Module 12 Communication

1. What is communication?
ORGANIZATIONAL VIEWPOINT
-Communication is what a leader does to articulate plans, organize efforts, coordinate activities,
and control progress
-Communication share planning information to form objectives and set a course of action
-Communication is clarifying expectation for performance, define authority, and allocate
resources
-Communication is the interpersonal process of sending and receiving messages through
symbols and gestures

MANAGERIAL PERSPECTIVE
-Communication is the process of exchanging information in a way that achieves mutual
understanding between two or more people about work related issues

PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESS
-The individuals involved have established a reasonable understanding of one another’s feelings
or ideas. It means sharing common information to achieve a common understanding between
ourselves and others
-Communication is the process of sharing meanings. Our intended meaning is packed with our
own perceptions of the world around us. We evaluate our receiver’s viewpoint from this
perspective and make assumptions about how our message will be received.
-Communication is the exchange of messages between people for the purpose of achieving
common meaning

2. Choosing a method
The purpose of the message will dictate which method to use
-Spoken, if you want speed
-Written, if you want something more permanent and orderly
-email – has the speed and informality of a phone conversation and can be filed

Types of Examples Usefulness

communication
Written word Letters, memos, reports,
proposals, notes, contracts,
summaries, agendas, notices,
regulations, minutes, plans,
discussion documents
Spoken word Conversations, interviews,
meetings, phone calls, debates,
requests, debriefings,
announcements, speeches
Symbolic gestures Gestures, facial expressions,
The written word is the basis of
organizational communication, and is
used because it is relatively
permanent and accessible
Verbal exchanges in person and by
phone are used because of their
immediacy; they are the chief means
by which organizations work on a day-
to-day basis
Actions and body language
 actions, deeds, tone of voice,
silence, stance, postures,
movement, immobility, presence,
absence
Visual images Photographs, paintings, drawings,
illustrations, graphics, cartoons,
charts, videos, logos, film,
doodles, collages
Multi-media Television, newspapers,
magazines, leaflets, booklets,
flyers, posters, Internet, Intranet,
World Wide Web, video, radio,
cassettes, CD-ROMs
profoundly but unconsciously affect
people – propaganda depends on the
manipulation of positive and negative
signs
Visual images are used because they
convey powerful conscious and
unconscious messages
Media are especially useful when
they can be participative. The more
professional the use of multimedia,
the more effective and productive
they likely to be.

Body language
-Supportive gestures: making eye contact and nodding while somebody is talking create
empathy
-Hand on chin indicates appraisal
-Raised eyebrows indicate interests
-Gesturing with your hand adds emphasis
-Indirect gaze adds to sense of uncertainty
-Arm wrapped around the body is a form of self-comfort
-Knitted brow and closed eyes show doubt
-One hand around the neck and the other around the waist show a need for reassurance
-The closed eyes and nose pinching reveal inner confusion and conflict about what is being
heard.
-Body facing front and open posture show confidence
-Direct gaze and broad smile show friendly attention
-Hands on hips indicate determination and ability to take control
-Relaxed arms and legs show lack of tension
-Indirect gaze is evasive
-Ear pulling indicates doubt
-Slight slumping show lack of confidence
-Body turned away signifies rejection of what other person is saying

Role of language
-Language is the medium of interpersonal communication preferred by leaders
-The spoken word is the essential and most natural form of language
-We string together complex thoughts, express ideas through complicated sentences, and
consciously expect others to receive and react to our messages.
-Managerial communication implies much more than effective use of language. Managers’
attitudes toward workers, how managers embellish their words with actions, and how
employees perceive superiors are part of the chemistry of communication
-Since we all interpret the words and actions of others from our own unique perspective,
managers must be conscious of individual perspectives, communicate in ways that ensure proper
interpretation and strive for a collective understanding by their employees.
3. Cultural differences
-Japanese and other Asians find it easier than Europeans to be silent
-Germans, Nordics, and British are less voluble and more restrained in gesture than the Latin
nations are
-British tend to avoid saying what they mean while Australians may disconnect others by
forcefully saying exactly what they mean
-Americans like communicating via rallies and slogans with strong use of visuals

4. What are the types of communication

-Verbal communication
 Written communication
-occurs through a variety of means, such as business letters, office memoranda, reports,
resumes, written telephone messages, newsletters, and policy manuals
-advantage: it provides a record of the message, it can be disseminated widely with a
minimum of effort, and allows the sender to think through the intended message
carefully
-disadvantage: expense of preparation, impersonal, possible misunderstanding by the
receiver, and the delay of feedback regarding the effectiveness of the message
 Oral communication
-face to face communication with another individual, meetings with several individuals,
and telephone conversation
-it has the advantage of being fast, being generally more personal than written
communication providing immediate feedback from others involved in the conversation
-it has the disadvantage of being time consuming, being difficult to terminate, and takes
some effort to document what is said if a record is necessary.
-Non-verbal communication
 Kinesics behavior
-Body movements, such as gestures, facial expression, eye movements, and postures
 Proxemics
-The influence of proximity and space on communication (distant or intimate)
 Objects language
-The communicative use of material things, including clothing, cosmetics, furniture, and
architecture

