PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE. VOL. 56. NO. 4.

535
APRIL 1968

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[‘I J. P. Comstock, Principles of Naval Architecture.New York: Society
of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 1967.
f 2 1 G. Gabrielli and T. von Karman, “What price speed?’ Mechanical
Engrg., vol. 72, pp. 775-781, October 1950.
I 3 I 0. E. Lancaster, “Aviation gas turbines,” in Gas Turbine Engineer-
ing Handbook. Stamford, Conn.: Gas Turbine Publications, Inc., 1966,
ch. 20.
[ 4 1 “Special report on giant jets,” Aciation Week and Space Technology,
November 20, 1967.
W.E. Kraemer, “High-capacity aircraft,” Internar’l Science and
Technology, pp. 48-58, May 1966.
16] “Douglas pushes D C - I O airbus plan,” Aviation Week and Space
Technology, November13,1967.
[’I “GE sets airbus enginedesigncost,” Aviation Week and Space
Technology, September 25, 1967.
E. H. Hood, “General Electric no. 4 propulsion system forthe
SST,” presented at the Am. Soc.for Mechanical Engrs. 12th Annual Gas
Turbine Conf., March 1967.
Ig1 A. C. Adler, “Vertical takeoff,” Internat’l Science and Technology,
pp. 50-58, December 1965.
[‘‘I G. L. Graves, Jr. and J. W. Sawyer, “Marine gas turbines,” in
Gas Turbine Engineering Handbook. Stamford, Conn. : Gas Turbine Pub- Govt. Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 20402
lications, ch. 21.
[”] D. L. Caldera, C. E. Hoch, and G. C. Swensson, “The turbine
powered cargo ship,”MechanicalEngrg., vol. 89, pp. 34-43,October 1967.
H. L. Smith, Jr., “Thediesel locomotive,” Mechanical Engrg., vol.
89, pp. 3 7 4 , December 1967.
[ 1 3 ) “Survey of technology for high-speed ground transport, Part 1,”
prepared for U. S. Dept. of Commerce by the Mass. Inst. Tech., Cam-
bridge, under Contract C-85-65, CFSTI No. PB 168 648, June 15, 1965.
“Researchand developmentforhigh-speed ground transporta-
tion,” Rept. of Panel on High-speed Ground Transportation of Com-
merce Technical Advisory Board, CFSTI No. PB173911, March 1967.
[ l 5 I “Project tubeflight. Phase I-Feasibility study,” prepared for the
U. S. Dept. of Commerce by Rensselaer Polytechnic Inst.. Troy, N. Y.,
September 1966.
[I6] “Study of linear induction motor and itsfeasibility for high-speed
groundtransportation,” Final Rept. to Officeof High-speedGround
Transportation, U. S . Dept. of Transportation, Study Contract C-145-
66/NEG, Rept. 67-1948 (June 1967), by AiResearch.
[‘’I C. L. Lynch, “Emerging power sources,” Science and Technology,
pp. 3 W 8 , October 1967.
“Theautomobileandairpollution: A program forprogress,”
Part 1 of Rept. of Panel on Electrically Powered Vehicles to the Com-
merceTechnicalAdvisory Board,October 1947.Availablefrom U. S.

Underground Tunnels for Transport Systems

FREDERICK J. McGARRY

Abstract-In densely populated regiom, trmnels hmtdreds of feet below to discuss such guideways, their attributes and limitations,
the earth’s surface may be attractive guidewaysfor Mghsped tramportatiw and to identify some of the technological advances still
systems. Advantage inclnde stnbility, isdatioo from weather variatiom,
e4se of positive cootrd of the system, absence of interferenee from other
required for their achievement.
structures and tramportation modes, and potential alternative lses of the Sociologists agree that the present trend involving con-
~ f o r s o c h f p p c t i o n s p s s t o r a g e , U a i d ~ a n d d e f e m eeentrations
~ of people around extended urban centers will
Ifthesystemt~areloePtecln€arthedpce,pmpalpioaMdbraking continue ;such zones of comparatively high population den-
requirementsofthevehiclescan~begreatlysimpli6ed. sity will still cover very large areas, however. A typical ex-
The principal deterrent is a m s h c t h eostr These are b e i i reduced by
mechanized tmdling machines now d e q o i n g much development but ample of megalopolis in the United States is the area along
hard, strong rock stin requires slow, expeosive drill and blast t-es. the North Atlantic coast reaching from Bangor, Maine, to
R ~ ~ t o r n p i d l y w e P l r e n h u d r o c L s o ~ m d e s c P o Norfolk, ~it Va., and from 10 to 50miles inland. This area
~ i s b e i n g d o w . B o t h t h e r m P l t r e s t m ~ a n d t b e I s e o f w a t e r - represents about 3 percent of the nation’s continental land
borne surface activeagents are &ective weakeners.A 1000-watt contimom- mass and contains approximately 22 percent of its popula-
d~CO,I~anred~thestren%bofmnrMeorgranitebyafadorof
team3to5secoadsexposaretime. tion.
A siccant factor affecting the quality of bving in such
INTRODUCTION

