in entropy.
Entropy principle:
Entropy of isolated system never decreases.
dQ
ds ≥ ( )
T

108
For isolated system, dQ = 0
∴ ds ≥ 0
Universe is best example of isolated system.
Hence, entropy of universe always increases.
(ds)universe ≥ 0
(ds)system + (ds)surrounding ≥ 0
Entropy of system can increase or decrease or become constant.
Entropy surrounding can increase, decrease or become constant. But
entropy of universe never decreases.
Note:
a/c to 1st law, entropy of universe is constant and a/c to 2nd law,
entropy of universe never decreases.
TEMPERATURE – ENTROPY DIAGRAM: (T-S
DIAGRAM)
T

Area of strip dA = T dS
Total area below curve,
2
A = ∫1 T ds
dQ
ds = ( )
T reversible

dQ = T ds → Reversible

109
 2
Total heat transfer = ∫1 T ds
Area under the curve when projected on entropy axis on T-S
diagram gives reversible heat transfer.
REPRESENTATION OF CARNOT CYCLE IN T-S
DIAGRAM:
1 2
1
P Qin T1
2

T2
4 4 3
3
QR

V S

Q in = T1 ds Q R = T2 ds
QR T2 ds
ɳ=1- =1-
Qin T1 ds
T2
ɳc = 1 -
T1

 Area under T-S cycle gives net heat transfer a/c to first law
∑ Q = ∑ W. Hence, area under cycle gives network transfer.
 Area under (P-V) = Area under (T-S)
Note:
Second law is directional law with the help of entropy principle
we can determine the direction for particular process.
Isolated
Q
A B
TA TB

110
 (∆S)Isolated ≥ 0
(∆S)A + (∆S)A ≥ 0
−Q Q
+ ≥0
TA TB
TA − TB
Q[ ]≥0
TA TB

(ds)Isolated = 0 TA = TB
(ds)Isolated > 0 TA > TB
(ds)Isolated < 0 TA < TB
The process is possible or only that direction of process is
possible in which either entropy of universe is constant or increasing.
COMBINED 1ST & 2ND LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS:
dQ = dU + dW → 1st law for all process
dW = P dV → Reversible process valid
dQ = dU + P dV → Valid for reversible process
dQ
ds = → Valid for reversible process
T

dQ = T ds
T dS = dU + P dV
Valid for all process
1st T- dS equation
This equation is valid for reversible as well irreversible process
because it connects various properties.
T ds = du + P dv
Specific form (divided by mass)
H = U + PV
111
 dH = dU + P dV + V dP (dQ = dU + P dV)
dH = dQ – V dP
⇒ dQ = dH – V dP
T ds = dH + P dv
2nd T- ds equation for all process.
Slope of various lines on T-S diagram
PVr = C V = C
T P=C

T=C

1. Slope of isothermal process = Tan 0 = 0

2. Slope of adiabatic line = Tan 90 = ∞
3. Slope of constant volume line:
v=C
∴ dv = 0
We know,
T ds = dU + P dV
T ds = dU (dU = Cv dT)
T ds = Cv dT
dS Cv
=
dT T
dT T
= → Slope of constant volume line in T-S diagram
dS Cv

112
 4. Slope of constant pressure line:
P=C
We have,
T ds = dh – V dP
dP = 0
∴ T ds = Cp dT
dT T
∴ = → Slope of constant pressure line in T – S diagram
dS Cp

Cp > Cv
∴ Slope of constant volume line on T – S diagram > Slope of
constant pressure line on T – S diagram
OPEN SYSTEM REVERSIBLE WORK:
1st law for steady flow open system:
C21 C22
h1 + + gz1 + q = h2 + + gz2 + Wopen
2 2

Neglecting K.E & P.E change

h1 + q = h2 + Wopen
Now,
q = (h2 - h1 ) + Wopen
dq = dh + Wopen
For reversible process,
T ds = dh + Wopen ……. (1)
Now, we have,
T ds = dh – V dP ……... (2)
From (1) & (2)

113
 dWopen = - V dP
Wopen = - ∫ V dP
Assumption made
1. Steady flow
2. Open system
3. Neglect K.E & P.E
4. Reversible system
ENTROPY CHANGE FOR IDEAL GAS:
Case 1: Temperature & volume
We know,
T ds = du + P dv
For ideal gas
T ds = Cv dT + P dv
Cv P
ds = dT + dv
T T

Pv = mRT
P R
⇒ =
T V
dT dv
ds = Cv +R
T V

Integrating
T2 V2
S2 - S1 = Cv ln + R ln
T1 V1

Change of entropy in terms of temperature & volume

114
Case 2: Temperature & pressure
T ds = dh – v dP
For ideal gas
T ds = Cp dT - v dP
Cp v
ds = dT - dP
T T

For ideal gas

Pv = mRT
v mR
∴ =
T P
Cp R
ds = dT - dP
T P
T2 P2
S2 - S1 = CP ln + R ln
T1 P1

Change in entropy in terms of T & P

Case 3: pressure & volume
T2 V2
S2 - S1 = Cv ln + R ln
T1 V1
T2 V2
= Cv ln + (CP − Cv ) ln
T1 V1
T2 V2 V2
= Cv [ln − ln ] + CP ln
T1 V1 V1
T2 V1 V2
= Cv [ln [ × ]] + CP ln
T1 V2 V1

For ideal gas

P1 V1 P2 V2
=
T1 T2
T2 V1 P2
=
T1 V2 P1
P V2
S2 - S1 = Cv [ln [ 2 ]] + CP ln
P1 V1

115
 Change in entropy in terms of P & v

ENTROPY CHANGE FOR RESERVOIR:

Reservoir:
1. Source
Source

T1

Q1

dQ −Q1
ds = =
T T1

2. Sink
Sink

T2

Q2

dQ Q2
ds = =
dT T2

ENTROPY CHANGE FOR FINITE

TEMPERATURE BODY (SOLID & LIQUID):

m
Ti
c Q
Tf

dQ
ds =
T

116
 mc dT
ds =
T
2 T dT
∫1 ds = ∫T f mc T
i

Tf
S2 - S1 = mc ln
Ti

CHANGE OF ENTROPY DUE TO MIXING OF

TWO FLUIDS:

m1 m2 m1 + m2

c1 c2 Tf
T1 T2

1st law ⇒
heat lost by hot fluid = Heat gain by cold fluid
m1 c1 (T1 - Tf ) = m2 c2 (Tf - T2 )
m1 c1 T1 + m2 c2 T2
Tf =
m1 c1 + m2 c2

∆S = ∆S1 + ∆S2
Tf Tf
= m1 c1 ln + m2 c2 ln
T1 T2

If both fluids are same,

m1 = m2 = m
c1 = c2 = c
T1 + T2
Tf =
2
Tf Tf
∆S = mc [ln + ln ]
T1 T2

117
 T2f
∆S = mc [ln ]
T1 × T2

Problems with Solutions:

1. 1600kJ of energy is transferred from a heat reservoir at 800K to
another heat reservoir 400K the amount of entropy generated
during process will be

a 800 K

1600kJ

b 400 K

∆S = (∆S)a + (∆S)b
−1600 1600
= +
800 400

=-2+4
∆S = 2 kJ/K
2. A system of 100kg mass undergoes a process in which its
specific entropy increases from 0.3 kJ/Kg K to 0.4 kJ/kg K. At
same time entropy of surrounding decreases from 80kJ/K to
75 kJ/K. The process is
(∆S)system = 0.1 × 100 = 10kJ/K
(∆S)surrounding = -5 kJ/K
(∆S)universe = 5 kJ/K
∴ (∆S)universe > 0 → Irreversible process

118
3. The heat added to a closed system during a reversible process is
given by Q = αT + βT 2 where α & β are constant. The change
of entropy system as its temperature changes from T1 to T2 is
equal to
dQ
ds =
T

Q = αT + βT 2
dQ = α dT + 2βT dT
dQ α dT + 2βT dT
=
T T
𝟐 dQ 𝟐α 2
∫𝟏 = ∫𝟏 dT+ ∫1 2 β dT
T T
P
S2 - S1 = α ln [ 2 ] + 2β (T2 - T1 )
P1

4. Heat loss through plane wall at 600 Watt. If inner & outer
surface temperature of wall are 200 C & 50 C respectively. The
rate of entropy generated within a wall is
200C 50C

600 W

−600 600
(∆S)wall = +
293 278

∆S = 0.110 W/k
5. A steam is condensed at constant temperature of 300 C as it
flows through the condenser of power plant by rejecting heat at
rate of 55 M Watt. The rate of entropy changes of steam as it
flows through a condenser
119
 −55
∆S = = -0.18 M Watt/K
273+30

6. Liquid water enters in an adiabatic piping system at 150 C at the

rate of 8kg per second. If the water temperature rises by 0.20 C
during the flow due to friction the rate of entropy generated in
pipe is
(∆S)universe = (∆S)system + (∆S)surrounding
(∆S)surrounding = 0 → Adiabatic pipe (no heat loss)
Tf 0.2+273
∆S = mc ln = 8 × 4.18 × 103 × ln
Ti 15+273

∆S = 23 w/K
7. A reversible heat engine receives 6kJ of heat from thermal
reservoir at temperature 800K & 8kJ of heat from another
reservoir at 600K. if it rejects the heat to third reservoir at
temperature 100K. then thermal efficiency of engine is

T1 = 800 K

Q1 = 6kJ
Q2 = 8kJ
T2 = 600 K HE W

T3 = 100 K

1st law
∑W = ∑Q
W = Q1 + Q 2 – Q
W=6+8–Q
2nd law, for cycle
120
 dQ
∮ T
=0
6 8 Q
+ - =0
800 600 100

Q = 2.08kJ
∴ W = 11.92 ≈ 12
W 12
Now, ɳ = = = 0.85
Q1 + Q2 14

ɳ = 85%
8. A resistor 30Ω is maintained at constant temperature of 270 C
while current of 10A is allowed to flow for 1 sec. determine
entropy change of resistor & universe. If the resistor initially at
270 C is now insulted & same current is passed for same time.
Determine entropy change of entropy & resistor. Specific heat
reservoir is 0.9kJ/kg K and mass of reservoir is 10gm.

i = 10 A

30 Ω
R = 30 Ω
I = 10A
Time = 1sec
C = 0.9kj/kg K
m = 10g
Case 1:
Not insulated,
Tf
(∆S)R = mc ln
Ti

(∆S)R = 0 → (heat generated dissipated to surrounding)

121
 & (no heat is contained by resistor)
(∆S)universe = (∆S)R + (∆S)surrounding
I2 × R ×time
=0+
273+27
(10)2 × 30 ×1
=
273+27

= 10 J/k
Case 2:
30 Ω
i

Fully insulated
Tf
(∆S)R = mc ln
Ti

Q = I2 × R × time = mc dT
(10)2 × 30 × 1 = 10 × 10−3 × 0.9 × (dT) × 103
dT = 333.33
Tf - Ti = 333.33
Ti = 300K
∴ Tf = 633.33K
Tf
(∆S)R = mc ln
Ti
633.33
= 10 × 10−3 × 0.9 × ln
300

= 6.7 × 10−3 = 6.7 J/k

122
9. 10gm of water at 200 C is converted into ice at −100 C at
constant atmospheric pressure assuming the specific heat of
liquid water remains constant at 4.2 J/gm K and that of ice half
of the value. And taking latent heat of fusion of ice at 00 C is
335 J/gm. Calculate total entropy change of system.
200 C water → −100 C ice
m = 10g
Cw = 4.2 J/gm K
CI = 2.1 J/gm K
Latent heat = 335 J/g

0
sensible 00C Latent -100C 200C
20 C 1
Heat loss Heat loss 2
00C
3
-100C

(-ve sign is not taken at sensible heat because formula itself is

compensating)
(∆S)system = (∆S)1 + (∆S)2 + (∆S)3
Tf Latent Tf
= mCw ln - + mCice ln
Ti 273+0 Ti
273 335 ×10 263
= 10 × 4.2 × ln - + 10 × 2.1 × ln
293 273 273

(∆S)system = -16 .09 J/K

123
10. Calculate the entropy of universe as a result of following
processes.
(a) A copper block of 600gm mass with CP of 150 J/K at
1000 C is placed in a lake at 80 C.
(b) The same block at 80 C is dropped from height of 100m
into the lake.
(c) Two such a blocks at 1000 C & 00 C are joined together.
(a)
Copper
m = 600 gm block
E = 150 J/k

Ti = 1000 C
Tf = 80 C
T
(∆S)universe = (mc ln f ) = (∆S)surrounding(lake)
Ti system(block)

T Q
= (mc ln f ) +
Ti block T

273+8 Q
= 150 ln +
273+100 T

Lake is reservoir. And block temperature is going to be equal to

temperature of reservoir after placed in lake.
Q = mc (Ti − Tf )w
= 150 × (100 – 8)
= 13800J
281 13800
(∆S)universe = 150 ln +
373 273+8

(∆S)universe = 6.63 J/K

124
 (b)

100

(∆S)universe = (∆S)cu + (∆S)lake

mgh
=
273+8
0.6 ×9.81 ×100
=
273+8

(∆S)cu = 0 because when copper block is dropped P.E is

generated given to lake & there is no temperature change
in copper block.
T1 + T2
(c) Tf = = 50
2

∆S = (∆S)A + (∆S)B
T2f
= mc ln
T1 T2

(273+50)2
= 150 ln [(100+273) ]
(273+0)

= 3.64 J/K
11.
(a) 1 kg of water at 273K is brought into contact with a
reservoir at 373K when water has reached at 373K. Find
entropy change of water heat reservoir & universe.
(b) If water is heated from 273K to 373K by 1st bringing it in
contact with reservoir at 323K & then with reservoir at
373K. what will be entropy change of universe.