-Tone of voice
 Paralanguage
-Vocal aspects of communication that relate to how something is said rather than to
what is said

5. What are the basic components of the communication process

-Sender:
 the initiator of the message
-Encoding:
 the process of translating the intended message into words and gestures
 -Message:
 The encoding process outcome, which consists of verbal and nonverbal symbols that
have been developed to convey meaning to the receiver
-Medium:
 The method used to convey the message to the intended receiver
-Receiver:
 The person with whom the message is exchanged
-Decoding:
 The process of translating the symbols into the interpreted message. A message is
decoded by a receiver who interprets symbols, words, pictures, or gestures to give them
meaning
 The decoding process consists of unraveling symbols. A receiver interprets messages,
and in so doing give them meanings.
 Decoding is the receiver’s perceptual assessment of the language, gestures, and context
of the sender’s message
 The receiver also implicitly evaluates why the sender is trying to communicate, and
perhaps searches for hidden meanings in the choice of channel
-Noise
 Any factor in the communication process that interferes with exchanging messages and
achieving common meaning
-Feedback
 The receiver’s basic response to the interpreted message
 A response or acknowledgement that a message has been received and understood
6. Methods of communication
-One way communication: communication process does not allow for feedback
-Two way communication: the communication process explicitly includes feedback

7. Making the communication process effective

-To be a good communicator one has to do the following:
 Initiate messages clearly, encoding them carefully, and choosing appropriate channels
for transmission – ensure that messages will be received and understood
 Listen well – be receptive to messages sent to them by others

8. Communication according to Peter Drucker

-Communication is the act of receiving information, of perceiving language and gestures within a
total environment
-The spoken word has no meaning apart from the receiver’s cultural and social interpretation of
it
-It is the recipient who communicates. The so called communicator, the person who emits the
communication, does not communicate. He utters.
-Unless there is someone who hears, there is no communication. There is only noise. The
communicator speaks or writes or sings – but he does not communicate. He cannot
communicate. He can only make it possible, or impossible, for a recipient – or rather, percipient
– to perceive.
9. Influence on Individual Communication and Interpersonal Processes
A. Perceptual Processes
 Perception-the process that individuals use to acquire and make sense out of
information from the environment
-What are the three main stages of perception?
 Selecting: the filtering of stimuli that we encounter so that only certain information
receives our attention
 Organizing: the patterning of information from the selection stage
 Interpreting: attaching meaning to the information that we have selected and
organized
 Stereotyping –
-The tendency to attribute characteristics to an individual on the basis of an assessment
of the group to which the individual belongs
-The belief that certain people have attributes based on characteristics such as sex, race,
and ethnic group that make them superior or inferior
-The belief that certain people have attributes based on their characteristics that
enhance or impede “shorthand” thinking that makes work easier because it allows us to
neatly compartmentalize ideas and attitudes for quick reference
-Some shorthand thinking is inevitable, even helpful and necessary when dealing with
many employees and situations but it may lead to problems when generalization do not
apply or do not apply equally to all members of the group.
-Two steps occur in stereotyping
 The one stereotyping categorizes the individual as belonging to a group whose
members are perceived as sharing certain common characteristics
 He uses those perceived characteristics to draw conclusion about the characteristics
of the individual, rather than acquiring particular and specific information about the
individual more directly
 Halo effect
-The tendency to use a general impression based on one or few characteristics of an
individual to judge other characteristics of that same individual
 Projection
-The tendency of an individual to assume that others share his or her thoughts, feelings,
and characteristics
 Perceptual defense
-The tendency to block out or distort information that one finds threatening or that
challenges one’s beliefs
B. Attribution Process
 Attribution Theory
-A theory that attempts to explain how individuals make judgments or attribution about
the cause of another’s or their own behavior
Fundamental Attribution Error
-The tendency to underestimate the importance of situational influences and to
overestimate the importance of dispositional influences in explaining behavior
Self serving bias
 -The tendency to perceive oneself as responsible for success and others responsible for
failures
 Semantics
-The study of meanings and choice of words
Semantic Net
-The network of words and word meanings that a given individual has available for recall
Semantic Blocks
-The blockages or communication difficulties that arise from word choices
-Such blocks are commonplace because various meanings and shades of meanings that
individuals attach to words depend on each person’s semantic net.
-Receivers decode words and phrases in conformity with their own semantic networks,
which may be different from those of the senders
 Professional Jargon
-Language related to, or used by, a specific profession but unfamiliar to those outside
the profession
-Even within organizations, different units can have terminology that has evolved
through practice, usages, and tradition