s
regions is the ease and convenience of human movement
UBSURFACE guideways, or tunnels, for long-distance within them. Atpresent, this cannot be termed satisfactory,
high-speed transportation systems may soon become or even acceptable, in many instances. The inadequacies are
practical realities. Hundreds of feet below the surface too familiar to be repeated here. What is needed is a fast,
of the earth, networks of them could service thousands of safe, dependable, flexible transportation system with a ca-
square miles, presenting advantages unavailable from many pacity commensurate with the anticipated high population
other alternative systems. The purposeof this paper will be density. Tunnels may offer this.
The surface of the earth in suchregions is crowded with
Manuscript received January 12, 1968; revised January 22, 1%8. This buildings, roads, highways, reservoirs, railroads, pipelines,
research was supported by the Oflice of High-speed Ground Transport of wires, industry, and commerce. The value of the land is
the U. S. Department of Transportation.
The author is with the School of Engineering, Massachusetts Institute already high and the quality of the remaining openareas is
of Technology, Cambridge, Mass.02139 steadily declining. The air above is polluted, highly variable
536
in a meteorological sense, crowded with aircraft and,in cer-
tain loc8tions, also ~ e r y - e x p s i v eSubsurface
;~ structures
and installations are surprisingly common dcomplex too,
but fortunately,their penetration is generally quite shallow :
rarely do they extend down more than a few hundred feet.
Beyondlies what maybe the only remaining physical
frontier insuch-regions and it has otheradvantages in addi-
tion to its availability.
Deep tunnels located more than 500 feet belowthe surface
would encounter virtually no other man-made installations
except in a few isolated instances such as the salt mines
under Detroit. They could range freely in size, shape, and
conformation, constrained only by natural phenomena. If
they were to guide vehicles traveling faster than 150 to 200
miles per hour, the very large radii and gentle curvatures
required forhumancomfort could be readily accom-
modated. indeed the tridimensionality of terraspace would
permit interwoven networks of tunnels at various eleva-
tions without mutual interference in much the same manner
as airways now function.
Tunnels offer an environment well suited for control of
certain parameters. Temperature variations due to depth
are moderate and gradual andthe thermal equilibria which
tunnels exhibit over appreciable lengths cannot be easily
disturbed. Any structures installed in themwould show
essentially no dimensional change dueto temperature
fluctuations. This stability could be crucial in a high-speed
guideway system, where precision and accuracy will be
mandatory.Operationalconditions would be virtually
constant due to the absence of rain, snow, fog; sleet, wind,
erosion, lightning, freezing, and thawing. The high main-
tenance costs encountered in the deterioration of surface
structures from these same natural actions can be avoided
in tunnels also; this could constitute a substantial saving
over the life ofthe system.
In essence, a tunnel is a pipe and, as a matter of fact, most
of them are lined with metal or concrete to further enhance
containment efficiency.Being a pipeline, a tunnel system
hasa finite number of entrances, exits, andjunctions
through which the flows can be monitored and controlled
in an integrated, centralized manner from a single location.
Foreign elements can be more positively excluded and es-
tablished analytical techniques can be used to optimize the
system’s operation according to various criteria which can
be explicitlyselected. It can be pressurized or evacuated and
the composition of its gaseous content controlled; con-
ceivably the dragon high-speed vehcles could be reduced or
eliminated in this way. Alsoany acoustical noise the vehicles
might generate would be contained and isolated in such a
system.
Pursuing the pipeline concept further reveals other po-
tential advantages. Every generation of builders flatters it-
self by believing that its majorworks will be useful forever,
and they build that way. The consequences are all too
familiar. But a pipeline systemreally does have multi-
purpose possibilities. When our-descendants devise other,
better ways to move large numbers of people about, our
tunnels might be ustxkfor watenupply and-distribution ;for
PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, APRIL 1968
waste collection and disposal; for fuel conduits; for bulk
materials handling; for specialized-storm>irrdustrial, or
agricultural purposes ; for sociological experimentation;
conceivably even for living space. In the near future, which
seems to be no more secure, politically, than all of our past,
the defense values of an extensive tunnel system are finite.
TheLondon subways proved useful as human shelters
during World War 11.
One final aspect of a tunnel guideway for high-speed
vehicles should be recognized. If the terminals of the system
are near the surface and the principal traverses of it are
located at much deeper levels, both the propulsion and
braking requirements of the vehicles can be substantially
reduced. Gravity can help slow the vehicles as they go up
to a terminal and accelerate them as they depart downward
to traverse depths. Elevation changes of hundreds of feet
would be involved so very large energy exchanges would be
possible; the advantages in simplifying the desigrdhigh-
speed vehicles wouldbe very great.
Perhaps the worst single disadvantage of tunnels at the
present time is their construction cost and more about this
will be stated subsequently. But they have other problems
too. Terraspace beyond a few hundred feet belowthe surface
is almost literally a foreign region. Despite all the wells and
mines which have been constructed, we still know very
little about the detailed geological conditions under most
of the earth‘s surface. What is known is not reassuring:
abrupt vibrations in rock type and formations are common,
many faults or cracks exist and frequently they are serious
and extensive, and the level of seismic activity around the
earth’s crust is high and almost continuous as mild shifts
occur to relieve accumulated stresses. When t h e - s M s are
not mild, we call them earthquakes and 4 ~ 1 & e d sare
recorded each year. So, in fact, terraspace is not so stable
and equilibrated as we would wish fora high-precision
guideway structure, but still it is superior to most surface
locations.
Rarely is a tunnel driven without encountering water;
sometimes the inflow is so great that another route must be
chosen. Gas pockets or fields also exist at all depths and
usually their contents are combustible.
Even though ourmeasurement techniques are not precise,
we know that the local stresses in subsurface rock forma-
tions can reach very high values. Frequently these cause
rock bursts in the face of a tunnel under construction: the
rock is shot outward with explosiveforce and any workmen
in the way seldom survive. O d e r the face has passed
through ahigh pressure zone, cave-ins may occur;-Toavoid
these, most tunnels are lined with reinforced concrete
shells or with heavy steel ribs and plates to keep the rock
in place. But once in a while even this is inadequate and
collapses result.
If a tunnel system were to comprisethe guideway for high-
speed transport vehicles, other problems of an operational
nature would arise. Unless each vehicle contained its own
oxygersupply for its occupants, the tunnel would require
positive ventilation. Mobile power sources involving com-
bustion or the exhaust of gaseous products .wouId6e--very.
McGARRY: UNDERGROUND TUNNELS
awkward to accommodate and, in fact, probably intoler-
able. In many of the present tunnels used by automobiles,
the levels of toxic gases already become dangerously high
in hot weather during peak use periods.
Despite the best designs and efforts of everyone con-
cerned, accidents do occur in any transportationsystem. In
a tunnel these can be especially terrible: fire, smoke, dark-
ness, panic, limited access and escape paths, plus the possi-
bility of damage to the structure itself. Rescue work is very
difficult and, until completed, the operation of the system is
impaired if not totally disrupted, unless multiple alternate
routes are immediately available. Obviously, some con-
tingency preparations can be made for quick responses to
accidents of various types, but the fact remains: tunnels
are very inconvenient places for rescue and repair emer-
gencies.
CURRENT TUNNELLING TECHNOLOGY
The high costs of building tunnels were mentioned pre-
viously. Depending upon size, shape, length, and soil con-
ditions, costs range from 5 to as high as 20 million dollars
per mile at the present time. Further, these costs are so
unpredictable that usually only a consortium of construc-
tion companies will bid on a job; the risk of loss from un-
foreseen difficulties is so great that no single organization
will accept it alone. What are some of the reasons for this?
Driving a tunnel through rock involves essentially four or
five basic steps performed in sequence with only modest
overlap. First, holes are drilled in the face of the tunnel to
accept dynamite charges; usually these are 1 to 2 inches in
diameter and 6 to 12 feet deep. The pattern of the holes de-
pends upon thetype of rock, the tunnel profile, and the size
of the desired opening. Next the charges are placed, wired,
and set off. After an interval of 15 to 20 minutes, just enough
fumes and dust have been sucked out through the ventila-
tion system to permit the muckers to reenter the area. Their
job is to pick up the rubble and load it into small buggy
cars, usually on rails, which carry it out the length of the
tunnel and dump it near the portal. Bare hands, shovels, and
power loaders are their tools; the jobis not too attractive.
While the muck-up is going on, the power drill rig swings
back into place and starts cutting another set of holes as
fast as the newly exposed face is cleared. Other men per-
form additional tasks : extending the ventilating ducts, lay-
ing drain pipes and setting pumps, transporting, bolting up
and installing metal braces on the wallswhich are aug-
mented by wooden plank lagging set between the braces,
removing the full buggy and replacing it with an empty one
at the tunnel face, and running strings of loaded cars out to
dump. All this activity makes the driving end of a tunnel
unbelievably crowded; literally it is a labor-intensive area.
The various work gangs compete with each other to de-
termine which isthe best and fastest, and this practice is not
discouraged by the boss. Work goes on around the clock
and 80 to 120 feet of progress per day is considered good.
It costs, on the average, “a man a mile,” the work is so
hazardous.
After the tunnel has been cut through and cleared, it is
531
lined, usually with a reinforced concrete tube or shell which
is cast in place. This operation represents about 20 percent
of the final expense, and the shoring andbracing costs rep-
resent another 20 percent. The balance, approximately 60
percent, is consumed by the excavating work. However,
variations in all of these ratios occur, and the total cost per
mile in tunnels ranges between wide limits. The principal
reasons for t h s are variationsin the ease of excavating and
in the supporting requirements, unforeseen water inflow,
gas pockets, and rock instabilities. Since the major pur-
chasers of tunnels are government agencies, competitive
bidding practices are required and used. As might be ex-
pected, the preparation of bids is an inexact art executed
only by the most experienced and seasoned personnel. Even
so, the uncertainty factor is formidable. In fact, to enable
construction outfits to survive and continueto accept
tunnel work, all sorts of adjustments and adhoc procedures
have evolved to realistically relate charges and costs as the
project proceeds. Without them, fewer tunnels would be
built .
Only recently has this situation started to change, away
from a high labor factor toward increased mechanization.
This first occurred in coal mining where, shortly after
World War 11, powered excavators suitable forunder-
ground operation were developed and put into use. Drastic
increases in mining rates were accompanied by very large re-
ductions in the labor force while unit costs fell sharply. A
similar action is now taking place in tunnelling equipment.
Here, it is taking the form of mechanical moles : large boring
machines operated by 2 to 3 men. The front face plate is
circular, its diameter establishmg the size of the tunnel, and
rotates about a horizontal axis; it is studded with a large
number of individual cutting heads whichvaryinsize,
shape, and design, depending upon the material being ex-
cavated. Hydraulic jacks anchorthe mole to the sides of the
tunnel, permitting forward thrusts on the face plate in the
million pound range from another piston system.After
5 to 15 feet of travel the face is withdrawn and the jacks are
retracted to permit advance of the entire rig; the jacks are
then reset and the cutting process is resumed. Fine par-
ticulate muck is produced continuously during the boring
cycle. Frequently water is also sprayed on the face of the
tunnel, to control the dust generated by the cutting, so the
muck-water slurry or mud is collected and removed by
pipes or conveyors to the dump buggies behind the mole.
When cutting progress is good, sometimes the rate of muck
production becomes high enough to choke the removal sys-
tem. If the capacity is adequate, however, and if other condi-
tions are favorable, very impressive tunnelling rates can be
achieved: the current record is nearly 400 feet in one full
day, on a 30-foot diameter water tunnel.
As mentioned previously, the excavating consumes about
60 percent of the total direct cost of a tunnel project. A mole
can reduce this component by as much as 25 to 35 percent,
compared to the conventional process of drill, blast, and
muck. With total costs in the 10 million dollars per mile
range, such reductions are obviously attractive; the speedup
in overall project time also has great advantages.
538 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, APRIL 1968

