 Atmospheric Pressure

The earth is surrounded by an envelope of atmosphere or air

that extends upward from the surface of the earth to a distance of some 50 miles (80.45
km) or more. Since air has mass and is subject to the action of gravity, it exerts a pressure
that is known as the atmospheric pressure. Imagine a column of air 1 in cross section
extending from the surface of the earth at sea level through the upper limits of the
atmosphere. Such a column of air supposedly would have a mass such that the gravitational
force exerted at sea level (the base of coloumn) would be 14.696 lb lb ( 6.67 kg). Since this
total force is exerted on 1 , the pressure exerted by the atmosphere at sea level is 14.696
psi, usually rounded to 14.7 psi. In SI, this value is equal to 1.013 x Pa, or 1.013 x kg/, or
1.013 bar (1 bar = Pa = kg/).This is the value given as the normal barometric (atmospheric)
pressure at sea level and is sometimes
referred to as a pressure of one atmosphere. The atmospheric pressure does not remain
constant but varies somewhat with temperature, humidity, and other conditions. The
atmospheric pressure varies also with the altitude,
decreasing as the altitude increases. The standard pressure (absolute) decreases quite
rapidly and smoothly to almost zero at an altitude of 30 km.

 Barometers
Barometers are instruments used to measure the pressure
of the atmosphere and are of several types. A simple barometer that measures pressure in
terms of the height of a column of mercury can be constructed by filling with mercury a
glass tube 30 in. or more in length and closed at one end (see Fig. 1) The mercury is held in
the tube by placing the index finger over the open end of the tube while the tube is inverted
in an open dish of mercury. When the finger is removed from the tube, the level of mercury
in the tube will fall, leaving an almost perfect vacuum at the closed end.

Fig. 1. The pressure exerted by the weight of the atmosphere on the open dish of mercury causes the mercury
to stand up into the tube. The magnitude of the pressure determines the height of the mercury column.

The pressure exerted by the atmosphere on the mercury in the open dish will cause
the mercury to stand up in the evacuated tube to a height depending on the amount of
pressure exerted (Fig. 1) .The height of the mercury column in the tube is a measure of the
pressure exerted by the atmosphere and is read in inches of mercury column (in. Hg) or
millimeters of mercury column (mm Hg). The normal pressure of the atmosphere at sea
level (14.696 psi or 1.013 bar) exerted on the open dish will cause the mercury in the tube
to stand to a height of 29.92 in. or 760 mm. It follows, then, that a column of mercury 29.92
in. (760 mm) high is a measure of a pressure equivalent to 14.696 psi (1.013 bar). By dividing
14.696 psi by 29.92 in. Hg, it is determined that 1 in. Hg is a measure of a pressure of approximately
0.491 psi, and the following relationships are established: 1 in. Hg = 0.491 psi
•Example 1:
What is the pressure of the atmosphere in pounds per
square inch if a barometer reads 30.2 in. Hg?
Solution:
Atmosphere pressure = 30.2 in. Hg = 14.83 psi
•Example 2:
With reference to Fig. 1, how high will the mercury stand in
the tube when the atmospheric pressure is 14.5 psi
Solution:
in. Hg = 14.5 psi = 29.53 in. Hg

Pressure Gages
Pressure gages are instruments used to measure fluid (gaseous or liquid) preesure in a
closed vessel. Among the pressure gages commonly used are of two principal types:
MANOMETER and BOURDON TUBE.