125
(c) Explain how water might be heated from 273 to 373K.
with almost no change in entropy of universe.
Tf
(a) (∆S)universe = mc ln
Ti
373
= 1 × 4.18 × ln = 1.30 kJ/K
273

(Q)surrounding = mcP ∆T
= 1 × 4.18 × 100 = 41.8 kJ/K
(∆S)universe = (∆S)water + (∆S)lake
dQ
= 1.30 -
T
418
= 1.30 -
373

(∆S)universe = 0.179 ≈ 0.18

T T
(b) (∆S)universe = [mc ln ( f)] 1 + [mc ln ( f)] 2 +
Ti Ti

(∆S)surrounding
323 373 Q1 Q2
= mc [ln ( ) + ln ( )] - -
273 273 T1 T1

Q1 = mc (373 – 323) = 209

Q 2 = mc (323 – 273) = 209
323 373 209 209
(∆S)universe = mc [ln ( ) + ln ( )] - -
273 273 323 373

= 0.09 kJ/K
(c) When infinite number of reservoir are used then the
change the entropy leads to zero.
From (a) & (b) we conclude that when number of reservoir
increases the change in entropy tends to zero.

126
ENERGY:
1. Low grade
2. High grade
According to 2nd law of thermodynamics, complete conversion of
low grade energy into high grade is not possible.

Low grade energy

energy
max. of low
grade energy
which can be
Unavailable energy converted
min. of low grade energy
which must be rejected
The part of low grade energy which is available for conversion is
known as energy. And part of low grade energy which must be
rejected known as unavailable energy.
(or)
The maximum amount of work that can be obtained from a system
is known as energy.
If system is performing on a cycle, then energy is known as
available energy and for process energy is known as availability.
Available energy:
The maximum amount of work that can be obtained from a
cycle is known as available energy.

127
DEAD STATE:
When system is in equilibrium with its surrounding then it is
said to be in dead state. At dead state, pressure & temperature of
system is equal to the atmospheric pressure & temperature.
P = P0 = 1bar
T = T0 = 300K

T1

Q1

HE W
Q2

T2

To get maximum work from system, the system must be

operating on cycle (Carnot cycle)
Q1
1 2
T1

Q2
T2
4 3

∆S

For given source temperature T1 and for given heat input Q1 and
work output is maximum when T2 (rejection temperature of heat) is
maximum. The lowest possible temperature of heat rejection is
atmospheric temperature.

128
 T2 W
ɳ = [1 − ]=
T1 Q1
T2
W = Q1 [1 − ]
T1

T2 = T0
T0
∴ Wmax = AE = Q1 [1 − ]
T1

T0 = Atmospheric temperature
AE = Available energy
Unavailable energy (UAE)= T0 ∆S
Unavailable energy is minimum amount of energy which must
be rejected & the area below atmospheric temperature always
represents unavailable energy in T – S diagram.
For maximum available energy
1. Cycle must be Carnot
2. T2 = T0
T0
AE = Q1 [1 − ]
T1
T0
= Q1 - Q1
T1
Q1
AE = Q1 - T0 ∆S (∆S = )
T1

AE = Q1 – UAE
∴ AE +UAE = Q1
Q input = AE + UAE
UAE ⇒ Minimum heat which must be rejected.
Loss of available energy (Increase in unavailable energy)
When heat is transferred in finite temperature difference.

129
Whenever heat is rejected at atmospheric temperature then the energy
is unavailable energy.
Note:

Qin
T1
T2
Qin

T0 Loss in AE
or
∆S Increase in UAE
∆SS

Q in = T1 ∆S
Q in = T2 ∆S ′
Increase in UAE = T0 (∆S ′ - ∆S)
Qin Qin
= T0 ( − )
T2 T1
T1 − T2
Loss of AE = Q in T0 ( )
T1 T2

Heat at high temperature has greater significance 1st law

quantitative law whereas 2nd law is quantitative law.
AVAILABILITY:
The maximum work that can be obtained in a process. When
system comes equilibrium with surrounding.
T2 = T0
P2 = P0

130
Availability in Closed system:

System

Maximum work from closed system

(∆S)universe ≥ 0
(∆S)system + (∆S)surrounding ≥ 0
For reversible process
(∆S)system + (∆S)surrounding = 0
(∆S)system = - (∆S)surrounding ……. (1)
(dQ)system = - (dQ)surrounding ……. (2)
(dQ)surrounding = T0 (∆S)surrounding
(dQ)system = (dU)system + (dW)system
(dW)system = (dQ)system - (dU)system
(W)system = - (dQ)surrounding - (U2 - U1 )
(W)system = - [T0 (∆S)surrounding − (U2 − U1 )]

Wmaximum = (U1 − U2 ) - [T0 (−∆S)system ]

Wmaximum = (U1 − U2 ) - [T0 (S1 − S)]
Maximum work from a close system undergoing a Process

131
SURROUNDING WORK:

P0
Gas

Wsurrounding = P0 (V2 - V1 )
Wuseful = Wmaximum − Wsurrounding
= [(U1 − U2 ) − [T0 (S1 − S)]] - [P0 (V2 − V1 )]
Wuseful = (U1 - T0 S1 + P0 V1 ) - (U2 - T0 S2 + P0 V2 )
Wuseful = ∅1 - ∅2
∅1 = U1 - T0 S1 + P0 V1
∅2 = (U2 - T0 S2 + P0 V2 )
∅ = U - T0 S + PV
Where ∅ is known as availability function for closed system.
MAXIMUM WORK FOR OPEN SYSTEM:
1st law for open system steady flow
c21 c22
h1 + + gz1 + q = h2 + + gz2 + Wc
2 2

Neglect K.E & P.E change

h1 + q = h2 + W
W = (h1 - h2 ) + q
Wmaximum = (h1 - h2 ) - T0 (S1 − S2 )
Maximum work from open system
Wmaximum = (h1 - T0 S1 ) - (h2 - T0 S2 )
Wmaximum = φ1 - φ2

132
Where,
φ = Availability function for open system
φ = h - T0 S
Irreversibility:

Total use
UAE UAE
energy full
AE irr
work

The actual work is always less than idealised reversible work

and the difference of this two is irreversible.
I = Wreversible - Wactual

GOUY – STODOLA THEOREM:

It states that the rate of loss of available energy (rate of increase
of unavailable energy) is proportional to rate increase of entropy of
universe.
I ∝ (∆S)universe
I = T0 (∆S)universe
Second law efficiency:
ɳactual
ɳ11 =
ɳreversible

For power producing devices,

Wactual
ɳ11 =
Wreversible

Power consuming devices,

Wreversible
ɳ11 =
Wactual

133
Problems with Solutions:
1. 500kJ of heat is removed from a constant temperature heat
reservoir maintained at 835K. the heat is received by a system at
constant temperature of 720K. The temperature of surrounding
is 280K. Draw the T-S diagram and calculate net loss of
available energy as a result of this irreversible heat transfer.

500 kJ
835
T
720
500 kJ

280 Loss of dry

energy
∆S S
∆S’

T1 − T2
Loss of available energy = Q in T0 ( )
T1 T2
835 − 720
= 500 × 280 ( )
(835)(720)

= 26.77kJ
2. A 1000kg steel block at 1200K is to be cooled to 400K. If it is
desired to use steel as source of energy. Calculate the available
& unavailable energy, ambient temperature is 300K specific
heat capacity of steel is 0.5kJ/kg K.
Unavailable energy + Available energy = Q
Q = mc ∆T
= 1000 × 0.5 × (1200 – 400)
= 400MJ

134
 1000 kJ
1200 K

Q 400 K

HE AE
(UAE)

300

UAE = T0 (∆S)surrounding
= T0 [−(∆S)surrounding ]
T
= T0 [−mc ln ( f)]
Ti
400
= 300 [−1000 × 0.5 ln ( )]
1200

= 164791.84 kJ
UAE = 164.79 MJ
∴ AE = 400 – 164.79 = 235.21MJ
Q = AE + UAE
3. In particular, chemical plant 5000kg of vapour of substance
produced at 10000 C while 2nd unit is in same plant produced
5000kg of same substance at 6000 C. This two products are
mixed together in insulated container & mixture is used as a
source for heat engine till the temperature is reduced to 400 C. a
recently recruited suggested that if two products are used
separately as source for heat engine additional work can be
obtained. The ambient temperature can be obtained & specific
heat of product is 1kJ kg/K
135
 m = 1000
Tf = 800 K

Q 400C

HE AE
(UAE)

250C

m1 = 5000kg
m2 = 5000kg
m = 1000kg
T1 = 10000 C
T2 = 6000 C
T1 + T2
Tf1 = = 8000 C
2

Tf2 = 400 C
C = 1kJ
Q = mc dT
= 5000 × 1 × 760 = 3800MJ
UAE = T0 (∆S)surrounding
= T0 [−(∆S)surrounding ]
T
= T0 [−mc ln ( f)]
Ti
273 + 40
= 298 [−10000 × 1 ln ( )]
273 + 800

= 3671.3 MJ
AE = 128.7MJ
136
 m = 10000 5000 5000
Tf = 800 K 10000C 600

Q 400C Q1 400C + Q2 400C

HE AE HE AE1 HE AE2
(UAE) (UAE1) (UAE2)

250C 250C 250C

Q1 = mc dT
= 5000 × 1 × 960 = 4800MJ
UAE1 = T0 (∆S)surrounding
= T0 [−(∆S)surrounding ]
T
= T0 [−mc ln ( f)]
Ti
273 +10
= 298 [−5000 × 1 ln ( )]
273 +1000

= 2090.36MJ
AE1 = 2709.64
Q 2 = mc dT
= 5000 × 1 × 560 = 2800MJ
UAE2 = T0 (∆S)surrounding
= T0 [−(∆S)surrounding ]
T
= T0 [−mc ln ( f)]
Ti
313
= 298 [−5000 × 1 ln ( )] = 1528.34MJ
873

AE2 = 1271
Additional work = AE1 + AE2 - AE = 52.7MJ

137
 POWER PLANT ENGINEERING
POWER ENGINEERING
1. Steam power plant (Rankine cycle)
2. Gas turbine plant (Brayton cycle)
3. IC Engine
a. Otto cycle
b. Diesel cycle
c. Dual cycle
4. Hydro power plant
THERMAL CYCLE
1. Power cycle
It is a thermodynamic cycle where power is produced in
expense of heat.
a. Vapour power cycle
Working fluid changes its phase during the cycle.
Example: [Rankine]
b. Gas power cycle
Working fluid always in gaseous phase
Example: Brayton cycle, Otto, Diesel cycle
2. Refrigeration cycle
Lower temperature is created and maintenance in expense
of mechanical energy input.