Amachine-bored tunnel has other good features. Its u = nc202/E (1)

cross section is circular, the wall is smooth, and the sur-
where
rounding rock has not been damaged by repeated explo-
sions. All of these factors make the lining process much u = excess elastic energy
easier and faster and, in some cases of verysound rock, un- c =length of crack
necessary. The samegeneral comments applyto the shoring Q=nominal tensile stress in plate
and bracing operations: after boring, the tunnel is cleaner, E =modulus of elasticity of plate material.
more regular in size and shape, and all thesubsequent
If the crack is formed by the actionof the externally applied
operations arefacilitated.
force, the work absorbed by the process is given by:
With such pronounced advantages, why isn't machine
boring of tunnels more widely used? Onereason is that the w = 2yc
whole idea is still quite new; producers of the moles are
where y is the surface energy of the solid per unit area.
relatively few in number, research and development in the
The crack will rapidly propagate with no hrther increase
art is relatively scarce, and costs mount so fiercely when a
in external force whenthe rateof release of the elastic strain
construction project isdelayed that the opportunity for
energy in the plate is equal to the rateof increase in surface
realistic field trials and studies is not too common. Despite
energyof the crack, represented by its growth in area.
these obstacles, however, encouraging progress isbeing
Analytically this can be expressedas follows :
made andseveral agencies ofthe national government have
demonstrated muchvision andsupport in their tunnel d 7r2c02
procurement practices by orienting them to encourage -(u-w)=--2y=O
machine methods.
E dc
A second reason may be more difficult to overcome: to or
date, mechanicalmoles have not worked well in hard rock.
Cutters wear rapidly and break, bearings fail, thrust ca- o = JzEr/... (4)
pacities are inadequate, total power requirements are ex-
cessive, andmachinemaintenance and down-time costs By this criterion, the observed tensile strength o is lower
become prohibitive. Put simply, hard rock thusfar has been than theideal stress which the internal bonding forces inthe
too strong for the moles to overcome. The drill, blast, and material can resist because of such flaws. Thus, it should be
muck methods remain faster and cheaper. In response to possible to further reduce thetensile strength by enlarging
this situation, two avenues arebeing explored : the improve- the cracks or by making them more effective. Impressive
ment of mole and cutter design, construction, and opera- demonstrations of this latterpointare available in the
tion, and a search for effective waysto rapidly degrade hard literature for various materials. Freshly drawn glass fibers
rock to the quality of sandstone or soft limestone, which the have much higher tensile strength than aged fibers in which
moles can now penetrate successfully. We have been doing some environmental corrosion has occurred. Further, con-
research on the second topic and some of our preliminary tamination of glassrods with surface-active materials results
results have been encouraging. in lower bending strengths while no change in strength is ob-
served when the contamination is applied only to the com-
METHODS FOR WEAKENING HARD ROCK pressed side of the rod.
The difference between the theoretical and actual The Griffith theory can also be used to estimate the limit-
strengths of brittle materials can be explainedby the theory ing stresses required for fracture in two-dimensional states
of Griffith,['' who stated that brittle materials fail by the of stress, and extensions of it to special cases involvingthree
growth of small, randomly oriented cracks which either dimensions have shown that only thevalue of the constant in
exist naturally in a material or are formed in it by the ap- (4) changes. This suggests it isvalid for general three-
plied load interacting with the surrounding environment. dimensional stress states. Thus, the theory rationalizes the
The cracks produce a stress concentration at their tips, observed tensile strength of a brittle material in terms of
locally reaching the theoretical cohesive strength of the inherent flaw or crack size, the elastic modulus, and the
material, though the nominal stress throughout thebulk of surface energy of the material. With it,it also is possible to
the sample remains low. When one such crack reaches a predict the orientationof those cracks which will grow and
critical size, catastrophic fracture ensues. The model can lead to fractureof the material in a known stress state.
be idealizedby considering a flat, elliptically shaped crack of Successful application of the Griffith theory to the study
length c, located in an infinite plate of unit thickness which of rock fractureis reported by many investigators. A modi-
sustains a tensile stress perpendicular to the major axis of fication recentlysuggested by McClintockand WalshL3I
the crack. By using the Inglis[2] calculation for the stress has extended it to include the effects of crack closure in
distributionaroundan elliptic hole in a stressed plate, compression where frictional effects between internal sur-
Griffith determined the excess elastic energy in the plate faces operate; this has shown a good correlation with the
with a crack compared to the sameplate without one, and compressivestrength of a variety of rocks when testedunder
found
be: it to triaial stress conditions. Their affirms
work rockthat
 McGARRY:UNDERGROUND TUNNELS 539

TABLE I
PROPERTIE4 OF ROCKS

Danby
marble*
Chelmsford granitet Fordham
gneiss
Manhattan
schist

Principal constituents quartz, Feldspar, Calcite

muscovite, biotite
Density ( p / c m 3 ) 2.73 2.61
Porosity 0.48 1.51-1.62
y Color Light White
Absorption by weight, 48 hours 0.120 0.32
Thermal conductivity (calories/cm/h/cm2/T) 185
Minimum
abrasive
hardness
coefficient 10.6
strength Compressive (kg/rm2) 1700: 740
192511
Modulus of rupture (kp/cxn2)
Minimum 104% 87.5 97.7
Maximum
Modulus of elasticity (kg/cm2)
Minimum 5.18 x 105 1.19 x 105 5.37 x 105 4.76 x 105
2.31 Maximum 89 x 105 x lo4 12.6 x 105
Shear strength (kg/rcm2)
Minimum 161

* Data obtained from the Vermont MarbleCo.

Data obtained from Kessleret
1Perpendicularto rift.
11 Parallel to rift.
0 Obtained from beam specimens.

fracture alwaysis initiated by tensile stresses acting locally insure that the blocks had not been severely damaged by
at crack tips, irrespective of the character of the macro- blasting. Typical properties of these rocks are presented in
scopic stress system applied. Table I.
Referring again to (4), brittle fracture in rock can be
propagated either by an increase in the applied tensile stress METHODS
CHEMICAL

or by a reduction in the tensile strength of the material. The
latter can be achieved by an increase in the size of the in-
herent flaws present or by a reduction in the surface energy
of the solid. Such areduction in surface energy can be pro-
duced by the use of surface-active agents to locally change
the environment in which fracture takes place.
At present, theconventional excavating technique of
drilling and blasting utilizes the principle of applying
stresses in excess of rock strengths to produce fracture and
disintegration. Some more novel methods involving ther-
mal, electrical, or sonic energy for fracture of rock masses
are also based on the principle of inducing sufficient stresses
to overcome the strength of the material. Little attention has
been paid to the possibility that the fracture and disintegra-
tion of rock masses may be achieved more efficiently by a
reduction in their tensile strength which is inherently less
than the compressive strength. Thus, one purpose of this
research has been to find ways to lower the tensile strength
of rock by control of inherent flaw size, surface energy, or
extent of the volume affected by crack propagation.
In selecting the rocks to be studied, attempts were made
to use the types encountered between Washington, D. C.,
and Boston. These include Chelmsford granite, Danby
marble, Fordham gneiss, andManhattan schist. The
Chelmsford graniteand Vermont marble are commercially
quarried and therefore were readily available. Blocks of the
other two types werefound on construction sites in the New
York metropolitan area. Thesites were carefully selectedto
Most of the previous experimental work onthe effects of
chemical environment on the brittle failure of materials
has utilized the phenomenon of delayed fracture in which
materials such as glass, rock, and brittle polymers ulti-
mately fracture under stresses appreciably less than their
instantaneous fracture strength. The delayed fracture ex-
periment consists of loading a sample underdifferent dead
loads and observing the time interval necessary for failure
to occur. From the earliest studies, delayed fracture has
beenrecognized to behighlysensitive to environment.
Milligan[’] in 1929 reported that alcohols and water influ-
enced the strength and time-to-failure for a glass. Holland
and Turnerf6] in 1940 showed that delayed fracture data
could be approximated by the equation :
log t = A log 0 +K (5)
where
t = time
0= applied stress
A, K =constants.
The first rational explanation of delayed fracture was sug-
gested by the Griffith criterion for brittle fracture. Orowan[’]
in 1944 proposed that the lowering of fracture strength was
caused by the adsorption of foreign atoms on the critical
flaw surface. Since the surface energy y would be lowered
by this process, the fracture stress given by (4) would be
accordingly reduced. The theory, however, proposesno
540 PROCEEDINGS
APRIL OF THE IEEE, 1%8

suitable mechanism for the observed timedependence of the lowing a freshly formed flaw to age under zero stress would
fracture. have the effect of diminishing the stress concentration factor.
A second basic mechanism was suggested by the work of Charles and Hillig derived a relation for the time to failure
Preston et a1.[*]in 1946, who
showed that : in a delayed fracture experiment :
The delayed fracture effect in some glasses could be
noticed at times as short as 10 seconds.
t = cS2G(BpS)exp
[-(r-g)]
V*pS (8)

