GENERAL BIOLOGY – FIRST MONTHLY EXAMINATIONS
Lippershey – Dutch spectacle makers of
Characteristics of Life and Levels
of Organization
Characteristics of Life
1) Order – highly ordered structure (Epilethelial cells
in skin)
2) Evolutionary Adaptation – process to become
accustomed to an environment (Walking Stick,
Leaf Insect)
3) Regulation/Homeostasis – process that allows
steady internal environment
4) Response to Environment – becoming adjusted
to an environment
5) Growth and Development – lifelong process of
physical, behavioral, cognitive, and emotional
growth. Irreversible constant increase in the size
of an organ or an individual cell
6) Reproduction – giving rise to offspring
7) Energy Processing – use of energy for metabolic
activities (Photosynthesis, Cellular Respiration)
Levels of Organization
1) Molecules – two or more atoms
2) Organelles – organized structures in a cell that
carry out specific functions
3) Cells – fundamental unit of structure and function
4) Tissues – group of cells working together
performing a specialized function
5) Organ and Organ System – group of tissues
working together
6) Organism – individual living things
7) Population – all the individuals of a species living
within a bound area
8) Community – organisms in an ecosystem (trees,
animals, mushrooms, microorganisms)
9) Ecosystems – all living things in an area with
nonliving things
10) Biosphere – global ecological system
Cell Theory
Cells – fundamental and structural unit of all living
organisms
Unicellular – single cells
Multicellular – many cells
Discovery of the Microscope
1) 1st Century AD – Romans invented glass lens to
focus the rays of the sun to create fire (magnifiers
or burning glasses)
2) 13th Century – spectacle makers were
producing lenses to be worn as glasses with a
magnification of 6X-10X. Called flea glasses due to
common use of looking at fleas and tiny insects.
3) 1595 Zaccharias Jansen and Hans
Middleburg, Holland. They placed several lenses in
a tube.
4) 1663 Robert Hooke – English Botanist. He
examined a cord and seen cells. Cell from Latin
word Cellula which means small compartments
5) Galileo Galilei – described principles of lenses
and light rays and added a focusing device to his
microscope.
6) 1663 Anton Van Leewenhoek – Dutch
businessman of Holland. Used magnifying glass to
count threads in woven cloth. Magnifies up to 270X.
Described microorganisms as animalcules. Father
of Microscopy.
7) 1805 Lorenz Oken – German philosophers and
microscopist trained in medicine at Frieburg
University. All living organisms originate from and
consist of cells
How was the Cell Theory formulated?
In 1838, Theodor Schwann and Matthias Schleiden
were enjoying an after-dinner coffee and was
talking about their studies on cells. Schleiden
described plant cells as having a nuclei and were
struck by how animal and plant cells are similar.
in 1885, Rudolf Virchow, a German scientist and
physician, published a statement omnis cellula e
cellula which means all cells arise form pre-existing
cells.
Cell Theory
1) The cell is the unit of structure, physiology, and
organization in living things.
2) The cell retains a dual existence as a distinct
entity and a building block in the construction
of organisms.
3) Cells arise from pre-existing cells by division
4) Cells contain hereditary information which is
passed from cell to cell during cell division.
5) All cells are basically the same in chemical
composition.
6) All energy flow of life occurs within cells.
Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
Prokaryotes – before nucleus. Earlier evolution of
prokaryotic cells
Eukaryotes – true nucleus
What is common between prokaryotes and
eukaryotes?
1) Plasma Membrane
2) Cytoplasm
3) Chromosomes
GENERAL BIOLOGY – FIRST MONTHLY EXAMINATIONS
4) Ribosomes
Plasma Membrane – made of a lipid bilayer,
carbohydrates and proteins. Allows transport by
diffusion and osmosis. Selectively permeable:
allows materials in and out of the cell
Cytoplasm (Cytosol) – colloidal, viscous, jelly-like
fluid inside the cell, contains mostly water and has
enzymes for metabolic activity
Chromosomes – threadlike structure of nucleic
acids and proteins, carrying genetic information
Plasmid – found in prokaryotes. It is small, circular,
double-stranded DNA molecule and provides
genetic advantages such as antibiotic resistance
Ribosomes – protein factories. Not membrane
bound. Free ribosomes suspended in the cytosol.
Bound ribosomes attached to the outside of the
endoplasmic reticulum
Nucleus – bounded by a double membrane.
Nuclear envelope encloses the nucleus separating
its contents from the cytoplasm. Nuclear lamina
maintains the shape of the nucleus.