138
GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT:
Air standard cycle:
1. Air is used as working substance throughout the cycle & treated
as ideal gas.
2. CP & CV do not change with respect to temperature.
3. Closed system is considered which undergoes a cyclic process,
therefore there is no any intake or exhaust.
4. The combustion process replaced by equivalent amount of heat
addition from external source. Thus there, is no any change in
chemical equilibrium of working fluid.
5. The exhaust process is replaced by equivalent amount of heat
rejection process,
6. Compression & expansion process in cycle is considered as
reversible adiabatic.
Carnot cycle (Ideal air standard cycle):
Source
Diathermal cover
T1

Qin

Adiabatic
cover

QR

Sink
T2

139
 1 2
1
P Qin
2 T

4 4 3
3
QR

V S

IDC ODC

Process du dw dQ
1-2 Isothermal 0 V2 V2
P1 V1 ln P1 V1 ln
V1 V1
expansion
(heat add)
2-3 Adiabatic Cv (T3 - T2 ) -Cv (T3 - T2 ) 0
expansion
3-4 Isothermal 0 V4 V4
P3 V3 ln P3 V3 ln
V3 V3
compression
(heat rejected)
4-1 Adiabatic Cv (T1 - T4 ) -Cv (T1 - T4 ) 0
compression
∑ du = 0 ∑W ∑Q

∴ T3 = T4 , T2 = T1
∑ du = Cv (T3 - T2 + T1 - T4 )
∑ du = 0 → For a cycle ∑ du must be zero.
1st law,
∑ Q = ∑ W → Valid

140
 QR
ɳ=1-
Qin
V
P3 V3 ln V3
4
=1- V
P1 V1 ln V2
1
V
RT3 ln V3
=1- V
4
……. (1)
RT1 ln 2
V1

4-1→
1
T1 V4 γ−1 V4 T γ−1
=( ) ⇒ = ( 1)
T4 V1 V1 T4

2–3→
1
T2 V3 γ−1 V3 T γ−1
=( ) ⇒ = ( 2)
T3 V2 V2 T3
T4 T3
=
T1 T2

V1 γ−1 V2 γ−1 V1 V2
( ) =( ) ⇒ =
V4 V3 V4 V3
V3 V2
=
V4 V1
T3
ɳ=1-
T1

CLASSIFICATIONS OF GAS TURBINE POWER

PLANT:
Based on Brayton or joule cycle
1. Open system cycle
2. Closed system cycle

141
 1. Open system Brayton cycle:

2 CC
High
Low
P2, T2 Constant
P1, T1
pressure W

C T

1 1

Qin 3
1
P Qin
2
2 T
QR
4 4
3
QR 1

V S

Air is sucked in compressor and combusted in combustion

chamber using fuel and then expand in turbine after that gases
are released to atmosphere.
Working fluid is air only. All processes are reversible.
Process du dw dQ
1-2 Adiabatic Cv (T2 - T1 ) wC = h2 - h1 0
compressor
2-3 constant pressure Cv (T3 - T2 ) 0 Q in = h3 - h2
heat addition
3-4 Adiabatic Cv (T4 - T3 ) w T = h3 - h4 0
expansion
4-1 Constant Cv (T1 - T4 ) 0 Q R = h4 - h1
pressure heat
rejection

142
 ∑ du = 0
∴ It is property
∑ du = Cv [T2 - T1 + T3 - T2 + T4 - T3 - T4 + T1 ] = 0
As du is property
∑ w = h2 - h1 + h3 - h4
∑ Q = h3 - h2 - h4 + h1
∴ ∑w = ∑Q
It is satisfying 1st law
QR
ɳ=1-
Qin
h4 − h1
=1-
h3 − h2
CP (T4 − T1 )
=1-
CP (T3 − T2 )
T
T1 ( 4 − T1 )
T1
ɳ=1- T
T2 ( T3 − T2 )
2

Pressure ratio,
P2 P3 After compression
γP = = =
P1 P4 Before compression

Process, 1-2
γ−1 γ−1
T2 P2 γ
=( ) = (γP ) γ
T1 P1

Process, 3-4
γ−1 γ−1
T3 P3 γ
=( ) = (γP ) γ
T4 P4
T2 T3 T4 T3
= ⇒ =
T1 T4 T1 T2

143
 T1
ɳ=1-
T2

1
⇒ɳ- γ−1
(γP ) γ
1
ɳB = 1 - γ−1
(γP ) γ

When γP ↑ ɳ ↓
γ↑ ɳ↓
γ2
γ1
γ2 > γ1
η

1 γp

Limitation of open Brayton cycle,

1. In open Brayton cycle, air is used as working fluid so,
gamma value is limited to 1.4
2. Only good quality fuel can be used because mixture
directly go through turbine.
2. Closed gas turbine cycle (Closed Brayton cycle):
2
3

Heat exchanger

C T

1
4

in Cooling water
out

144
 Advantages of closed Brayton cycle:
1. Low quality fuel can be used. (Solid fuel)
2. Any working fluid can be used which have higher gamma
value.
ANALYSIS OF BRAYTON CYCLE:
3" 3' 3
Tmax 2"
2'
T
2 4

Tmin
1 4'

1
ɳB = 1 - γ−1
(γP ) γ

For any thermal system, Tmaximum is fixed value due to

metallurgical condition of system and Tminimum is fixed due to
surrounding condition. Carnot cycle is a reversible cycle which have
maximum mean temperature of heat addition & minimum mean
temperature of heat rejection (Tminimum ) that’s why Carnot cycle
have maximum efficiency. For any other cycle it is a limiting
efficiency. Even for Brayton cycle limiting efficiency is Carnot
efficiency which is at
γP = (γP )maximum
1
ɳB = 1 - γ−1
(γP ) γ
γ−1
T2 = T1 (γP ) γ

ɳB = ɳ C
145
 1 Tminimum
1- γ−1 =1-
γ
Tmaximum
(γP )maximum
γ−1
Tminimum γ
(γP )maximum = ( )
Tmaximum

At maximum efficiency condition, network done is zero.

When ɳ = Maximum
Wnet = 0
Work will be produced but compressed work is increased.
Among all the power cycles gas power cycle has minimum
network rather than getting maximum efficiency.
Brayton cycle is designed for maximum work. Maximum efficiency
has no importance.
In air crafts, open Brayton cycle is used.
In Brayton cycle,
T1 → Tminimum
T3 → Tmaximum
γ−1
T2 = Tminimum (γP ) γ

Tmaximum
T4 = γ−1
(γP ) γ

Wnet = WT - WC
= (h3 - h4 ) - (h2 - h1 )
= CP [T3 - T4 - T2 + T1 ]
γ−1
Tmaximum
= CP [Tmax − γ−1 − Tminimum (γP ) γ + Tminimum ]
(γP ) γ

For (γP ) optimum value,

146
 dWnet
=0
dγP
γ−1 γ−1
γ−1 −( )−1 γ−1 ( )−1
[0 − Tmax ( ) (γP ) γ − Tmin ( ) (γP ) γ + C] = 0
γ γ
−2γ + 1 −1
γ−1 ( ) γ−1 (γ)
−Tmax ( ) (γP ) γ = −Tmin ( ) (γP )
γ γ
−1 −2γ + 1
Tmax (γ)−( )
= (γP ) γ
Tmin
2(γ − 1)
Tmax ( )
= (γP ) γ
Tmin
γ
1
T 2(γ − 1)
(γP )optimum = ( max ) = (γmax )2
Tmin

(γP )optimum = √γmax

Wmax

Wnet

1 (γp)optimum (γp)max
γp

T2 for maximum work condition,

γ−1
T2 = T1 (γP ) γ

γP = (γP )optimum = √γmax

γ−1
∴ T2 = T1 (γP ) 2γ

147
 γ−1
γ γ
T3 2(γ−1)
T2 = T1 (( ) )
T1

T2 = √T1 T3
For maximum work,
T3
T4 = γ−1
[(γP )optimum ] γ

T4 = √T1 T3
For minimum work conditions,
T2 = T4 = √T1 T3
W = CP [T3 - T4 - T2 + T1 ]
For maximum work,
T2 = T4 = √T1 T3
2
Wmax = CP [T3 - √T1 T3 - √T1 T3 + T1 ] = CP (√T3 − √T1 )
What is efficiency at Wmax
1
ɳ=1- γ−1
(γP ) γ
1
=1- γ−1
(γPmax ) 2γ

T1
ɳoptimum = 1 - √
T3

In a gas cycle,
Main aim is to find all temperatures
In vapour cycle,
Main aim is to calculate heat energy point.

148
GAS TURBINE CYCLE WITH MACHINE
EFFICIENCY:
3
3'
2'
2
T

4 4'
1 1'

S
Wrev CP [T2 − T1 ]
ɳC = =
Wactual CP [T′2 − T1 ]

T2′ =?
T3 → given
T3
T4 = γ−1
(γP ) γ
Wactual
ɳT =
Wrev

CP [T3 − T′4 ]
ɳT =
CP [T3 − T4 ]

(The change in actual curve (1′ - 2′ ) due to Internal irreversibility)

T4′ =?
WT = CP [T3 − T4′ ]
WC = CP [T2′ − T1 ]
Q in = CP [T3 − T2′ ]
Q R = CP [T4′ − T1 ]
WT − WC
ɳ=
Qin

In pipe flow, pressure gradient is negative i.e., pressure decrease.

149
ACTUAL BRAYTON CYCLE:
3
2' 3'
2
T

4 4'
1 1'

Point 4 is not achieved because the pressure at 4 will be equal to

1 & no pressure difference leads to no flow hence, some pressure
difference is kept. Pressure is kept minimum than P4 .

FREE SHAFT TURBINE:

2
3
CC

C HPT

LPT
5

PN
Frequency =
60

f = 50Hz
P = 12
N = 250rpm

150
 3
2 WHPT
T
WLPT

4
1

 WHPT = WC
CP [T3 − T4 ] = CP [T2 − T1 ]
 WLPT = Wgen
CP [T4 − T5 ] = Wgen
P2 P3 P3 P4
γP = = = ×
P1 P5 P4 P5

γP = (γP )HPT × (γP )LPT

In free shaft turbine, the compressor is operated by high
pressure turbine & generator is operated by low pressure turbine the
exhaust of high pressure turbine goes directly to low pressure turbine
which operates the generator.
ANALYSIS OF COMBUSTION CHAMBER:
 Open combustion chamber:
mf
CV
ɳc
Air (ma + mf)
CC
T2 T3
Cpa Cpe

Energy balance equation,

ma CPa T2 + mf CV ɳC = (ma + mf ) CPe T3

151
 Dividing by mf (CV = Calorific value)
ma (ma + mf )
CPa T2 + CV ɳC = CPe T3
mf mf
ma
( = Air fuel ratio)
mf

(AFR) CPa T2 + CV ɳC = (AFR + 1) CPe T3

 Closed combustion chamber:

CC mf CV ɳc

ma Cpa
ma Cpa
T2 T3
ma CPa T2 + mf CV ɳC = ma CPe T3
(AFR) CPa T2 + CV ɳC = (AFR) CPe T3

REFRIGERATION IN GAS TURBINE:

6

CC
3 4
5
2

C T

It is method of heat recovery. In regeneration system heat of

exhaust gases is used to heat compressed air as a result sir enters in
combustion chamber is at higher temperature & amount of heat
supplied in combustion chamber is decreased. So, thermal efficiency

152
of system increases but there is no change in turbine & compressor
work.
4 After using
Qin regenerator
3 before
2 5
6
Before using Heat
regenerator 1 regenerated
QR Heat recovered
After
from exhaust
gases
Heat supplied to compressed air
in regenerator

In generation. The mean temperature of heat addition increase &

mean temperature of heat rejection decreases so, the thermal
efficiency of system increases.
(Tm )R
ɳB = 1 -
(Tm )C

Effectiveness of regenerator:
4

5
3 6
(∆T)max
2 (∆T)act

(∆T)act
Effectiveness (e) =
(∆T)max

153
 5
Maximum 3
temperature
6
at point 3
for 100% 3'
efficiency
2
Counter flow heat
exchanger
T3 − T2
e=
T5 − T2

For e = 1
T3 − T2
1=
T5 − T2

⇒ T3 = T5
Heat received from exhaust gases = Heat supplied to compressed gas
ma CPe (T3 − T2 ) = ma CPa (T3 − T2 )
CPe = CPa
∴ T5 − T6 = T3 − T2
& e = 1 then T3 = T5
Then, T6 = T2
For ideal regenerator, there are two conditions.
1. T3 = T5
2. T6 = T2
Regenerator are used in power plants only.
Efficiency of regenerator:
Q in = h4 − h3
Q R = h6 − h1
QR h6 − h1
ɳR = 1 - =1-
Qin h4 − h3

154
Now, for ideal regenerator,
h2 − h1
ɳR = 1 -
h4 − h5
T
T1 [(T2 ) − 1]
=1- 1
T …… (1)
T4 [1 − T5 ]
4
γ−1
T2
= (γP ) γ
T1
γ−1
T4
= (γP ) γ
T5
γ−1
Tmin ((γP ) γ −1)
ɳIR = 1 - γ−1
Tmax (1−(γP ) γ )

γ−1
Tmin
ɳIR = 1 - (γP ) γ
Tmax

Efficiency & γP

Simple
Brayton cycle
ηSB
η P
ηIR 1, 2 3, 4

γp = 1 (γp)optimum V
P2 P3
Diagram ⇒ When γP = 1 & =1& =1
P1 P2

At intersection point,
ɳSB = ɳIR
γ−1
1 Tmin
1- γ−1 =1- (γP ) γ
Tmax
(γP ) γ

155
 γ−1
Tmax 2( )
= (γP ) γ
Tmin
γ
T 2(γ − 1)
γP = ( max ) = (γP )optimum
Tmin

At γP = γP(optimum)
There is no regeneration possible whether you use regenerator or not.
At low γP ,
Efficiency of the ideal regenerative cycle is more compared to higher
value of γP .
3

2
T
4
1

γP < (γP )optimum ⇒ ɳIR > ɳSB

γP = (γP )optimum ⇒ ɳIR > ɳSB
γP > (γP )optimum ⇒ ɳIR < ɳSB

REHEATING IN GAS TURBINE CYCLE:

CC 3 Reheater 5
4
2

C HPT LPT

1
6

156
 3 5 Q1
Q2
Q1 P 2 3
Q1
2 4
T 5
6
4
1 1 6
Extra work due to reheat

S V

In reheating, the expansion is done in two stages, with

intermediate reheat. With only reheating efficiency of cycle
decreases.
In reheat cycle, scope of regeneration increases. So, reheat cycle
with regeneration efficiency must be increased.
INTERCOOLING IN GAS TURBINE:
Inter cooler 3 4 C.C.
5

