BASIC STATISTICAL TESTS

1. Z- TEST FOR SINGLE AND LARGE SAMPLES

(n more than 30, assumed normal distribution of samples)
Z test is a parametric test for single and large sample that is appropriately used when the sample size of the
observation is 30 or more and is only in one sample group. The data distribution is assumed to be normal or
following a bell shape distribution. The data measurement should be at least interval (or ratio) and there is a
criterion given where the population mean can be estimated or drawn from and there is only one variable to be
tested.

Situation: Mrs. Cruz, the Personnel Officer of Digital Consulting, Inc. administered a managerial
Skills test to the section heads and supervisors after the seminar or management concept and skills. The
examination was conducted to determine how much the participants have learned in terms of concepts and skills
on management. The test had 70 items and the passing score was set at 75 percent performance. The 64
participants obtained a mean score of 57.4 with a standard deviation of 11.2. Test the hypothesis that the
participants have come with the expected performance target and find out their level of performance in the
examination at 0.05 level of significance.

Problem Statement (Only need to provide one): What is the performance of the section heads and supervisors in
the examination on management concepts and skills?

Conclusion: They have achieved more than the expected 75% performance target.

2. T- TEST FOR SINGLE AND SMALL SAMPLES

(n<30, still assumed normal distribution of samples)
T- test for single and small sample is appropriately used when the sample size pf the observation is less than 30
and is only one group. The data distribution is assumed to be normal or following a bell shape distribution. The
data measurement should be at least interval and there is a criterion given where the population mean can be
estimated or drawn from and there is only one variable to be tested.

Situation: At the university word processing computer literacy class, the instructor claims that students who
regularly attend a half-semester class (from start of classes to midterm period) can type on the average about
1,200 words an hour. A random sample of 25 students, who attended the literacy class revealed that on the
average, they can type 1,125 words with SD= 85 words. Assuming that the typing speed for all students who
attended the word processing computer literacy class have an approximately normal distribution, can you
conclude that the claim of the instructor is true at 0.05 level of significance?

3. T- TEST OF TWO INDEPENDENT SAMPLE

With normal distribution and qualitative variable and with two groups.

Situation: The Dean of College of Arts and Sciences of the university was amazed to find out that there were more
female students majoring in mathematics. Their choice of majors was based on an aptitude test. Because of this
observation, he wanted to find out if gender has an influence on the achievement of the mathematics among the
math major students. He got hold of the test results in basic math and compared the mean scores between male
and female students. Test the hypothesis of no significant difference between the male and female score
(achievement) in mathematics at ?=0.05 using the data below.

Problem Statement: Is there a significant difference in the basic math achievement between male and female
students majoring in mathematics?
Conclusion: Gender had no influence on the mathematics achievement of the students. It can be said that males
achieve as much as female students in mathematics.

4. T- TEST OF TWO CORRELATED SAMPLES OR T-TEST FOR PAIRED/MATCHED SAMPLES

This test statistic is commonly used in experimental research, where an intervention or treatment is applied such
as new method of teaching to improve students’ performance using information technology (IT), a counseling
program aimed at reducing stress level of patients or a new weight lose exercise program. Two samples are said
to be paired or matched samples when for each data values collected from one sample, there is a corresponding
data value collected from the second sample, and both these data values are collected from the same source.
Any significant change (improvement or reduction) in the measured variable after the treatment is attributed to
the effectiveness of the applied intervention. The data measurement required for this test is either interval or
ratio.

Situation: A certain Music Teacher of City Central School wanted to find out if her method of teaching music was
effective. She administered a test in music in June and administered the same test at the end of the first grading
period. The new method called Kudali approach is teaching music using indigenous musical instruments made
from bamboos or wood. Music concepts were introduced using indigenous concepts of music from our ancestors
or from several ethnic groups. Fifteen pupils were selected at random. Test the hypothesis of no significant
improvement in the pupils’ scores from the pre-test to the post-test.

Problem Statement: Is there a significant improvement of the students’ music scores from the pre-test to the
post-test?

Conclusion: The Kudali approach was an effective approach in the teaching of music among the grade six pupils.

5. CHI- SQUARE TEST OF GOODNESS OF FIT

Chi-square goodness-of-it test is always a right-tailed test. Whether or not the Ho is rejected depends on how
much the observed and expected frequencies significantly differ from each other. It should be noted that to make
a goodness-of-fit test, the sample size should be large enough so that the expected frequency for each category
is at least five.
For an experiment/ research follow a certain pattern or theoretical distribution.

Situation: Equal Expected Frequency

A random sample of 120 high school teachers was drawn form a Cebuano population. The sample teachers were
asked to rate the job satisfaction items using the Likert scale. The self-perceptions made by the subjects were
categorized into three satisfaction levels. The resulting data of teachers’ degree of job satisfaction as very
satisfied, satisfied, and less satisfied.
Test the null hypothesis that the relative frequency of teachers who are very satisfied is the same as those who
are satisfied or less satisfied. What do the results indicate?

Problem Statement: Is there a significant difference between the observed frequency and expected frequency of
the teachers’ job satisfaction groups? Different medications for the same ailments. The data below show the
number of average days it took the patients to recover from the start of ailment. Is there enough evidence to
conclude that there was significant difference (α= 0.01) in the number of recovery days (hence significant
difference in the effect of medications?)

Conclusion: On the average, the teachers’ ratings were on the satisfied level. In other words, based on the findings
considering all of teachers’ rating, they were satisfied with their job.
 6. CHI-SQUARE TEST OF INDEPENDENCE
Relationship between two variables with nominal data is determined using the chi-square test of independence.
Significant chi-square value means a presence of relationship.