Water vapor was primarily responsible for the weak-

ening. where
The sensitivity of a glass to delayed fracture increased t = time to failure
with the alkali content. c =crack length
The relationship S = nominal stress
log t = K / o +C (6) G(BpS)= slowly varying function
B = numerical constant
where ,u= stress concentration factor
t = time y = surface free energy
a = stress V ,= molar volume
K, C = constants p = radius of curvature atcrack tip.

could describe the data. For this experiment, called a static fatigue test, the Charles
Some aggressive surface pretreatments could increase and Hillig relationship successfully predicts the behavior of
the delayed fracture strength due toa polishing action materials for loads of at least half the breaking stress, but at
at the crack tips. lower stresses the material usually shows a fatigue limit
The main mechanism leading to delayed fracture is whichis the stress that many materials will support in-
a destructive reaction at the tip of a flaw involving definitely without breaking.
water vapor and components of the glass.
- The importance of this theory to rock fracture can be
determined by the relative effect of different treatments. The
in 1958 proposed a stress-activated corrosion
parameters which should most affect the process of stress-
mechanism for glass involving an autocatalytic reaction of
activated corrosion are, in order of their importance :
sodium ions, the silica chain, and water. In the subsequent
theory of Charles and Hillig,["] delayed fracture was held to 1) temperature
be the consequence of a surfacecontrolled corrosion reac- 2) complexing or precipitating agents
tion whose rate is determined by the tensile stresses and 3) solvent power of chemicals
chemical potentials at the flaw tip. When the corrosion rate 4) surface energy lowering by chemicals.
is not stress dependent, the geometry changes as the crack
lengthens, the flaw tip becomes blunted, and the stress con- The interdependenceof chemical and thermal treatments
centration factor diminishes. When the tip of the crack is in the stress corrosion hypothesis offers a means of discrimi-
under high stress, the crack geometry is preserved, and the nating between the reasons the thermal and chemical treat-
flaw lengthens while maintaining atomic sharpness. At the ments are effective and canlead to a choice of moreeffective
intermediate stress levels, the crack will grow but does not treatments toaccelerate rock fracture.
sharpen enoughto become critical. This correspondsto the Table I1 contains a list of 15 chemicals used to treat the
situation at or below the fatigue limit. The rate of crack samples. A short description of each and the primary rea-
growth is given by an expression of the form: sons for its effectiveness are given.Allof the chemicals
listed, except acetone, were in a water solution as noted in
V(a) = V, exp (oV*/RT) (7)
the second column of the table. The chemicals were added
where to the samplesby soaking foras long as oneweek, although
the fracture strength of the beam sampleswas not affected
V(a) =rate of crack growth
by the soakingtimes covered by the experiments(2 minutes
V, = growth rate at zero stress
to 6 days). All ofthe chemicalslowered the fracture strength,
V * =an activation volume
but the method of application can greatly influence their
R = universal gas constant
effect. Preliminaryexperimentswiththemost effective
T = absolute temperature.
chemicalshaveshownvacuum techniques or ultrasonic
Their complete model includes a secondary factor due to vibrations are most effective in lowering the input energy
the chemical effect of the concave surface at the tip of the necessary to break granite beams. If a fore-pump vacuum
crack. This opposes the tensile stress at the crack tip and is first pulled on granite before aluminum chloride solution
is directly proportional to thesurface energy of the solid in is added, the input energy is reduced from 4.7 x lo5 ergs to
the presence of the chemical agent. Reducing the surface 3.4 x lo5 ergs. The application of ultrasonic energy during
energy has the effect of lowering the fracture strength. Al- the soaking bathand during mechanical testing also lowers
McGARRY:UNDERGROUND TUNNELS 54 1

TABLE I1
Llsr OF Ckwcm AGENTSAND DESCRIPTION

effect
Reagent
% Concentration
Possible Description
in H,O
Distilled water - HZ0 Dissolution
Acetone Pure acetone Dimethyl ketone Dissolution
Sodium hydroxide 0.05 NaOH Dissolution
Aluminum chloride 0.1 AICI, . 6 H 2 0 Chemical attack or dissolution
Armeen 8D octaylemin 1.O Quaternary amine Surface energy reduction+ possible chemical attack
Alipal C0-436 1 .o Quaternary amine
Arquad 2C-75 1.O Quaternary amine
FC170 1 .o + solubilizing group
Contains a relatively fluorinated
FX 172 1 .o
Zonyl S-13 0.1 Fluorochemical
surfactantfluoroalkyl
phosphate
free acid
Zonyl A 0.1 Fluorochemical surfactant nonionic
Z 6020 silane 0.1 An amino functional compound (coupling agent)
A 11 10 silane 0.1
A 1120 silane 0.1
A 187 silane 0.1 Epoxy functional silane (coupling agent)