2
W
LP HP T
C1 C2

1
6

5
4 5
T 4
6 3 2
2 P
3 1 6
1

S V

157
 5
(∆T)S
4'
(∆T)IC
T 4
2 6
3
1

Intercooling is used to decrease the compression work. In case

of intercooling mean temperature of heat addition decreases whereas
mean temperature of heat rejection is same. So, the efficiency of cycle
is decreases.
In intercooling, the scope regeneration increases so, if we use
intercooling with regeneration efficiency will increase, intercooling is
used at high pressure ratio.
BRAYTON CYCLE WITH MANY STAGE OF
INTERCOOLING, REHEATING & PERFECT
REGENERATION:
P2

P1
T

For one intercooler, reheater & generator

Qin
Th

Q1 P = C P=C
T Q2

T QR
L
S

158
For perfect regenerator,
Q1 = Q 2
QR TmR
ɳ=1- =1-
Qin Tma
TL
ɳ=1-
Th
Brayton cycle with large no. of intercooler & reheater
approximated to Erikson cycle. In Erikson cycle, two process are
isothermal & two are constant pressure. And mean temperature of
heat addition is equal to Carnot & maximum & mean temperature of
heat reject is also equal to Carnot & minimum so, the efficiency of
Erikson cycle is maximum & equal to Carnot.
A regenerator is a type of heat exchanger which never be 100%
so, the efficiency of Erikson cycle is always less than Carnot.
Note:
ɳCarnot = ɳsterling = ɳErikson

STERLING CYCLE:
Qin
3 4

V=C
V=C
2
1
QR

In sterling cycle, mean temperature of heat addition is maximum

and equal to Carnot & mean temperature of heat rejection & equal to
Carnot. So, efficiency of sterling cycle & Carnot cycle is same.
TL
ɳsterling = 1 -
Th

159
 IC ENGINE CYCLES
ENGINE:
Any form of energy is converted into mechanical energy.
Heat engine {Heat → Work}
1. I.C Engine
2. E.C Engine
Example:
Steam engine
Closed gas engine
I.C ENGINE

Chemical
Combustion Expansion Mechanical
energy of Heat
energy
fuel

TDC
L = stroke
length

BDC

L = 2r
D → Bore
L → Stroke
π
Vs = D2 L
4

160
 D

VC
TDC
L
VS

BDC

r r

CLASSIFICATIONS OF I.C ENGINE

1. 4-Stroke
a. SI (Petrol)
b. CI (Diesel)
2. 2-Stroke
a. SI (Petrol) (Not used due to pollution)
b. CI (Diesel)
Volume efficiency:
ma
ɳv =
mswept
ma
=
ρa Vs
mass of air that is actually injected
=
Mass associated with swept volume

Ratio of actual mass of air to the mass associated with swept volume.

161
VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM FOR 4-STROKE
ENGINE:
EVC
spark
For Ideal

compression
expansion IVO

expansion
suction IVC
EVO
IVO
TDC EVC

For actual

BDC
IVC EVO

The angle of IVo , EVo , EVs , IVs are difference for different engine.

TWO STROKE ENGINE:

TDC

BDC

162
 EPC IPC EPO
IPO

Volume efficiency is greater than 1.

Super charger:
It is used to increase ɳv

SC

Turbocharger:

Compressed air Exhaust

gases

C T

Air

ma
AFR =
mf

i. Stoichiometric mixture
Minimum amount of air required to burn fuel completely.
Generally, it is (15:1).

163
ii. For rich mixture (3 to 14:1)
It is used for starting, cold starting, Acceleration & Power.
iii. Lean mixture (Ratio more than 15)

Rich
Lean

Strich

If we use more lean mixture, more power will be lost in exhaust.

AIR STANDARD OTTO CYCLE:
(SI Engine) (Petrol)
3
Expansion
Qin Power producing
clock wise
Heat add 4
2 Compression QR
P
Heat rejection
Exhaust
0 1
Suction Power consuming
V anticlock wise

IDC ODC

Qin
T
2 V=C

V=C QR
1
S

164
 QR
ɳ=1-
Qin

Q in = mCv (T3 - T2 )
Q R = mCv (T4 - T1 )
T4 − T1
ɳo = 1 -
T3 − T2
T
T1 (T4 − 1)
1
ɳo = 1 - T3
T2 (T − 1)
2

Volume before compression

Compression ratio =
Volume after compression
Vs + Vc
r=
Vc
V1 V4
r= =
V2 V3

Isentropic equation 1-2,

T2 V1 γ − 1
=( ) = (r)γ − 1 ……. (1)
T1 V2

Constant volume heat addition, 2-3 ……. (2)

T3 V4 γ − 1
=( ) = (r)γ − 1
T4 V3

γ2
ɳ0 γ1

γ=1 γ

From (1) & (2)

T4 T3
⇒ =
T1 T2

165
 T1
ɳo = 1 -
T2
1
= 1 - (r) γ − 1

r↑ ɳo ↑
γ ↑ ɳo ↑
Problems with Solutions:
1. For an engine operating on air-standard Otto cycle clearance
volume is 10% of swept volume & specific heat ratio of air is
1.4. Find air standard efficiency.
Vs + Vc Vs + Vc 1 + 0.1 1.1
r= = = = = 11
Vc Vc 0.1 0.1
1 1
∴ ɳo = 1 - (r)γ − 1 = 1 - (11)1.4 − 1

ɳo = 0.616
ɳo = 61.6%
For SI Engine,
9 ≤ r ≤ 12 → To avoid knocking r is always less than 12.
For CI Engine,
16 ≤ r ≤ 24
2. An engine working on air standard Otto cycle has cylinder
diameter 10cm. & stroke length 15cm. the ratio of specific heat
for air is 1.4. Clearance volume is 196.3 CC & the heat supplied
per kg per cycle is 1800kJ/kg. then work output per cycle per kg
of air is
D = 10cm
L = 1.5cm

166
 γ = 1.4
Vc = 196.3 CC
Q in = 1800kJ/kg
QR
ɳ=1-
Qin
π
Vs = × 102 × 15 = 1178.09
4
1178.09 + 196.3
r=
196.3

r = 7.001
1
ɳ = 1 - (r)γ − 1
1
= 1 - (7)0.4 = 0.54
Wout Wout
0.54 = =
Qin 1800

Wout = 973.5kJ
3. In an air standard Otto cycle, the maximum and minimum
temperature 14000 C and 150 C the heat supplied is 1800kJ.
Calculate compression ratio cycle efficiency. Also calculate
maximum to minimum pressure ratio in cycle.

400 3

800kJ
T
2

1
S
P3 P3 P4
= ×
P1 P4 P1

167
 T1 = 15 + 273
T3 = 1400 + 273
Q in = 800kJ
T2 = T1 (r)γ − 1
Q S = Cv (T3 - T2 )
T3 = 1400
800 = 0.178 (273 + 1400 - T2 )
T2 = 559.7K
1
T γ−1
r= ( 2)
T1
1
559.7 1.4 − 1
=( ) = 5.4
15+273
1
ɳ = 1 - (5.4)0.4 = 48.46%
P3 P3 P2
= ×
P1 P2 P1

1-2 ⇒
γ−1
T2 P2 γ
=( )
T1 P1
P2
= 10.23
P1

2-3 ⇒
V=C
P3 T3 1400 + 273
= = = 2.98
P2 T2 559.7
P3
= 10.23 × 2.98 = 30.57
P1

168
DIESEL CYCLE:
Qin
3
2
P 4

QR

T P=C
2

4
V=C
1
S

Q in = mCp (T3 - T2 )
Q R = mCv (T4 - T1 )
Volume before compression
r=
Volume after compression
V1
r=
V2

For heat addition, constant volume is better than constant

pressure.
Firstly, systems of cycle were made and then to analyse cycles were
made
QR
ɳ=1-
Qin
Cv (T4 − T1 )
ɳ=1-
Cp (T3 − T2 )

1 (T4 − T1 )
=1-
γ (T3 − T2 )

169
 4 T
1 T1 (T1 − 1)
ɳD = 1 -
γ T2 (T3 − 1)
T 2
γ
1 rc − 1
ɳD = 1 - γ−1 [ ]
γ(r) rc − 1
V3
rc =
V2

4. A diesel engine has compression ratio of 17 and cut off take

place at 10% of stroke assuming γ = 1.4 the air standard
efficiency is
rc ⇒ V3 - V2 = 0.1 (V1 - V2 )
r = 17
r = 1.4
V3 - V2 = 0.1 (V1 - V2 )
V3 V1
– 1 = 0.1 ( − 1)
V2 V2

rc – 1 = 0.1 (r – 1)
= 0.1 (17 – 1)
rc = 2.5
1 [2.61.4 − 1]
ɳD = 1 - ×
1.4 (17)1.4 − 1 [2.6 − 1]

ɳD = 0.59
5. In CI engine, the inlet air pressure is 1bar and pressure at end of
isentropic compression is 32.42 bar, the expansion ratio is 8,
assuming γ = 1.4. Find the efficiency in percentage.
P1 = 1bar
P2 = 32.42 bar
V4
Expansion ratio = =8
V3
170
 V3
rc =
V2
P2
rP = = 32.42
P1
V3 V3 V1 11.99
= × = = 1.5
V2 V4 V2 8
1
1
V1 P γ
r= = ( 2) = (32.42)1.4 = 11.99
V2 P1

1 [1.51.4 − 1]
ɳD = 1 - ×
1.4 (11.99)1.4 − 1 [1.5 − 1]

= 0.595
ɳD = 59.5%
COMPARISON OF OTTO & DIESEL CYCLE:
Case 1:
For same compression ratio & same heat input
3 3'
V=C
2' 4'
T 4
2
P=C
1 1' V=C

T3 > T3′ as temperature at constant volume is greater than temperature

constant process.
3

P
4'
3'
2 4
2'

1 1'
V

171
 T2 = T1 (r)γ−1
QR
ɳ=1-
Qin

(Q R )D > (Q R )o
∴ ɳD > ɳ o
Case 2:
For same compression ratio & same heat rejection.
3
3
3'
T 3' 4
2 P 4'
2'
4 2'
4' 2 1'
1
1' 1
S
V

(Q in )D > (Q in )o
ɳD > ɳ o
QR
ɳ=1-
Qin

Case 3:
For same maximum temperature & same heat rejection.
3 3
2' 3'

3'
T P=C
2 P
4
2' V=C 4
4'
2
4'
1'
1' 1 1
S
V
(Q in )D > (Q in )o
ɳD > ɳ o
172
If compression ratio is same then ɳo > ɳD otherwise ɳD > ɳo ,
In general,
ɳD > ɳo → (Because of high compression ratio)
MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE:
Specific fuel consumption:
Mf
(S.F.C) =
Power output

S.F.C.

Variation of S.F.N with respect to rpm.

For Otto cycle,
3

P
2 4
Pm
1

V2 V V1 V2 V1

Wnet = Pm (V2 - V1 )
It is seen that the pressure inside the cylinder is continuously
varying, during a cycle. Mean effective pressure is an imaginary &
constant pressure defined in such a way that
Wnet / Cycle = Pm (V1 - V2 )
V1 - V2 = Swept volume = VS

173
 Wnet / Cycle = Pm VS
= Pm A × L
Wnet Cycle
Power = ×
Cycle Sec
Pm A L × n
Power =
60

ɳ = N → 2 Stroke
N
ɳ= → 4 Stroke
2

Problems with Solutions:

1. A 4-Stroke diesel engine, has displacement volume of
VS = 0.0259 m3 . The engine has output of 950KW at 2200 rpm.
Find mean effect pressure in M pa.
N
Pm A L × 2
Power =
60
2200
Pm (0.0259) L ×
2
950 =
60

Pm = 2000 K pa
Pm = 2 M pa
2. In an Otto cycle, compression ratio is 10. The condition at the
beginning of compression process is 100 K pa & 270 C. Heat
added at constant volume is 1500kJ/kg. While 700kJ/kg of heat
is rejected during other constant volume process in the cycle.
Gas constant R is 0.287 kJ/kg K. Find Pm in K pa.
r = 10
P1 = 100 K pa
T1 = 300K

174
 Q in = 1500
Q R = 700 kJ/kg
R = 0.287
∴ CP - C V = R
Power = Wnet = 1500 – 700 = 800 kJ/kg
P1 V1 = m R T1
100 V1 = m × 0.287 × 300
V1 = 0.861 m3 /kg
V2 1
= ⇒ V2 = 0.0861 m3 /kg
V1 10

∴ 800 = Pm × (V1 - V2 )
800 = Pm × (0.861 - 0.0861)
Pm = 1032 K pa
3. SI engine working on Otto cycle, has compression ratio 5.5. The
work output per cycle (Area of P-V diagram) is equal to
23.625 × 105 Vc J. Where VC is clearance volume in m3 . Find
the mean effective pressure Pm .
W = 23.625 × 102 VC kJ
V1 Vs + Vc
r= = 10 = = Vs = 4.5 Vc
V2 Vc

23.625 × 102 VC = Pm × (V1 - V2 )

23.625 × 102 VC = Pm × 4.5 Vc
Pm = 0.525 M pa

175
PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCE:
Pure substance:
Homogeneous & invariable chemical composition irrespective
of phase.
Heat
1. Sensible heat
(Heat required to increase the temperature of body)
Q = mc ∆T
2. Latent heat
(Heat required to change the phase)
Q = mL
Phase transformation of pure substance (water):
Pressure ↑ Boiling point ↑ Latent heat ↓Pressure ↓ Melting point ↑
Critical point P2 = C
P1 = C
L
L+V
- P = Patm
+
V
T
Saturated
1000C
Vapor
Saturation line
250C liquid line
P2 > P1 > P

h
Patm P = W/A
W
W

PW
Water LH = 2257 kJ/kg
1000C Water
1000C Steam
LH = 335 kJ/kg
0
0 C ice 00C Water

176
 Critical point is a point where saturated liquid line meets
saturated vapour line.
 With the increase of pressure boiling point increases and latent
heat of vaporization decreases.
 At critical point, latent heat of vaporisation is zero.
 Slope of saturated liquid line is positive, slope of saturated
vapour line is negative & at critical point slope of vapour dome
is zero.