In a prokaryotic cell, the DNA is concentrated in a region not
membrane-bound called nucleoid
Endoplasmic Reticulum – within the cytoplasm.
Consists of a network of membranous tubules and
sacs called cisternae
Smooth ER – outer surface lacks ribosomes
Rough ER – studded with ribosomes on the outer
surface of the membrane
Golgi Apparatus – shipping and receiving center.
Consists of flattened membranous sacs called
cisternae
Lysosomes – membranous sac of hydrolytic
enzymes that many eukaryotic cells use to digest
(hydrolyze) macromolecules
Vacuoles – large vesicles derived from
endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus
Food Vacuoles – formed by phagocytosis
Large Central Vacuoles – the solution inside the
central vacuole is the plant cell’s storage site of
potassium and chloride
Vacuole and Turgor Pressure
Turgid Cell – water enters via osmosis and vacuole swells and
pushes against cell wall
Flaccid Cell – lost water from cell shrinks vacuole and the cell
loses shape
Mitochondria – sites of cellular respiration
(powerhouse of the cell)
Chloroplast – found in plants and algae. Sites of
photosynthesis
Cell Wall – protective layer surrounding the cell.
Rigid, semi-permeable protective layer as structure
and support
Centriole – small structure made of microtubules
which exists as a part of the centrosome which
helps organize microtubules in the body
Cell Modifications
Cytoskeleton – gives mechanical support to the
cell and maintain its shape. It is made out of three
types of fibers:
1) Microtubules –Tubulin Polymers. They are
hollow tubes and they maintain cell shape
(compression-resisting girders); cell motility;
chromosome movements
2) Microfilaments – Actin Filaments. Two
intertwined strands of actin and they
maintain cell shape (tension-bearing
elements); muscle contraction
3) Intermediate Filaments – fibrous proteins
coiled into cables. Maintains cell shape
(tension-bearing elements); anchorage of
nucleus and certain organelles
Microvilli – microscopic cellular membrane
protrusions. Numerous and arranges found in
absorptive epithelia
Stereocilia – long microvilli that function in
absorption; non-motile; found in sensory cells in
ear; contains actin filaments
GENERAL BIOLOGY – FIRST MONTHLY EXAMINATIONS
Cilia – motile and functions for movement; c. Non-elastic – nose cartilage
short hair-like structure; beats in coordinated 5) Bone – solid (Calcium Carbonate); it has
rhythmical wave-like manner; composed of blood supply and nerves
microtubules 6) Vascular Tissue (Blood) – 90% water and
10% plasma proteins, electrolytes,
Flagella – for movement and same structure
hormones, oxygen, glucose, etc.
with cilia but longer
a. Erythrocytes - RBC
b. Leukocytes - WBC
Animal Tissues c. Platelets
Categories of Animal Tissues 7) Muscle Tissue – fibers specialized for
contraction
1) Epithelium – lines, covers and protects
a. Skeletal Muscle (Striated,
other tissues and organs
voluntary) – parallel elongated cells
a. Simple Squamous Epithelium – air
(fiber)
sacs of the respiratory system (lining
b. Smooth Muscle (Visceral,
of blood vessels, heart and
involuntary) – cells are long and
lymphatic tubes)
tapered; organized into sheets of
b. Stratified Squamous Epithelium
muscle
(skin, vagina, esophagus, mouth)
c. Cardiac Muscle – intercalated
c. Cuboidal Epithelium – cell cube
discs, myogenic, and branched
shaped for secretion and absorption
8) Nervous Tissue – senses stimuli and
(kidney tubules, ducts and small
transmits signals throughout the animal
glands; surface of ovary)
a. Neurons – transmits nerve impulses
2) Columnar Epithelium – elongated cells,
b. Glial cells – help nourish, insulate
longer than wide
and replenish neurons
a. Simple Columnar Epithelium –
single layer of cells that line the
digestive tract
b. Pseudostratified Ciliated
Columnar Epithelium – lines in the
bronchi, trachea, uterine tubes.
Propels mucus or reproductive cells
Connective Tissue – characterized by the cells
widely separated from each other in a matrix that is
produced by the cells; protection and support
Types of Connective Tissue
1) Loose Connective Tissue (Areolar) –
binds epithelia to underlying tissues and
holds organs in place
2) Dense Regular Connective Tissue –
fibrous connective tissue
a. Tendons – attach muscles to bones
b. Ligaments – connects bones at
joints
3) Adipose (Fat) – storage cells for lipids;
contains a large vacuole
4) Cartilage – strong and flexible support
material
a. Hyaline – end of bones
b. Elastic – ear cartilage