the input energy required for fracture. Theadditionof
chemical treatments to schist and gneiss has shown sizable
reductions in the input energy. The input energy for un-
treated schist and gneiss showedmore scatter thanfor
granite or marble but there is an average of 1.8 x lo6 ergs
for untreated schist beams. Distilled watermade little
change in this value (down to 1.3 x lo6 ergs), butboth
aluminum chloride and sodium chloride solutions lowered
the input energy to 8 x lo5 ergs. Gneiss showed less effect,
going from an untreated value of 7 x io5 ergs to 5.5 x io5
ergs for both a silane and an aluminum chloride solution
treatment.
THERMALMETHODS
The use of heat to break rock hasbeen known from antiq-
uity. There exist very large underground mines and tunnels
which were made overa thousand years ago by the applica-
tion of fire to the rocksurface. In some instances, the heating
was followed by quenching but it does not appear to have
been necessary in others.
Three different methods of thermal treatment have been
shown to be effective on the strength of brittle materials.
The one most widely studied is that of thermal shock, where
a body is suddenly subjected to a surface heating or cooling.
The thermal shock experiments usually take the sample to a
point where it shows macroscopic fracture (i.e., spalling).
The second methodof thermal treatmentsubjects the sam-
ples to one or morecycles of heating and cooling, short of
failure. This treatment weakens thematerial, but does not
cause any macroscopic damage. Finally, there are thermal
treatmentsperformed in conjunctionwithmechanical
loading. These are used to test the high- or low-temperature
strength of materials. This test does not employ sudden
changes of heat flux, but ratherconcentrates on determining
the importanceof thermally activated processes in mechani-
cal deformation. The thermaltreatments used in this study
have been of all three types.
In order to determinethe effect of thermal treatments on
the fracture strength of the rocks, specimens were heated
prior to the testing. The specimens were subjected to three
differenttemperatures--540"C,1280"C, and 1800°C-for
exposure times varying from 10 seconds to 50 minutes.
After heating, the specimens were either placed in ice water
or cooled at room temperaturefor 24 hours, and thentested.
The heating at 540°C was achievedby placing the specimens
in an oven for the spec%ed exposure time, while at 1280°C
and 1800°C the heat was applied using an oxygen-gas torch.
It was readily apparent thatsubstantial weakening occurred
in all treatments imposed on granite, marble, gneiss, and
schist samples, and that heating represents a very effective
way ofweakening rocks with modestuses of thermal energy.
Microscopic investigation shows that the thermaltreat-
ments greatly increase the amount of cracking in the sam-
ples prior to mechanical testing. The subsequent mechani-
cal test primarily serves to open the existent cracks.
In analyzing the phenomena of weakening and/or frac-
turing of rock by heat, two differentassumptions areusually
made :
1) The material is completelyhomogeneous and the
damage depends only upon thermally induced shock and
the resulting stress distribution.
2) The material is granular and its response reflects the
characteristics of the constituent grains, and the result of
their reactions, rather than that of the rock mass.
Viewing the problem macroscopically, the parameters
affecting the thermal shockresistance of rocks are strength,
modulus of elasticity, Poisson's ratio, coefficient of thermal
expansion, porosity, and density. If tests are conducted on
laboratory samples, specimen sizeand shapewill also affect
the results. The results of a thermal shock test are also
altered greatly by the heat application procedure andby the
quenching procedure if the specimen is quenched rapidly
after heating.
Themechanism of thermalfracture of rocks, onthe
macroscopic scale, is dependent upon a thermally induced
542
stress which will exceed the ultimate strength of the rock.
The driving force for propagation of cracks is provided by
the elastic energy stored in the specimen at the instant of
fracture. The mechanism of energy dissipation which tends
to arrest propagating cracks is the effective surface energy
required to produce the newly formed crack surfaces.
Another approach tothe problem is to analyze it on the
microscopic level. Generally, the weakening effect
of
quenching after heating has seemed to obscure the fact that
heating alone is effective so the study of heating degrada-
tion alone has become secondary to the development of
combined heating and quenching operations. Many rocks
are altered in some fashion by heating; even if not quenched,
they are weakened and do not regain their strength after
slow cooling. In almost all cases, it appears thata combina-
tion of several mechanisms is responsible. These are :
I) Intergranular separation due to phase transformation.
Polymorphic phase transformations could force adjacent
grains in a rock to part alongtheir boundary.
2 ) Gross chemical changes. Holman[’ ‘I has observed
chemical changes in heat-treated quartz. The most notice-
able change after heat treatment of quartz specimens in
furnaces was the lack of “ring” when tapped and the easily
detected crunchingsoundheard when such pieceswere
pressed between the finger and thumb. He also noted that
heat-treated quartz hada higher rate ofsolubility in hydro-
fluoric acid. He suggested that this difference in chemical
behavior was a sign of molecular change:the fact that heat-
treated specimens could be manually crushed and passed
through a 30-mesh sieveafter heat treatment was an indica-
tion of molecular debonding.
3) Intergranular corrosion. This has beensuggested as
a cause of thermal weakening of rock, since it can be a
major causeof weakening inother polycrystalline materials,
especially metals.
4) Intergranular separations due to anisotropic heat
transfer. The anisotropic heat transfer mechanism postu-
lates that adjacent grains achieve markedly different tem-
peratures during heating, because of directional conduc-
tivity properties.
5 ) Gas or water pocket expansion. Gas or water pocket
expansion couldeasily cause fracturein a rock. It would be
accompanied by fragmentation of the specimens and by the
noise of small explosions.
6) Spalling. The spalling mechanismcan be observed
when rocks have low thermal conductivity and appreciable
thermal expansion. Such a process depends onthe tempera-
ture gradients established, which will be determined by the
heating rate. Spalling could also be caused by high aniso-
tropyand/or low thermal conductivity. Freeman[’21ob-
served that rocks containing abundant quantities of quartz
are highly spallable.
7) Intergranular separations due to anisotropic thermal
expansions. Differential thermalexpansion of adjacent
grains in a rock could force them to separate along their
grain boundaries. Since anisotropic responses to heating
have been shown to exist in most rocks, it seems probable
PROCEEDINGS
APRIL OF THE IEEE, 1%8
that this mechanism is responsible for the effect. If the rate
of heating of an isotropic grain is slow enough to avoid a
large temperature gradient each grain expands equally in
all directions and there is no differential movement among
them. On cooling, the aggregate returns to its normal size
and shape. If the rateof heating is rapid enough to produce
a large temperature gradient, some grains expandmore
rapidly than othersresulting in dflerential movement which
may cause the formation of intergranular spaces. When an
aggregate of nonisotropic grains is heated, the grains ex-
pand differently in different directions and push each other
apart with the resultant formation of open cracks. Upon
cooling, the cracks never disappear; there is a permanent
change in dimensions. If the aggregate is heated a second
time, there is usually a small amount of new differential
motion resulting in an additional permanent expansion,
though not so large as observed on thefirst cycle.
The relative importance of each ofthese mechanisms
is dependent upon the nature of the rock andthe manner in
which the heat is applied.
The invention of lasers and their subsequent development
has provided another way to generate and transmit high
heat fluxes. There are two basic types of lasers and they
operate in different regimes of efficiency. One, using elec-