P2
P
P1

TSat1 TSat2
T

Pressure at critical point

Pcritical = 221.2 bar
Tcritical = 374.50 C
Saturation curve
P1
L V
P2

P2 P
T 2 3
P1

P1 > P2
1

S ∆VL ∆VV
V

In case of liquid, change in volume is negligible as it is treated

as incompressible (∆VL ).
Which change in volume for gases is high as it is compressible

177
 (∆VV ).
Water, antimony & Bismuth
T↑ V↓
P = Patm
P1

P1 < P2
T
P Triple
0 point line
Minimum 4 C
volume 00C
temp

-350C 1
V

 At 40 C water has minimum volume and we know that density is

reciprocal of specific volume so, density is maximum at 40 C.
Fusion curve
Vaporizatio
S L n curve
L G
+

+
Ptripple
Triple
point
+
S G
Sublimation curve
Normal substance

L
-
0.006 +
bar Triple point of
water
S +
V

273.16 K
T

178
Note:
Only three substances (Water, antimony and bismuth) have
negative slope of fusion curve whereas all other substance have +ve
slope of fusion curve.
If any substance heated below its triple point pressure, then solid
become vapour directly & process is called sublimation.
VARIOUS REGIONS IN TEMPERATURE-
ENTROPY DIAGRAM:
1. Subcooled region:
Tact < Tsat
Degree of sub cooling = (Tsat - Tact )

Sub cooled
T region
Tsat

T1
1

2. Superheated region:
Tact

Tsat

Tact > Tsat

Tact > Tsat

Degree of superheating = (Tact - Tsat )
179
 3. Wet region:

Tact = Tsat

Steam MV
Water ML

For wet region, Tsat = Tact

It is a region where liquid & gas both exist in equilibrium.
Dryness fraction (x):
It is defined as the ratio of mass of vapour to the total mass of
mixture.
Mass of vapour
x=
Total mass
mV
x=
mV + mL

Note:
Dryness fraction of saturated liquid line = 0
Dryness fraction of saturated vapour line = 1
SPECIFIC VOLUME OF WEIGHT STEAM:
V = VL + VV
mv = mL vL + mV vV
mL vL + mV vV
v=
m
mL mV
v= vL + vV
m m
mL mV
=1–x =x
m m

∴ v = (1 – x) vL + x vV

180
 v = vL + x (vV - vL )
v = vf + x (vg - vf )
This equation is valid only in wet region.
Similarly,
S = Sf + x (Sg - Sf )

u = uf + x (ug - uf )
ENTHALPY AT VARIOUS POINTS:
Case 1:
When point is on saturated vapour curve.

T
1
∆h = latent
heat
∆h
hf hg
h

∆h = Latent heat
h1 = hg = hf + ∆h

LH = hg - hf
Case 2:
When point is on wet region.

1
T

181
 ∆h = latent heat
h1 = hf + x (hg - hf )
h1 = hf + x L.H
Case 3:
When point is on superheated region.

T 1
Tsup
In this
region
gas act as
Tsat
ideal gas
∆h
∆h = CPV (Tsup – Tsat)
hf hg h1
h

h1 = hf + ∆h
h1 = hg + CPv (Tsup - Tsat )
Case 4:
When point is on subcooled region.

Tsat
1
T1

h1 hf
h

h1 = hf - ∆h
h1 = hf - Cw (Tsat - T1 )
Cw = C of water
= 1.48 kJ/kg
182
ENTROPY OF VARIOUS POINTS:
Case 1:
When point is on saturated vapour curve.

1
T

∆S
Sf Sg
S

S1 = Sg = Sf + ∆S
L.H
S1 = Sg = Sf +
Tsat
L.H
= Sg - Sf
Tsat
Case 2:
When point is on wet region.

1
T

Sf Sg
S

S1 = Sf + x (Sg - Sf )
L.H
S1 = Sf + x [ ]
Tsat

183
Case 3:
When point is on superheated region.

Tsup

Tsat

∆S
Sf Sg
S

S1 = Sg + ∆S
For ideal gas
T1 Pf
∆S = CP ln – R ln
Tsat Pi
Tsup
∴ S1 = Sg + CP ln
Tsat

Case 4:
When point is on subcooled region.

Tsat
1
T1

∆S
Sf Sg
S

S1 = Sf - ∆S
Tsat
S1 = Sf – C ln
T1

(-ve sign is already considered)

Tsat
S1 = Sf − C ln
T1

184
MOLLIER’S CHART:
Mollier chart (h-S diagram)
1. Complete Mollier chart

SVL
x=1
x = 0.9
x = 0.8
h x = 0.7
x = 0.6
SL
x = 0.5
L
x = 0.4
x = 0.2
x=0

We generally use steam having, x = 0.8

2. Industrial Mollier chart

h x=1
x = 0.9
x = 0.6
x = 0.7
S

P1 P2
T1 = C
T2 = C
T1 > T2
x=1
h

T ds = dh – V dP P=C
dh
=T
dS

Slope of constant pressure line in h-S diagram

185
Note:
 During phase change, constant temperature lines and constant
pressure lines are identical.
 The slope of constant pressure line is constant within the vapour
dome & increasing in super-heated region on h-S diagram.
 Constant pressure lines are diverging in superheated region.
Reference point for steam table:
For steam table, reference point is triple point of water. Internal
energy and entropy of saturated water at triple point is arbitrarily
taken as zero.
(Uf )tp = 0
(Sf )tp = 0
(hf )tp = (Uf )tp + Ptp Vtp

DETERMINATION OF DRYNESS FRACTION

(X):
1. Throttling calorimeter:
1 2
T1
T2
Steam main
(Wet steam)
P1 1 2

P2

186
 P1 P2
h Superheat
region

1
2
P2 < P1
Wet
region T2 < T1

Wet steam is throttled and it became superheated steam

after throttling. So, by measuring pressure and temperature the
final enthalpy can be find out and in throttling process, final
enthalpy & initial enthalpy is same. So, with help of h2 we
can find the dryness fraction of h2 .
h1 = hf + x (hg - hf )
h2 = hsup @ P2 & T2
h1 = h2
hf + x (hg - hf ) = hsup @ P2 T2
This method is only used for high quality steam. i.e., x > 0.9
2. Separating & throttling calorimeter:

1 T2
2 3

Steam main m2

P2

m1
m2

187
 P1 P2
h

2 3
1

m = m1 + m2
h2 = hf + x2 (hg - hf )
h3 = hsup @ P2 & T2
h2 = h3
x2 =?
Mass of vapour at 1
x1 =
Total mass (m1 + m2 )
Mass of vapour at 2
= ……. (1)
(m1 + m2 )
Mass of vapour at 2
x2 = ……. (2)
m2

From (1) & (2)

x 1 × m1
x1 =
(m1 + m2 )

3. Electrical calorimeter:
T2
1
2

Steam main

P2
P1

188
 h1 = hf + x (hg - hf ) …… (a) P1
mw
m=
time

h2 = hsup @ P2 & T2
mh1 + Q = mh2
h1 =?
x =?
h1 = hf + x (hg - hf )

THERMODYNAMIC RELATIONS
Principle of exact differential:
Let z is function of x & y
z = f(x, y)
∂z ∂z
dz = ( ) dx + ( ) dy
∂x y=constant ∂y x=constant

dz = M dx + N dy
∂z ∂z
M=( ) N=( )
∂x y ∂y x

∂M ∂ ∂z
( ) =[ (( ) )]
∂y x ∂y ∂x y
x
∂M ∂2 z
( ) =( )
∂y x ∂x ∂y y,x

∂N ∂2 z
( ) =( )
∂x y ∂x ∂y x,y

If z is exact differential then,

∂N ∂M
( ) = ( )
∂x y ∂y x

These properties are exact differential.

189
Maxwell’s relation:
1. T ds = du + P dv
du = T ds – P dv
Compare with,
dz = M dx + N dy
M=T -P = N dz = du
ds = dx dv = dy
We know that u is the property. So it is satisfying condition of
exact differential.
So, ∂T ∂P
( ) = ( )
∂v S ∂S V

This is 1st Maxwell equation.

2. We know,
T ds = dH – v dP
dH = T ds + v dP
Compare with
dz = M dx + N dy
∴M=T S=x N=v y=P
ds = dx dy = dP
we know H is property,
so, ∂T ∂P
( ) = ( )
∂v S ∂S V

This is 2nd Maxwell equation.

190
3. From Gibb’s function:
G = H – TS
dG = dH – T dS – S dT
dG = v Dp – S dT (dH – T ds = v dP)
M = v; dx = dP; N = -S dy = dT
So, we know that G is a property,
∂v ∂s
( ) = ( )
∂T P ∂P T

This is 3rd Maxwell equation.

4. Helmholtz function:
F = U – TS
dF = dU – T ds – S dP
= - P dV – S dP
M = -P; dx = dv; dz = dF
N = -S; dy = dP
We know F is a property,
∂P ∂s
( ) = ( )
∂T V ∂v T

This is 4th Maxwell equation.

Note:

S P

T
−dS ∂V
( ) = ( )
dP T ∂T P

191
 S P

∂v ∂P
( ) = ( )
∂S P ∂S S

Partial derivative relation (Cyclic relation):

Let x, y, z having a functional relation in such a way that
f(x, y, z) = 0. Among the variable x, y, z any one of two others.
x = ∅ (y, z)
y = ∅ (z, x)
z = ∅ (x, y)
x = ∅ (y, z)
∂x ∂x
dx = ( ) dy + ( ) dz ……… (1)
∂y z ∂z y

z = ∅ (x, y)
∂z ∂z
dz = ( ) dx + ( ) dy ……… (2)
∂x y ∂y x

Put (2) in (1)

∂x ∂x ∂z ∂z
dx = ( ) dy + ( ) [( ) dx + ( ) dy ]
∂y z ∂z y ∂x y ∂y x

∂x ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂z
dx = [( ) + ( ) ( ) ]dy + ( ) ( ) dx
∂y z ∂z y ∂y x ∂z y ∂x y

∂x ∂x ∂z
dx = [( ) + ( ) ( ) ]dy + dx
∂y z ∂z y ∂y x

∂x ∂z ∂x
( ) ( ) =-( )
∂z y ∂y x ∂y z

192
 ∂y ∂x ∂z
( ) ( ) ( ) = -1 → Cyclic reaction
∂x z ∂z y ∂y x

Among the thermodynamic variables P, V and T this relation can be

∂P ∂V ∂T
written as ( ) × ( ) × ( ) = -1
∂V T ∂T P ∂P V

∂P ∂V ∂T
( ) × ( ) × ( ) = -1
∂V T ∂T P ∂P V

This is valid for all type of equations & processes.