 Manometers
The manometer type of gage utilizes a column of liquid to measure the pressure. The
liquid used in manometers is usually either water or mercury. When mercury is used,
theinstrument is known as a mercury manometer or mercury gage, and when water is
used,the instrument is called a water manometer or water gage. The simple barometer
described previously is a manometer-type instrument. A simple mercury
manometer,illustrated in Figs. 1-4a, b, and c, consists of a U-shapedglass tube open at both
ends and partially filed with mercury. When both legs of the U-tube are open to the
atmosphere, atmospheric pressure is exerted on the mercury in both sides of the tube and
the height of the two mercury columns is the same (Fig. 1-4a). The height of the two
mercury columns at this position is marked as the zero point of the scale, and the scale is
calibrated in inches to read the deviation of the mercury columns from the zero condition in
either direction. When in use, one side of the U-tube is connected to the vessel whose
pressure is to be measured (Fig. 1-4b)
 The pressure in the vessel, acting on one leg of the tube, is opposed by the
atmospheric pressure exerted on the open leg of the tube (Fig. 1-4b) If the pressure in the
vessel is greater than that of the atmosphere, the level of the mercury on the vessel side of
the U-tube is depressed while the level of the mercury on the open side of the tube is raised
an equal amount (Fig. 1-4b). If the pressure in the vessel is less than that of the atmosphere,
the level of the mercury in the open leg of the tube is depressed while the level of the
mercury in the leg connected to the vessel is raised by an equal amount (Fig. 1-4c).
In either case, the difference in the heights of the two mercury columns is a measure
of the difference in pressure between the total pressure of the fluid in the vessel and the
pressure of the atmosphere. In Fig. 1-4b, the level of the mercury is 2 in. below the zero
point in the side of the U-tube connected to the vessel and 2 in. above the zero point in the
open side of the tube. This indicates that the pressure in the vessel exceeds the pressure of
the atmosphere by 4 in. Hg (1.96 psi). In Fig. 1-4c, the level of the mercury is depressed 2 in.
in the side of the tube open to the atmosphere and raised 2 in.
in the side connected to the vessel, indicating that the pressure in the vessel is 4 in.
Hg (1.96 psi) below (less than) atmospheric.
Pressures below atmospheric are usually called “vacuum” pressures and may be read
as “inches of mercury vacuum”. Manometers using water as the measuring fluid are
particularly useful for measuring very small pressures. Because of the differences in the
density of mercury and water, pressures that are too slight to visiby affect the height of a
mercury column will produce easily detectable variations in the height of a water column.
Atmospheric pressure (14.696 psi at sea level), which will support a column of
mercury only 29.92 in. (760 mm) high, will lift a column of water to a distance of
approximately 34 ft (10.36 m). A pressure of 1 psi will raise a column of water 2.31 ft or
27.7 in. and a pressure of only 0.036 psi is sufficient to support a column of water 1 in. high.
Hence 1 in. of water column is equivalent to 0.036 psi. Since all fluids are subject to thermal
expansion and contraction with changes in temperature, where extreme accuracy is
required, pressure readings from manometers must be corrected for temperature deviation.
The relationship between the various units of pressure is shown below.

BOURDON TUBE
Because of the excessive length of tube required and other practical considerations,
manometers are not usually employed to measure pressures MUCH in excess of 1
atmosphere. Bourdon tube gages are widely used for measuring the higher pressures. The
actuating mechanism of the bourdon tube gage is illustrated in Fig. 2. The bourdon tube,
itself, is a curved, elliptical-shaped, metallic tube that tends to straighten as the fluid
pressure in the tube increases and to curl tighter as the pressure decreases.
 Fig. 2. Bourdon Tube Gage Mechanism

Any change in the curvature of the tube is transmitted through a system of gears to
the pointer. The direction and magnitude of the pointer movement depend on the direction
and magnitude of the change in the curvature of the tube. Bourden tube gages are very
rugged and will measure pressures either above or below atmospheric pressure. Those
designed to measure pressures above atmospheric are known as “pressure” gages (Fig. 3a)
and are generally calibrated in pounds per square inch (psi), whereas those designed to read
pressures below atmospheric are called “vacuum” gages and are usally calibrated in inches
of mercury (in. Hg) (Fig. 3b).

Fig. 3. Typical bourdon tube gages. (a) Pressure gage. (b) Vacuum gage. (c) Compound gage.

In many cases, single gages, known as “compound” gages, are designed to measure
pressures both above and below atmospheric (Fig. 3c). Such gages are calibrated to read in
pounds per square inch (psi) above atmospheric and in inches of mercury (in. Hg) below
atmospheric.