Situation: 2x2 Contingency Table

Forty-four high school students were categorized as drinker and non-drinkers. It was hypothesized that the
proportions of drinkers among college bound non-college bound high school students are the same as the
proportions of non-drinkers who are college bound and not college bound. Using the data, find out if status of
drinking and college disposition are related at 0.01 level of significance.

Problem Statement: Is there a significant relationship between status of drinking and college disposition?

Conclusion: College disposition has no relationship with the status of drinking. There is theoretically the same
proportion of drinkers and non-drinkers alike who are college and non-college bound.

7. MCNEMAR (CHANGE) TEST

McNemar test is used to determine whether the row and column marginal frequencies (nominal data) are equal,
applied to a 2 x 2 contingency table with a dichotomous trait with matched pairs of subjects. The McNemar Test
is a nonparametric statistical test that is a type of chi-square test using dependent, rather than independent,
samples to assess before-after designs in which each subject is used as his or her own control.

Situation: Before a seminar-workshop on management, 40 of the 60 participants said “needs assessment” was
not necessary for program planning. At the end of the seminar course, 46 said “needs assessment” was necessary.
Eight participants answered not necessary before and after the seminar-workshop. On the basis of this data, can
you say with 95% confidence level that the seminar course effected a significant change in the attitude of the
participants? Is there a difference between those who changed their opinion about assessment from not
necessary to necessary and those who changed from necessary to not necessary? Test at 0.01 level of
significance.

Problem Statement: To determine if the seminar workshop on management effected a significant change in the
attitude of the participants.

Conclusion: The seminar-workshop on management was effective in changing the attitude of the participants.
There was a large proportion of participants who changed their opinion from “not necessary” to necessary” in
terms of “needs assessment”.

8. PEARSON’S COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION OR PEARSON PRODUCT MOMENT CORRELATION OR PEARSON

R
Pearson product-moment correlation (r) is a common measure of the correlation between two variables X and Y.
When measured in a population the Pearson Product Moment correlation is designated by the Greek letter rho
(p). When computed in sample, it is designated by the letter “r”and is sometimes called “Pearsons’s r”

Situation: A researcher wants to examine if work environment is related to the work efficiency among CNU clerical
employees. 20 clerks were chosen at random to become the respondents of the study. Their assessment of the
work environment ratings was obtained as indicated below.

Problem Statement: Does relationship exits between the work environment and efficiency ratings of the clerks in
CNU?
Conclusion: A good working environment could not guarantee efficiency of work.

9. COEFFICIENT OF RANK CORRELATION OR SPEARMAN rho

Spearman rho is the sample correlation coefficient (rs or rho) of the ranks (the relative order) based on continuous
data. The Spearman rho is used to measure the monatomic relationship between two variables (whether one
variable tends to take either a larger or smaller value) by increasing the value of the other variable. Rank
correlations also work well with ordinal rating, and continuous data are reduced to their ranks. The smallest value
in the sample has rank 1, and the largest has the highest rank. In general, rank correlations are not easily
influenced by the presence of skewed data or data that are highly variable.

The F-Distribution
This probability distribution is used to test whether two (or more) samples are from the same populations having
equal variances. It is also applied when you want to compare several population means simultaneously. This
simultaneous comparison of several population means is called analysis of variance (ANOVA). ANOVA, as a
hypothesis-testing technique is used to test the equality of two or more population (or treatment) means by
examining the variances of samples that are taken. The treatment is used t.
Identify the different populations being examined. ANOVA is based on comparing the variance (or variation)
between the data samples to variation within each particular sample. If the between variation is much larger than
the within variation, the means of different samples will not be equal. If the between and within variations are
approximately the same size, then there will be no significant difference between sample means. It then allows
one to determine whether the difference between the samples are simply due to random error (sampling errors)
or whether there are systematic treatment effects that cause the mean in one group to differ from the mean in
another.

To use ANOVA, the following assumptions have to be met:

1. All Populations involved follow a normal distribution
2. All populations have the same variance (or standard deviation)
3. The samples are randomly selected and independent of one another.
Using the Minitab to run the ANOVA at a given alpha level (i.e α= 0.05)

Situation: Seven children who qualified for honors on their class were selected. They were ranked in both
academic and extra-curricular activities. Find out if the two variables are correlated using the data below.

Problem Statement: Is rx a significant rank correlation between the children’s academic and extra-curricular
activities?

Conclusion: Cognitive and social developments of children do not go hand in hand always. Academically, does not
necessarily warrant one’s interest in extra-curricular activities.

10. F-TEST: ONE WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (ANOVA)

(Test of Mean Difference for 3 Or More Samples)
To test whether the independent variable explains a significant proportion of the variation in Y, one needs to
compare the explained (due to treatment) and unexplained (due to error) variation. Note that the F distribution
describes the ration of two variances, so that the ANOVA test statistics is the F test statistic which is the ration of
the variance due to the treatment of the variances due to error.

Situation: four groups of Cebu Medical Center (CCMC) patients (3 persons in each group) were rated with different
medications for the same ailments. The data below show the number of average days it took the patients to
recover from the start of ailment. Is there enough evidence to conclude that there was significant difference (α=
0.01) in the number of recovery days (hence significant difference in the effect of medications)?

Problem Statement: Is there a significant difference in the mean number of recovery days among patient groups?

Conclusion: There is enough evidence to conclude that there were differences in the number of recovery days as
affected by the treatment medications. The type of paracetamol has effect on the number of recovery days of
patients. Biogesic is the most effective paracetamol with regard to its effect on the patients’ recovery from the
ailments.