For ideal gas,
nRT
P=
V
nRT
V=
P
PV
T=
nR
−nRT nR V −nRT
× × = ⇒1
V2 P nR PV

THERMODYNAMIC RELATIONS
T – ds equation:
1. S = f(T, V)

T
V=C

S
∂S ∂S
ds = ( ) dT + ( ) dV
∂T V ∂V T

∂S
T ds = Cv dT + T ( ) Dv
∂V T

193
 ∂P
By Maxwell relation ( )
∂T V

∂T T
Slope of V = C line = ( ) =
∂S V Cv

∂S
∴ Cv = T ( )
∂T V

∂P
T ds = Cv dT + T ( ) dV → 1st T dS equation …. (1)
∂T V

2. S = f(T, P)

T
V=P

S
dS dS
ds = ( ) dT + ( ) dP
dT P dP T

dS dS
T ds = T ( ) dT + T ( ) dP
dT P dP T

dS dV
( ) =( )
dP T dT P

∂T
Slope of ( )
∂S P
T
P = C line =
CP
∂S
CP = T ( )
∂T P

∂S
T ds = CP dT + T ( ) dP
∂P T
∂V
By Maxwell relation = ( )
∂T P

∂V
T ds = CP dT – T ( ) dP → 2nd T dS equation …. (2)
∂T P

194
Equating (1) & (2)
∂P ∂V
Cv dT + T ( ) dV = CP dT – T ( ) dP
∂T V ∂T P

∂P ∂V
(-Cv + CP ) = T [( ) dV + ( ) dP]
∂T V ∂T P

∂P ∂V
(CP - Cv ) dT = T [( ) dV + ( ) dP]
∂T V ∂T P

T ∂P ∂V
dT = [( ) dV + ( ) dP]
(CP − Cv ) ∂T V ∂T P

T = f(P, V)
∂T ∂T
dT = ( ) dP + ( ) dV ……. (3)
∂P V ∂V P

T ∂P ∂T
( ) =( )
(CP − Cv ) ∂T V ∂V P

[(CP − Cv ) = R is valid for ideal gas only]

∂P ∂V
CP − Cv = T ( ) ( )
∂T V ∂T P

From cyclic relation,

∂V ∂V ∂P
( ) = [− ( ) × ( ) ]
∂T P=Constant ∂P T ∂T V

∂P 2 ∂V
CP − Cv = -T ( ) ( )
∂T V ∂P T

∂P 2 ∂V
CP − Cv = -T ( ) ( )
∂T V ∂P T

This relation is valid for all. …… (4)

CP − Cv = +ve
CP > Cv
CP
γ= >1
Cv

Hence, CP is always greater than Cv

For ideal gas,
195
 PV = m RT
mR 2 −mRT
CP − Cv = -T( ) ( )
V P2
m2 R2 mRT
=T( )( )
V2 P2

CP − Cv = mR
When ⇒ m = 1
Defined for unit mass (Specific properties)
∴ CP − Cv = R
Volume expansivity:
It shows the variation of volume with respect to temperature
under isobaric condition.
1 ∂V
α= ( )
V ∂T P

Isothermal compressibility:
It shows the variation of volume w.r.t pressure under isothermal
condition.
1 ∂V
β=- ( )
V ∂P T

Isentropic compressibility:
It shows the variation of volume w.r.t pressure under adiabatic
condition.
1 ∂V
KS = - ( )
V ∂P S

From (4)
∂P 2 ∂V
CP − Cv = -T ( ) ( )
∂T V ∂P T

196
Cyclic relation,
∂P ∂V ∂T
( ) ( ) ( ) = -1
∂V T ∂T P ∂P V

∂P ∂P ∂V
( ) =-( ) ( )
∂T V ∂V T ∂T P

∂P ∂V 2 ∂V
CP − Cv = -T {( ) ( ) } ( )
∂V T ∂T P ∂P T

∂P ∂V 2
CP − Cv = -T {( ) ( ) }
∂V T ∂T P

From co-relations,
∂V
( ) = αV
∂T P
∂P −1
( ) =
∂V P αV
−1
CP − Cv = -T { (αV)2 }
βV

α2 V
CP − Cv = T( )
β

T α2 V
CP − Cv =
β
Energy equation:
We know,
T ds = dU + P dV
dU = T ds – P dV
∂P
= [Cv dT + T ( ) dV] – P dV
∂T V

∂P
∴ dU = Cv dT + [T ( ) − P] dV → For all gaseous.
∂T V

For ideal gas,

dU = Cv dT

197
 mRT
PV = mRT ⇒ P =
V
mR
dU = Cv dT + [T ( ) − P] dV
V

∴ dU = Cv dT
We know,
T ds = dH – V dP
dH = T dS + V dP
∂V
= [CP dT − T ( ) dP] + V dP
∂T P

∂V
dH = CP dT − [T ( ) − V] dP
∂T P

For ideal gas,

dH = CP dT
JOULE – THOMSON (OR) JOULE – KELVIN
EFFECT:
T1 T2

P1 P2

Steady flow,
C21 C22
h1 + + gz1 + Q = h2 + + gz2 + WCv
2 2

h1 = h2
(Q = 0 and WCv = 0)

198
 Heating
region
Cooling region 2
- h6
+ 1
T 1' h5
2'

h4
h3

h2
h1
Inversion curve
P

Inversion curve:
This curve decides whether the fluid will cool or heat after throttling.
Example:
Expansion process
1-2 → Temperature increases
1′ -2′ → Temperature decreases
Slope of isenthalpic curve:
∂T
μ=( )
∂P h

μ = Joule-kelvin coefficient
μ = +ve → Cooling
μ = -ve → Heating
μ = 0 → Same temperature
For maximum cooling effect, throttling must start from
inversion point.

199
 Joule-Thomson coefficient [(Slope of isenthalpic curve) on the
T-P diagram is positive in cooling region. and its negative in heating
region]
CLAUSIUS - CLAYPERON EQUATION:
S = f(T, V)
∂S ∂S
dS = ( ) dT + ( ) dV
∂T V ∂V T

During phase change,

T = C; P = C; V↑
∂S
ds = ( ) dV
∂V T

By Maxwell equation,
∂S ∂P
( ) =( )
∂V T ∂T V

∂P
ds = ( ) dV
∂T V

∂P dS
( ) =
∂T V dV

During phase change,

dP Sg − Sf
( ) =
dT Saturated Vg − Vf

dP
Vg − Vf = ( ) (Sg − Sf )
dT Saturated
dQ
ds =
T
h g − hf
Sg − Sf =
TSaturated

dT hg − hf
Vg − Vf = ( ) [ ]
dP Saturated TSaturated

200
VAPOUR POWER CYCLE:
(Steam Power Plant)
Qin 3
B [Adiabatic]
W
T
2
4
P Condenser
WP
1 QR

IDEAL VAPOUR POWER CYCLE:

(Carnot Vapour Power Cycle)

Qin
2
Th 3

TL 4
1
QR
S

1-2 → Adiabatic Compression

2-3 → Constant temperature heat addition
3-4 → Adiabatic Expansion
4-1 → Constant temperature heat rejection
Th − TL
ɳC =
Th

In this cycle efficiency does not depend of the working fluid.

The efficiency of Carnot cycle does not depend on type of working
fluid. For gas power cycle, it is very difficult to achieve constant
temperature heat addition process and constant temperature heat

201
rejection process. But, it is quite easy to achieve for two phase system
so, process 2-3 and 4-1 is easy to achieve in Carnot vapour cycle.
In adiabatic expansion (3-4) the turbine has to handle low
quality steam which is major cause of corrosion and wear. Which
leads to cavity formation.
It is not practical to design compressor which handle two
phases of fluid simultaneously.
In 2-3 process, temperature beyond 3 can’t be increased and
will move to superheated region & temperature will increase but 2-3
is constant temperature process.
RANKINE CYCLE:
3
3
Qin Qin
2 2

T T

4 4
1 1
QR QR
S S

1-2 → Adiabatic compression in pump

2-3 → Constant pressure heat addition process (Boiler)
3-4 → Adiabatic expansion (Turbine)
4-1 → Constant pressure heat rejection (Condenser)
If you don’t have time take pump work WP = 5

202
 3
Qin
Qin Ph
2 3
Ph
2
P h
4
4 1 PL
1 PL
QR QR

V S

Analysis of simple Rankine cycle:

Whole cycle is closed system.
Process 1-2:
(Reversible adiabatic compression in pump)
1st law (Steady flow energy equation):
Open system → Compressor
C21 C22
h1 + + gz1 + q = h2 + + gz2 + Wcv
2 2

Neglect change in K.E & P.E

WP = h2 - h1
h1 = hf @ L.P (Condenser pressure)
 If we neglect pump work, h1 = h2
 If we consider pump work,
WP = ∫ v dP
= v1 [P2 - P1 ] vf @ L.P
Process 2-3:
Constant pressure heat adds pressure (Boiler)
Q in = h3 - h2
 If point 3 is in saturated vapour line,
h3 = hg @ H.P (Boiler pressure)

203
  If point 3 is in superheated region.
h3 = hsup @ H.P & Tsup
&
h3 = hg + CP (Tsup - Tsat )
Process 3-4:
Reversible adiabatic expansion (Turbine)
By 1st law SFEF
WT = h3 - h4
 If point 4 is on saturated vapour line.
h4 = hg @ L.P (C.P)
 If point 4 is in wet zone,
S8 = S4
S8 sup @ H.P & Tsup
S4 = Sf + x (Sg - Sf ) @ L.P (C.P)
x =?
h4 = hf + x (hg - hf ) @ L.P (C.P)
C.P ⇒ Compression precision
Process 4-1:
Constant pressure heat rejection (Condenser)
Q R = h4 - h1
WT − WP
ɳR =
Qinp

(h3 − h4 ) −(h2 − h1 )
ɳR =
(h3 − h2 )

ɳCarnot > ɳRankine

(Mean temperature heat addition is less than Carnot)
204
Mean temperature heat rejection is equal to Carnot.
ɳRankine is more in all cycle.
Specific steam consumption:
It is mass of steam per unit power
ms
SSC =
Poutput

SSC of Rankine is less than SSC of Carnot hence, Rankine is

used in all steam power plant for same power, Carnot required more
steam than Rankine.
SSC decides the size of steam power plant.
Method to improve efficiency of Rankine cycle:
1. Increasing boiler pressure:
BP2 > BP1
Tmean (heat addition) ↑ η ↑ quality of steam ↓
BP2
BP1
3'
3
2'

2
T

4
1 4'

BP2 > BP1

Tmean (Heat addition) ↑ ɳ↑
Quality of steam ↓

205
2. Decreasing condenser pressure:
3

PC1
2
T PC2

4
1 X=1

S X = 0.5

PC1 > PC2

Tmean (heat rejection) ↑ η ↑
quality of steam ↓
In condenser there will be leakage problem due to air entrance.
If air entrance condenser it will go to pump & pump will stop
working. Pump can’t deal with gaseous.
If we decrease the condenser pressure, then efficiency of
Rankine cycle increases b/c mean temperature of heat rejection
decrease while mean temperature of heat addition is almost
same/constant.
3. Superheating:
3'

2
T
4'
1 4

Tmean (heat addition) ↑ η ↑

206
 quality of steam ↑
4. Reheating in steam turbine:
Reheater

Q B 5
4
3
3 5 W
2

T 4 LPT
2 HPT
6
1 4'
6
S P Condenser
1

Poutput ↑
Qintput ↑
Poutput ↑
ɳ=
Pintput ↑

3
2 Constant
pressure
P 5
4
6
1

It is not possible to conclude whether efficiency of heat

cycle increases or decreases. If mean temperature of heat
addition increases due to reheating, then efficiency decreases.
If mean temperature of heat addition decreases due to
reheating the efficiency decreases.

207
REFRIGERATION: (IN RANKINE CYCLE)
(Feed water heater)
(1-y) kg 6

B
5
4
HP
T LPT

P2 (1-y) kg
y kg
7
6
3 FWH
1 kg water
2
P1

1
Condenser

(1-y) kg water

5 3'
4
Rankine 2' 1 kg

3 6

2
P

1 7 4'
1'
Refrigeration
V

WT = (h5 - h6 ) + (1 – y) (h6 - hf )
Work of turbine decreases.
Wnet ↓
ɳ= (WP ≈ C, Wnet ↓, Q inp ↓)
Qinp ↓

Tm (heat add)↑ ɳ↑
Quality of steam = Constant

208
WORK & HEAT
Indicator diagram mechanism:

ad

ld

Mean effective pressure is defined as

ad K
ρm =
ld

Where,
ad = Area of indicator diagram
ld = Length of indicator diagram
K = Spring constant
REFRIGERATION:
Refrigeration is the process of creating & maintaining lower
temperature than surrounding. The lower temperature is to be
maintained continuously so system must operate on cycle.
According to clausius 2nd law statement, it is not possible to
transfer heat from low temperature body to high temperature body

209
without any energy input so, for all refrigeration system work input is
required and cycle is power absorbing cycle.
(Anticlockwise P-V diagram)
Refrigeration effect:
It is the amount of heat which is to be extracted from lower
temperature in order to maintain lower temperature known as
refrigeration effect.

T1

Winp
R

Q2 = Refrigeration effect

T2

Desired output RE Q2
(COP)R = = =
Input Winp Q1 − Q2

Q2
(COP)R =
Q1 − Q2
RE m Refrigeration capacity RC
(COP)R = × = =
Winp m Power input Pinp

RC
(COP)R =
Pinp

Unit of refrigeration (Ton of refrigeration):

1 ton of refrigeration is an amount of heat which is to be
extracted from 1 ton of water at 00 C in order to convert it into 00 C of
ice in 24 hours.
1 ton = 3.5KW
1 TR = 3.5KW
335
Latent heat of water = = 3.5kJ/S
24 × 60 × 60
210
IDEAL REFRIGERATION CYCLE:
(Reverse Carnot cycle)

3 Q1
Th 2
T

TL
4 1
Q2
S
Tl
(COP)R =
Th − Tl

VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION

CYCLE:
QR

3
Condenser
Ph
2
Ph
1

4
PL
C
PL
Evaporator

Qin

Ph
2
3 QR
PL
T
1
4' 4 Q
in

3----4 highly irreversible process & enthalpy increases

211
 3 2
Ph
QR
P

PL
4 Qin 1

Analysis of vapour compression cycle:

Process 1-2:
Reversible adiabatic (isentropic) compression in compressor.
Apply steady flow energy equation
By 1st law, for open system,
C21 C22
h1 + + gz1 + Q = h2 + + gz2 + Wcv
2 2

Neglect K.E & P.E

Q=0
Wcv is negative
Hence, Wcv = -Wcv
Wc = h2 - h1
h1 = hg @PL (or) evaporator pressure.
Process 2-3:
Constant pressure heat rejection in condenser.
Q R = h2 - h3
h2 → hsup @PH & Tsup
h3 = hf @PH
h4 = h3

212
Process 3-4:
Isenthalpic expansion in throttling valve
W3−4 = 0
h3 = h4
Process 4-1:
Constant pressure heat addition
∴ Q in = R.E = h1 - h4
R.E R.E h1 − h4
(COP) = = =
Winp Wcompressor h2 − h1

h1 − h3
(COP) =
h2 − h1

Why isentropic expansion not used in 3-4?