tronic transitions in gases,, liquids, or solids, exhibits ap-
proximately 0.1 to 1 percent efficiency. The second type
shows as much as 15 percent efficiency by utilizing vibra-
tional-rotational transitions in a molecular gas; the work
reported here has utilized the latter type. The gas mixture is
ionized as it enters the tube by a cold-cathode electrical dis-
charge caused by placing a high voltage between the input
and output ports. The highest power is presently achieved
by running a discharge in a flowing gasmixture of CO2-N,-
He. In general, the gas laser tubes are simply constructed
with Pyrex tubing, glass-to-metal seals on each end, and
appropriatemounts for mirrors. The tube iscooledby
means of an external water jacket. The three gases are stan-
dard tank grade, fed to a mixing chamber through appro-
priate valves and pumped throughthe tube with a mechani-
cal pump. Thenecessity for using a flow system is caused by
the dissociation of the molecular gases. The optical cavity
consists of a polished concave metal mirror at one end and
an infrared transmitting window at the other end.
The lasing action utilizing the vibrational-rotational
transitions of CO, in an electrical discharge was described
in detail by Patel.[13] Shortly thereafter Patel[’41achieved
progress toward high powerand efficiencyby adding
molecular nitrogen N,, and Moeller and Rigden[”] im-
proved it further with the addition of He. N, improves the
efficiency because it supplies the population inversion of
CO, molecules in the (001) level. The lowest vibrational
energylevel of the nitrogen molecule matches the (001)
level of CO, within 0.002 electron volt.In an electrical
discharge, the nitrogen vibration levels are excited to a very
high degree. When they are mixed with CO,, there is a
collisional resonant transfer leading to a very efficientexcita-
tion of the upper level (001). The addition of helium gas is
McGARRY: TUNNELS
quite effective in increasing the available output power for
the following reasons: 1) helium provides a good thermal
contact of the C 0 2 rotational levels with the tube wall so
the effective rotational temperature is low, 2) it provides a
cross relaxation between the rotational energylevels so
that they all may be effective for lasing out of one level, and
3) it provides a collisional de-excitation of the lower laser
level (100) to the nearby bending mode (020).
The gas laser used in this study was developed in the
Raytheon Research Laboratory under the supervision of
Dr. D. R. Whitehouse. It uses a combination of carbon
dioxide, nitrogen, and helium, as mentioned above. It is
rated at one-kilowatt output, operates continuously, and
produces infrared radiation of 10.6-micron wavelength.
(The power of gas lasers is directly proportional to their
length and the laser used in these experiments was 20
meters long folded once back upon itself in the form of a
“U.” The concept of folding can eventually lead to more
compact units which could be of importance in excavation
and tunnelling applications.)
In order to study the effectiveness of radiation in reduc-
ing the strength of hard rocks, beam and block specimens
of marble andgranite were subjected to infrared laser expo-
sure. In the case of the flexural beam specimens, both
focused and unfocused radiation was applied at the mid-
span of the samples for durations of 1, 3, 5,10, and 30
seconds, with a power levelof approximately 750 watts.
Blocks (1 2 by 12 by 6 inches) of marble and granite were
also subjected to concentrated unfocused radiation.The
unfocused radiation beam was 3 centimeters in diameter
and the focused beam approximately 0.3 centimeter. The
blocks were’then cut into beams of standard size (1 by 1 by
12 inches) after radiation and subjected to bending tests,
with the treated face intension. The effective fracture surface
work was determined by measuring the area under the
load-deflection curve obtained from the bending test.
Polished sections were prepared for microscopic examina-
tion of the internal cracking. It was generally observed that
the extent of damage is related to the exposure time of
irradiation. Visual examination of the specimens showed
that the focused radiation caused partial melting and vapori-
zation since there were relatively thick regions of vitreous
material around the exposed area. Similar examinations of
thegraniteandmarble samples subjected to unfocused
radiation showed pulverization and fragmentation of the
rock with little glass formation. From the results of this
study the unfocused radiation appears to be more effective
than the focused case. Under focused radiation the high
temperatures generated in the rock specimens result in
substantial wasted energy through reradiation by the mate-
rial, and the vitreous zones formed around the cut in the
focused case are potentially as strongas the rock from which
they were formed.
Examination of the samples brought to cohesive failure
after laser radiation shows the damage mechanism is not
simply surfkial, since sigmfkant strength losses appear to
occur deep within the body of the sample. This indicates
543
that the damage probably occurs in the granular micro-
structure in a manner similar to damage from gas-flame
heating. The time required to cause equivalent damage,
however, has been shortened considerably in going from a
gas flame to a laser. The extent of damage, for both granite
andmarble specimens, appears to beverysevere under
short exposures of 3 to 5 seconds. This is demonstrated by
substantial reductions in the maximum loads required to
cause failure : for anexposure time of fiveseconds, the maxi-
mum load required to failure is reduced from 65 kilograms
to 10 kilograms for granite specimens, and from 75 kilo-
grams to 0 for marble specimens. The presence of the in-
ternal cracking in the rock samples has a drastic effect on
the flexural strength of the beams.
CONCLUSIONS
The use of surface-active agents or very rapid heating to
rapidly and drastically reduce the strength of hard rock
has given initial results which are encouraging. Certain
waterborne nontoxic chemicals reduce the strength, and the
energy required to produce fracture, by as much as 50 per-
cent. The degradations produced by laser irradiation for a
few seconds time are spectacular : strength and energy reduc-
tions of an order of magnitude are easily obtained. The
prospect of developing a hybrid tunnelling machine in-
corporatingsurfactantaction, laser irradiation,and me-
chanical fracturing of the softened rock has some attractive
potentials. It can be argued that present laser hardware is
far too complex and delicate for use in a construction en-
vironment. This is true now, but very substantial efforts are
currently being devoted to laser science and technology
and it is reasonable to expect significant gains in power out-
put, efficiency, and simplicity in the next few years. These
may make possible large improvements in mole effective-
ness in tunnelling through hard rock.Work to thatpurpose
is continuing.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
M. Miller and W. N. Lucke of the Office of High-speed
Ground Transport, U. S . Department of Transportation,
have beenespecially helpful. Participants in the actual
research have included Profs. F. Moavenzadeh and R. B.
Williamson of the M.I.T. Civil Engineering Department.
Their help, and the assistance of innumerable individuals in
the tunnelling field, isgratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
[11 A. A. Griffith, “The theory of rupture,” Proc. 1st Internat’l Cong.
Appl. Mech.(Delft), p. 55, 1924.
[’I C. E. Inglis, “Stresses in a plate due to the presence of cracks and
sharpcurves,’’ Proc.Inst. NavalArchitects (London), vol. 55, p. 218,
March 11, 1913.
[’I F. A.McClintock and J. B. Walsh, “Friction on G f i t h ’ s cracks in
rocks under pressure,” Proc. 4th U. S. Nat’l Cong. Appl. Mech., vol. 2,
p. 1015, 1963.
14] D. W. Kessler, H. Insley, andW. H. Sligh, “Physical, mineralogical,
and durability studies on the building and monumental granites of the
United States,” J . Research NBS, vol. 25, paper Rp1320, August 1940.
l5] L. H. Milligan, “The strength of glass containing cracks,” J. SOC.
Glass Tech., vol. 13, p. 351, 1929.
16] A. J. Holland and W. E. S. Turner, “The effect of sustained loading
544 PROCEEDINGS
THE OF 56,IEEE, VOL. NO. 4, APRIL 1968