1. At point 3 fluid is liquid which are incompressible hence change
is volume is less.
2. Hence, work is not more.
3. If turbine is used the cost of refrigerator will increase & will not
be economical.
4. Difference in entropy of 4 & 4′ is less.
Problems with Solutions:
1. In a 5KW cooling capacity refrigeration system operating on
V-C cycle. Refrigerant enters evaporator with enthalpy 75kJ/kg,
and leave with enthalpy of 183kJ/kg. The enthalpy of refrigerant
after compression is 210kJ/kg. Calculate the COP, power input
to the compressor in KW, rate of heat transfers at condenser.
h4 = 75 kJ/kg
h1 = 183 kJ/kg

213
 h2 = 210 kJ/kg
h1 − h4 183 − 75
(COP)R = = =4
h2 − h 1 210 − 183
RC 5
Now, (COP)R = =
Qinp Qinp

5
Q inp = = 1.25KW
4

Q 2−3 = h2 − h3 = 135 kJ/kg

Pinp = ṁ (h2 − h1 )
1.25 = ṁ (210 − 183)
ṁ = 0.048 kg/S
Now,
Q R = ṁ (h3 − h2 )
= 0.048 × 135
Q R = 6.48KW

EFFECT OF VARIOUS PARAMETERS ON THE

PERFORMANCE OF V-C CYCLE:
1. Decrease in evaporator pressure:

3 2
Ph
P

1
PL
4
4'
PL’
h

PL′ < PL
RE ↓ Winp ↑
(COP)R ↓
214
2. Increase in condenser pressure:
3' 2'
Ph
3
Ph
2
P

PL
4 4' 1

RE ↓ Winp ↑
(COP)R ↓
3. Superheating:
3'
3 2 2'

4 1 1'
4'

RE ↑ Win ↑
RE ↑
(COP) =
Win ↑

In case of superheating COP may increase or decrease

depending upon refrigerant.
In case of ammonia (NH3 ), superheating results decrease in
COP.
Whereas in case of R12 , COP increases due to result of
superheating.

215
 4. Sub cooling:

3' 3 2

4 1
4'

RE ↑ Win = Constant
(COP) = ↑
DESIGNATION OF REFRIGERANT:
Case 1:
Saturated hydro-carbon.
If the chemical formula of refrigerant is Cm Hn FP Clq then it is
designated as R – (m – 1) (n + 1) P
Where,
N + p + q = 2m + 2
Example:
CCl2 F2
m = 1, n = 0, p = 2, q = 2
R-012 ⇒ R-12
Reverse R-011
(m-1) – 0 ⇒ m = 1
n+1=1⇒n=0
p=1
We know, n + p + q = 2m + 2

216
 0 + 1 + q = 2 (1) + 2
q=3
CFCl3

⇒ R-123
m–1=1⇒m=2
n+1=2⇒n=1
p=3
n + p + q = 2m + 2
1 + 3 + q = 2(2) + 2
q=2
C2 HF3 q 2
Case 2:
Unsaturated hydro-carbon
If chemical formula of unsaturated refrigerant is Cm Hn FP Clq
then refrigerant is designated as,
R - 1(m – 1) (n + 1) p
Where, n + p + q = 2m
Example:
C2 H4
m=2
n=4
p=0
q=0
∴ R-1150

217
GAS REFRIGERATION CYCLE:
This system is developed by belcoolman.
In gas refrigeration cycle, air is used as working fluid. If works
on reverse Brayton cycle. It is generally used for refrigeration in air-
craft application due to its low weight per tonne of refrigeration.
QR

3 Heat
Exchanger
2

1
We

4
C
Heat PL WC
Exchanger

Qin

Condenser & Evaporator are heat exchangers when there is

phase change. Here air is used hence, here only heat exchanger.
In gas refrigeration cycle if isenthalpic throttle valve is used then
h1 = h2
But for ideal gas as air is used as fluid
dh = CP dT
0 = CP dT CP ≠ 0
dT = 0 …… This is not

218
 QR
QR
3 3
2
2
T
P

4 1 4 1
Qin Qin
S V

Process 1-2:
Reversible adiabatic compression,
WC = h2 - h1
Process 2-3:
Constant pressure heat rejection,
Q R = h2 - h3
Process 3-4:
Reversible adiabatic expansion,
We = h3 - h4
Process 4-1:
Constant pressure heat addition,
Q in = h1 - h4
Qin
(COP) =
Wnet
h 1 − h4
(COP) = (h
2 − h1 ) (h3 − h4 )

Wnet = WC - We
= (h2 − h1 ) - (h3 − h4 )
= (h2 - h3 ) - h1 + h4
= (h2 - h3 ) – (h1 - h4 )

219
 T1 − T4
(COP) = (T
2 − T1 ) − (T3 − T4 )

T1 − T4
(COP) = (T
2 − T3 ) − (T1 − T4 )

Divide (T1 − T4 )
1
(COP) = (T − T )
( (T2 − T3 )) −1
1 4

1
(COP) = T
T3 (T2 − 1)
( 3 ) −1
T1
T4 ( − 1)
T4

1→ 2 ⇒ Pressure ratio,
ꝏ

Cop

1
rp

P2 P3
rP = =
P1 P4
γ−1
T2
= (rP ) γ
T1

3→4
γ−1
T3
⇒ = (rP ) γ
T4
T2 T3
⇒ =
T1 T4
T2 T1
= …….. (1)
T3 T4
1
COP = T3
T4
−1

1
∴ γ−1
(rP ) γ −1

220
VAPOUR ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION
SYSTEM:
QR

3
Condenser

2
General
Vapour
Refrigeration 1
System

4
C
PL
Evaporator

Qin

QR

Condenser G
NH3(g)
NH3(Ɩ) NH3 + H2O (Ɩ)
H 2O

P
WP

NH3(Ɩ + g)
A
Evaporator
H2O
NH3(g) NH3 + H2O (Ɩ)

Qe

In vapour absorption refrigeration system compressor is

replaced by an absorber, pump & generator & pressure reducing
valve.

221
 Solar refrigeration system works on vapour absorption cycle.
The most popular vapour absorption system is NH3 - H2 O system
where NH3 is refrigerant & H2 O is absorber.
This system is generally used where waste heat is available. In vapour
absorption cycle heat is rejected in condenser as well as absorber.

TG

QG
Qg + Qe
VA T0
Qe

Te

(∆S)universe ≥ 0
Qa Qe Qa + Qe
+ - ≥0
Qa Qe T0
1 1 1 1
Qa [ − ] ≥ Qe [ − ]
Ta T0 T0 Te
Qe T0 − Ta T0 Te
≤[ ][ ]
Qa T0 Ta Te − T0
Ta − T0 Te
COP ≤ [ ][ ]
Ta T0 − Te

PSYCHOMETRY:
Air conditioning:
It is a simultaneous control of temperature humidity & velocity
of air.
Psychometry:
It is branch of science deal with study of moist air.

222
MOIST AIR
In atmospheric thermodynamics, air that is a mixture of dry air
and any amount of water vapour. Generally, air with a high relative
humidity.
1. Dry air (ma )
2. Water vapour (mv )
PROPERTIES OF MOIST AIR:
1. Specific humidity: (𝛚)
It is the ratio of mass of vapour to the mass of dry air.
mv
ω=
ma

Ma Mv ƩM = Ma + Mv
Va Vv Va = Vv = V
Pa Pv Pt = Pa + Pv
Ta Tv Ta = Tv = T

Pa V = ma R a T …… (1)
Pv V = mv R v T …… (2)
(1) Pa ma Ra
⇒ = ×
(2) Pv mv Rv
̅
̅⇒R=R
MR = R
M
mv Ra Pv
ω= = ×
ma Rv Pa
̅
R
mv Ma Pv
ω= = ̅
R
×
ma Pa
Mv

223
 mv Pv Mv
ω= = ×
ma Pa Ma
18 Pv
ω=
29 Pa
mv Pv
ω= = 0.622
ma Pa
Pt = Pa + Pv
Pa = Pt - Pv
mv Pv
w= = 0.622
ma Pt − Pv
∴ w = f(Pv )
Specific humidity is function of partial pressure of vapour.
2. Relative humidity: (∅)
It is defined as the mass of vapour to the mass of vapour
under saturation condition.
mv
∅=
mvs

Mv Mvs

Ma Ma

PvV = mvRvT 1 PvsV = mvsRvT 2

(1) Pv mv
⇒ = =∅
(2) Pvs mvs

Dry bulb temperature:

It is a temperature measured by ordinary thermometer.
Wet bulb temperature:
It is a temperature measured by thermometer. When its bulb is
covered with wet cloth.

224
Wet bulb temperature of air under saturation condition.

Pv < Pvs

Unsaturated
air

Dew point temperature:

It is a temperature at which water vapour starts condensing.
(or)
It is a temperature at which 1st droplet of water is formed.
Note:
Pvs
Pv

DBT
DBT
WBT
WBT
DBT
DBT
Saturated

Unsaturated

For unsaturated air DBT > WBT > DPT.

For saturated air, DBT = WBT = DBT
WBT is saturation temperature corresponding to Pvs whereas DPT is
saturation temperature corresponding to Pv .

225
Problems with Solutions:
1. For a moist air, total pressure of 101K pa contain 10gm of
vapour per kg of dry air at 300 C. find out the relative humidity.
Pv
∅=
Pvs
Pv mv
= =∅
Pvs mvs

Pvs = Tsat @300 C

mv Pv
ω= = 0.622
ma Pt − Pv
0.01 Pv
⇒ = 0.622 ×
1 101 − Pv
0.01
⇒ (101 − Pv ) = Pv
0.622
0.01 0.01
(1 + ) Pv = × 101
0.622 0.622

⇒ Pv = 1.6 K pa
Pv 1.6
∅= = = 36%
Pvs 4.2069

Degree of saturation:
It is a ratio of specific humidity to specific humidity at saturated
condition.
w
μ=
ws
Pv
ω = 0.622
P t − Pv
Pvs
ωs = 0.622
Pt − Pvs
Pv
Pt − Pv
μ= Pvs
Pt − Pvs

226
 Pv Pt − Pvs
μ= [ ]
Pvs Pt − Pv
Pt − Pvs
μ = ∅[ ]
Pt − Pv

Enthalpy of moist air:

H = Ha + Hv
Ha = Enthalpy of dry air
Hv = Enthalpy of moist air
mh = ma ha + mv hv
ma ha + mv hv
h=
m
ma mv
h= ha + hv
m m

m ≈ ma
h = ha + w hv
Specific enthalpy of dry air (𝒉𝒂 ):
Specific enthalpy of saturated dry air at 00 C is arbitrarily taken
as 0.
t
h

ha = 0
00C

For ideal gas,

dh = CP dT
(h - ha ) = CP (t - t 0 )
h = CP t
At t 0 = 00 C, ha = 0
CP = 1005 kJ/kg K
ha = 1005 t 0 C

227
Specific enthalpy of water vapour:
The specific enthalpy of saturated water at 00 C arbitrarily taken
as 0.

t
T
00C

LH
∆h

hv = 0 hv

hv = 0 + LH + ∆h
= LH + CP (t – 0)
hv = LH + CPv t
In general,
LH = 2500
CPv = 1.88
hv = 2500 + 1.88t
Problems with solutions:
1. Degree of saturation of air at 300 C, 100K pa is 24%. The
saturation pressure of water vapour at 300 C is 4K pa then find
the relative humidity and specific humidity.
μ = 0.24
Pv Pt − Pvs
μ= [ ]
Pvs Pt − Pv

Pt = 100K pa
Pvs = 4 K pa

228
 Pv 100 − 4
0.24 = [ ]
4 100 − Pv

0.24 × 4 (100 - Pv ) = Pv (96)

100 × 0.24 × 4 = Pv (96 + 0.24 × 4)
Pv = 0.99K pa
Pv 0.99
∅= = = 0.2475
Pvs 4
Pv
ω = 0.622
Pt − Pv
kg of vapour
ω = 6.219 × 10−3
kg of air

2. Dew point temperature of air at atmospheric pressure

(101.3 K pa) is 180 C & DBT = 300 C. The saturation pressure
of vapour at 180 C and 300 C are 2.06K pa & 4.24 K pa
respectively. Find enthalpy of moist air.