on the breaking strength of sheet glass,” J. Soc. Glms Tech., vol. 24, p, [Iow1 W. B. Hillig, “Sources ofweakness and the ultimate strengthof
46,1940. brittle amorphous solids,” inModem Aspects of the Vitreous State, J. D.
[’I E. Orowan, “Fatigue of glass under stress,” Nature (London), vol. MacKenzie, Ed. New York: Buttenvorths, 1962, p. 152.
154, p. 341, 1944. B. W. Holman, “Heat treatment as an agent in rock breaking,”
t8(’)1 T.C. Baker, F. W. Preston, and J. L. Glathart, “Wide range Inst. Mining &Met. (London), vol.36, p. 219,1927.
static strength testing apparatus for glass rods,” J. Appl. Phys., vol. 17, D. C. Freeman, Jr., J. A. Sawdye, and F. A. Mumpton, “Mecha-
p. 163, March 1946. nism of thermal spalling in rocks,” Quart. Colo. School of Mines, vol. 58,
-, “Fatigue of glassunder static loads,”J.Appl. Phys.,vol. 17, p. 225, October 1963.
p. 171, March 1946. C.K.N.Patel,“Continuous-wavelaseractiononvibrational-
ts(c)l -, “Effect of water on the strength of glass,” J. Appl. Phys., rotational transactions of CO,,” Phys. Rev., vol. 136, p. 1187, November
vol. 17, p. 179,March 1946. 1964.
R. J. Charles, “Static fatigue
of glass (partsI and II),” J. Appl. Phys., [I41 - , “CW high power N , C 0 2 laser,” Appl. Phys. Letters, vol.
vol. 29, pp. 1549-1560, November 1958. 7, p. 15, July 1965.
[10(a)1 - , “A review of glass strength,” in Progress in Ceramic [I5] G. Moeller and J. D. Rigden, “High-power laser action in C0,-He
Science, J. E. Burke, Ed. New York: Pergamon Press, 1961, p. 1. mixtures,” Appl. Phys. Letters,vol. 7, p. 274, November 1%5.