300C
T
180C

LH
∆h

hv = 0 hv

DPT = 180 C
DBT = 300 C
Pvs = 2.06K pa
P = 4.24 K pa
h = ha + w hv
ha = CPa × t
= 1.005 × 30
229
 ha = 30.15
hv = LH + CPv (30 – 18)
hv = 2522.56
Pv
ω = 0.622
Pt − Pv
2.06
= 0.622 ×
101.3 − 2.06

ω = 0.0129
DPT = Tsat @PV
Pv = Psat @DPT
Pv = 2.06K pa
∴ h = ha + ω hv
= 301.5 + 0.0129 × 2522.5
h = 62.7 kJ/kg
3. Atmospheric air at dry bulb temperature 400 C and wet bulb
temperature of 200 C undergoes a process in the wet bulb
temperature remain constant. Wet bulb depression at exit is 0.25
times of that of inlet then find DBT at exit.
Wet bulb depression = DBT – WBT
DBT = 400 C, (WBT)inlet = 200 C = (WBT)exit
(WBT)exit = 0.25 (WBT)inlet
(DBT − WBT)exit = 0.25 (DBT − WBT)inlet
= 0.25 (40 – 20)
=5
(DBT)exit = 5 + 20
(DBT)exit = 250 C

230
4. Moist air with dry bulb temperature of 400 C has relative
humidity of 50% atmospheric pressure is 1.01bar. Saturation
pressure of vapour at 400 C is 7.38 K pa & saturation pressure of
vapour at 1500 C is 4.578 bar. Find the specific humidity.
Moist air as stated above compressed to 5.05 bar and its
corresponding dry bulb temperature is 1500 C then find relative
humidity of compressed air.

P = 1.01 bar
400C

DBT = 400 C, ∅ = 0.50, P = 1.01 bar

Pvs @400 C = 7.38 K pa
Pvs @1500 C = 4.758 bar
ω =?
Pv
i. ⇒ ω = 0.622
Pt − Pv
Pv
∅=
Pvs
Pv
0.50 = ∅ =
7.36

⇒ Pv = 3.69
3.69
ω1 = 0.622
101 − 3.69

ω1 = 0.0235 kg of vapour/kg of air

231
ii. ⇒ ω1 = ω2
Since pressure & temperature both are in increased hence,
mass of system remains same.

P = 5.05 bar
1500C

Pv
ω2 = 0.622
Pt − Pv
Pv
0.0235 = 0.622 ×
505 − Pv

Pv = 19.53 K pa
Pv 19.53
∅= =
Pvs 4.758 × 102

∅ = 0.04106
∅ = 4.1%
5. Moist air at pressure of 100 K pa. it compressed to 500 K pa &
then cooled at constant pressure to 350 C in cooler the air at
entry to the cooler is unsaturated & become just saturated at the
exit of cooler. During the entire process there is no condensation
take place. The saturation pressure of vapour at 350 C is 5.628 K
pa then find the partial pressure of vapour of moist air at the
entry of compressor.
Pt1 = 100 K pa
Pt1 = 500 K pa
T2 = 350 C

232
 Compressor Cooler
Pt = 100 kPa
Pt = 500 kPa Pt = 500 kPa
ϕ=1
T = 300C

As there is no condensation so, the specific humidity at all the

points are same.
Pvs @350 C = 5.628 K pa
Pv
∅=1= ⇒ Pvs = Pv = 5.628
Pvs
Pv 5.628
ω3 = 0.622 = 0.622
Pt − Pv 100 −5.628

ω3 = 7.08 × 10−3
Pv
ω3 = w1 = 0.622
Pt − Pv
Pv
7.08 × 10−3 = 0.622 ×
Pt − Pv
Pv
7.08 × 10−3 = 0.622 × ⇒ Pv = 1.125K pa
100 − Pv

DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOMETRIC CHART:

ω = 0.622 Pv/Pt - Pv
Pv

-200C 0 20 40
-10 10 30 50
T (DBT)

We can measure
Pv
ω = 0.622
P t − Pv

233
 Pt = Patm = 101 K pa
Constant relative humidity lines.

ϕ=1
= 0.8 ω
ϕ 0 .6
ϕ =
Pv
= 0.4
ϕ

T (DBT)

P2 > P1
Tsat 2 > Tsat 1

P2
T P1
Tsat2

Tsat1

Different lines on psychometric chart:

1. Constant specific humidity lines

T (DBT)

234
2. Constant dry bulb temperature line

T (DBT)

3. Constant enthalpy line

e
al
sc
y
lp
a
th
En

T (DBT)

h = ha + ω (hv )
h = CP + w (2500 + 188t)
At different t & w. find h & then keeping h constant vary w & t
4. Constant wet bulb temperature line:
Though there is small deviation between constant enthalpy
& constant wet bulb temperature line but for all calculation
purpose this deviation is neglected.
5. Dew point temperature lines:
Dew point temperature is saturation temperature
corresponding to Pv . As long as partial pressure of vapour is
constant its due Pt , temperature is also constant. If Pv is constant
then ω is also constant. hence, constant due point temperature
line follows constant ω line.
235
 ω
Pv
Constant
DPT
Lines

T (DBT)

Note:

DPT WBT DBT

For unsaturated air,

DPT < WBT < DBT
From gib’s phase rule,
P+F=C+2
No. of phase = P = 1 → Gases are present in 1st phase
No. of component = 2 (Dry air, Water vapour)
1+F=2+2
F=3
Minimum three properties are required to identify point.
1st property is fixed in the chart.
i.e., Pt = 101.3 K pa
Hence, we require only two point to identify point.

236
 1
ϕ=
0 .8 ω
ϕ=
0.6
ϕ=

T (DBT)

For moist air, degree of freedom is 3 but on psychometric chart

only two properties are required to fix the state b/c the psychometric
chart is drawn for a fixed total pressure [3rd parameter is already
fixed]
i.e., Pt = 101.3K pa

BASIC PSYCHOMETRIC PROCESS:

1. Sensible heating:
Tc

t1 t2
mv1 mv2 = mv1
ma1 ma2 = ma1

ω2 = ω1
∅2 < ∅1
ω2 = ω1

ϕ2 ω
ϕ1
1 2

t1 t2

237
 Bypass factor:
In this sensible heating process, the maximum temperature
of air which is possible is coil temperature but some of the air
will bypass without any contact to heater/heating coil, so the
final temperature t 2 is less than coil temperature.

h2
h1

t1 t2 tc

TC − t2
Bypass factor =
TC − t1

Coil efficiency:
It is a ratio of actual temperature rise to the maximum
possible temperature rise.
By SFE,
C21 C22
h1 + + gz1 + Q = h2 + + gz2 + W
2 2

Q = h2 - h1
Work is zero as air is a system.
t2 − t1
ɳC = ⇒ BPF + ɳC = 1
TC − t1

2. Sensible cooling:
It is process of decreasing temperature without any change
in specific humidity.

238
 Cooling Coil

t1 t2
mv1 mv2
ma1 ma2

Cooling Coil (Refrigerant flow through coil)

t2 < t1
mv
ω=
ma

mv1 = mv2 → (TC = abv DPT)

m a1 = m a2

1 ω
2

t2 t1 T

Dew point temperature is temperature

Below. Which condensation will start.
For sensible cooling, the coil temperature must be greater than
dew point temperature.
3. Humidification:
It is the process of increasing specific humidity at constant
dry bulb temperature.

1
ω

239
4. Dehumidification:
It is a process of decreasing specific humidity at constant
dry bulb temperature.

1
ω

Note:
It is not possible to achieve pure humidification and pure
dehumidification because this processes are always associated
with temperature change.
5. Heating and humidification:

2
ω

6. Cooling and humidification:

2
ω

Below process is adiabatic process,

240
 t1 t2
mv1 mv2
ma1 ma2

Cooling
water

t 2 < t1
m a1 = m a2
mv1 > mv2
Apply SFE,
h1 + Q = h2 + W → K.E & P.E neglected.
∴ h1 = h2
Conclusion:
Cooling & humidification follows constant enthalpy line.
7. Cooling & humidification:

2
ω

DBT t2 t1

241
 Cooling
coil
t1 t2
mv1 mv2
ma1 ma2

t 2 < t1
m a1 = m a2
mv1 > mv2
In summer air conditioning, cooling and dehumidification
process is used.
To achieve cooling & dehumidification coli temperature must be
less than dew point temperature.
8. Heating & dehumidification:

Silica or
1 ω alumina
gel

Silica gel, alumina gel can absorb moisture.

This process is also known as chemical humidification or
adiabatic dehumidification.
Certain chemicals like silica gel or alumina gel are used
for absorbing moisture. When moisture is to be absorbed then
latent heat of condensation released and hence its dry bulb
temperature increases.
242
 9. Sensible heat factor:
Sensible heat factor is a ratio of sensible heat to the total
heat.

In
n ge re
a
ch atu

h2
No per
tem

H
h1

L.
H
S.
2

SH
SHF =
SH+LH

GAS & AIR COMPRESSOR

Compressor is a device which convert mechanical energy into
pressure energy.
Open system reversible work
W = ∫ −v dP
Compression without any clearance volume:
PVn = C
PV = C PVr = C
1
211 2 2
P2 P2

P1 1
P1

V1

243
 1-2 → Adiabatic compression
1-2′ → Poltropic compression
1-2′′ → Isothermal compression
P2
2

P1

2'

T
2"
1

The process may be adiabatic or isothermal or any general

polytrophic process depending upon application.
Case 1:
Adiabatic process
dW = V dP
For adiabatic process,
PV γ = C
γ γ
P1 V1 = P2 V2 = PV γ
1
P γ
V= ( 1) V1
P
1
P γ
Wopen = ∫ −V dP = ∫ − ( P1 ) V1 dP
1 1
1 γ
= -V1 (P1 ) γ
∫ ( P) dP
1 1 2
1−
γ P γ
= -V1 P1 [ 1 ]
1−γ

244
 1 γ−1 γ−1
−γ γ γ
= V1 P1 [P2 − (P1 ) γ ]
γ−1

1 γ−1 γ−1
−γ γ P2 γ
Wopen = V1 P1 (P1 ) γ [( ) − 1]
γ−1 P1

γ−1
γ P2 γ
Wopen = V1 P1 [( ) − 1]
γ−1 P1

Case 2:
Polytrophic process
n−1
−n P2 n
Wopen = V1 P1 [( ) − 1]
n−1 P1

Case 3:
Isothermal process
PV = C
C
V=
P
1
Wopen = ∫ −V dP = -C ∫ dP
P
P2
Wopen = - V1 P1 ln
P1

COMPRESSORS
1. +ve Displacement type:
In this type, pressure is increased by decreasing the
volume with the help of positive displacement of piston.
Example:
Reciprocating compressor
It is best suited for very high pressure up to 1000 bar &
low discharge.

245
 (Q < 9 m3 /s)
Example:
In refrigerator mining work, etc.,
2. Dynamic type:
 In dynamic type, pressure is increased by dynamic action of
gas.
 The K.E imparted to the gas by rotation of impeller & this
K.E change into pressure energy partially on impeller & rest
is diffuser.
(a) Centrifugal compressor
Best suited for medium discharge & medium pressure
10 bar < P < 100 bar
9 m3 /s < Q < 300 m3 /s
(b) Axial compressor
Best suited for low pressure & very high discharge.

246
SINGLE STAGE SINGLE ACTING
RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR WITH
CLEARANCE VOLUME:
Delivery Process
3 2
PVr = C P n=C

Expansion
V
TDC
Compression
BDC

1
4
Suction
Process

VC V VS

TDC BDC

On downward motion of piston from point 3 the pressure in the

cylinder fall and then atmospheric air enter to the cylinder through the
suction valve. When piston goes up the suction & delivery both
valves are closed & air is compressed till the delivery wall open due
to difference in pressure in cylinder & delivery maintained & when
piston goes down on next downward stroke the air trapped in
clearance volume expands & the pressure fall to suction pressure then
inlet valve opens & same cycle repeated.
Winput = WC - We
For polytrophic process.
n−1
n P2 n
W= V1 P1 [( ) − 1]
n−1 P1

247
 n−1
−n P3 n
VP [( ) − 1]
n−1 4 4 P4

P2 = P3 , P1 = P4
n−1
n P2 n
W= [( ) − 1] (V1 P1 - V4 P4 )
n−1 P1

n−1
n P2 n
Win = [( ) − 1] (P1 V1 - P4 V4 )
n−1 P1

P1 = P4 = P
n−1
n P2 n
Win = [( ) − 1] P (V1 - V4 )
n−1 P1

Va = V1 - V4
Vs = V1 - V3
n−1
n P2 n
Win = [( ) − 1] P (V1 - V4 )
n−1 P1

Volumetric efficiency:
It is ratio of actual volume of gas taken into the cylinder during
suction stroke to the piston displacement volume (Swept volume).

248