Communication and Control for Transportation

HAROLDCHESTNUT, FELLOW, IEEE, JAMESR.WHITTEN, IEEE,
MEMBER,
W. A. LANZA, AND T. J.WARRICK, SENIOR MEMBER,
IEEE

Absrracr-CommrmicPtioation and control represent a small bot important RANSPORTATION isbasically an energy process
part of the o v d trrusportntion probelm. m
l
ctm
o
n
it
rootrddifrerdependingonwhether~seqorairtransportntionisio-
*
Awollgh and for moving people and/or things from one place to
volved, there are broad areas of similnrities between many of the priaciples another quickly, safely, and comfortably, and at a
beingppQdforfheSea~~despitethedifrerencesmtheeq~and cost that is acceptable. Considering that the transportation
detailed practice employed. may be on land, sea, or air, or a combinationthereof, one
C o n t r o l i s d t o r e f e r t o s l l f h v n r i e d m ~ ~ t h e c o n t r o l o f t h e realizes that the range of vehicle speeds, passenger handling
tradation and rotation of a single vehicle and its sssoeiated stability,the capacity, andnumber of vehiclesinvolvedmayvary
control of tbe propukia plant, the control of the necessary aevilinries of
voltage, temperature, pressare, etc., and the control of multiple vehides by broadly.[’] Therefore, it is reasonable to suppose that the
eitherloePlorceatrPlizodmethods.Attentionis~ven~mthispPper problems of communication and control will likewise take
to each of these aspects of controL Many of theprinciples involved are ill- on a number of different characeristics depending on the
trated in more detail ekewhere in this issae where specific transportation form of the vehicle, the nature of the power plant, and the
control systems are described. particular environment in which it operates.[21 It willbe
Communication is d to refer to the meam for t y i q together the differ-
ent parts of the transportation system locatedat different places bot sharing a
the purpose of this paper to present some of the communica-
common set of facilities at similar or different periods of time. Commrmiep- tion and controlconditions which are tobe found for these
tion is required to provide adeqoate minfomation aboot such coaditioas various transportation situations.
as the position, velocity, a d acceleration of the vpriols vehicles involved in The term control as used in a transportation sense may
the system. Communication also may be required to estnMish guideways refer to control of a number of related but different things.
for the plane, ship,trpisor car to move by. For multiple vehicles,commrmiep-
tion is needed to exchange information between the control center and each It can mean the control of the translation and rotation of an
of the vehicles concerned. individual vehicle with its associated stability character-
Commrmieptioo and control can have a vital d e on socb overall char- i s t i c ~ . [It ~ ]can refer to control of the power plant of the
acteristics of a transportation system as safety, capacity, reliability, speed, vehicle and thevarious auxiliaries associated with the power
and economy. It is in tbe lieids of control and commlmicptioa for multiple plant. Control can also pertain to other vehicle character-
vehides that the greatest effort will be required in the immediate m e .
istics as they affect passengers and/or cargo in the sense of
safety and comfort.
Manuscript received January 4, 1968; revised February 12, 1%8.
H. Chestnut and J. R. Whitten withare the Research and Development Another aspect of control in.a systems sense is the con-
Center, General Electric Company, Schenectady, N. Y. trol of multiple vehicles, as for example with respect to a
W. A. L am is deceased. Hewas with the Research and Development local on-board methodof control orwith respectto aremote
Center, General Electric Company.
T. J. Warrick is with the Transportation Systems Division, General and centralized method of overall system control.[4] In
Electric Company, Erie, Pa. addition tothe direct control through amplifiers and actua-