10. Cultural Context in Communication

-High context culture
 Cultures in which the emphasis in the communication process is on establishing and
strengthening relationships in the course of exchanging information
-Low context culture
 Cultures in which the emphasis in the communication process is on exchanging
information and is less focused on building relationship

11. Communication Skills

 Active listening
-The process in which a listener actively participates in attempting to grasp the facts and the
feelings being expressed by the speaker
 Passive listening
-The listener follows the general gist of the word spoken
 Feedback
-Other interpersonal communication skills that is particularly important for managers center
around the issue of feedback, both giving and receiving.
-Effective feedback has several characteristics. It focuses on the relevant behaviors or
outcomes rather than on the individual or person.
-It deals with specific, observable behavior, rather than generalities
-Perceptions, reactions, and opinions are labeled as such, rather than presented as facts.
-Feedback spells out what individuals can do to improve themselves
-The way in which managers react to feedback is often a factor influencing much feedback
they receive
12. Organizational Communication Network
A. Communication Network – the pattern of information flow among task group members
 Wheel network
-The most centralized, all messages must flow through the individual at the center of the
wheel
 Chain network
-Some members can communicate with more than one member of the network, but the
individual in the center of the chain tends to emerge as the controller of messages
 Y network
-The member at the fork of the “Y” usually becomes the central person in the network
 Circle network
-Each member can communicate with the individual on either side
 Star network
-The most decentralized, each member can communicate with any other member
B. Communication Channels
-Patterns of organizational communication flow that represents potential established
conduits through which managers and other organization members can send and receive
information

13. Group Communication Network

A. Vertical Communication
-Communication that involves a message exchange between two or more levels of the
organizational hierarchy
B. Downward Communication
-Vertical communication that flows from a higher level to one or more levels in the
organization
-These messages and information initiated by superiors to subordinates, usually in the form
of directives
-Executives communicate objectives, provide information about strategic performance
expectations, and encourage behavior by subordinates that coincides with the company’s
philosophy of leadership.
-Lower-level managers instruct employees through directives and procedures about work
methods, rules, job expectations, and specific activities needed to accomplish organizational
objectives.
-Managers must also enforce rules, discipline employees, schedule work, and control tasks
for which they are responsible.
C. Upward Communication
-The vertical flow of communication from lower to one or more higher levels in the
organization.
-These are messages and information initiated by subordinates for their superiors, usually in
the form of reports
-Employees report activities, work progress, and problems they have with their jobs.
-They also communicate upward through channels devised to air grievances, solicit
suggestions for productivity improvements, and provide feedback response to management
inquiries
 -Much upward communication is predetermined and routine to keep superiors advised on
work progress and potential operational problems
D. Horizontal Communication
-Lateral or diagonal message exchange either within work-unit boundaries, involving peers
who report to the same supervisor, or across work-unit boundaries, involving individuals
who report to different supervisors
-It is the process of exchanging information between peers at any organizational level,
usually to coordinate their activities
E. Management by Wandering Around
-A practice whereby manager frequently tour areas for which they are responsible, talk to
various employees, and encourage upward communication

F. Formal Communication
-Vertical and horizontal communication that follows paths specified by the official
organization structure and related task requirements
-Formal communication channels are those determined by the structure of management
and formal reporting system.
-Every firm prescribes who reports to whom and what forms these communications will take
G. Informal Communication
-Communication that takes place without regard to hierarchical or task requirements
H. The grapevine
-Another term for informal communication composed of managers or employees, usually
friends and acquaintances unconsciously forming a network mostly for social, cultural,
personal, or even political reasons

14. Electronic Communication

 Electronic mail system
-A mail system that allows high-speed exchange of written messages through the use of
computerized text-processing and communication networks
 Voice mail
-A recording system that provides senders with the opportunity to leave messages for
receivers by telephone
 Teleconferencing
-The simultaneous communication among a group of individuals by telephone or via
computer using specially designed software
 Video conferencing
-The holding of meetings with individuals in two or more locations by means of closed-circuit
television
 Text messages
-fast written communication through cell phones
 Voice communication
-Oral communication through cell phones

15. What are the communication killers?

 Semantics
 -The nature and meaning of words and phrases and how they are used in the context of
messages
-One of the fundamental problems in management is misunderstanding by the
indiscriminate use of words
-As a rule speakers try to use words that are common enough for everyone to interpret in
approximately the same way
-But words do not have consistent meaning; receivers interpret them differently, according
to their perception of the context in which the words are used
-Many things affect how we interpret the words we hear; the environment in which they are
used, their context and our personal perspectives
-Words require a context for interpretation. They must first be given meaning by a sender,
then that meaning must be interpreted by a receiver
-Semantics also cause a problem in communication between work groups. Most work group
communicates in what we call “shop talk” or jargon. This is a specific vocabulary created and
used by a few individuals in the same reference group.
-If technical language and professional profiles are added to that complex picture, it is easy
to see how group jargon can become a self-contained language that gives a reference group
cohesion but many split mixed work groups made up of individuals with a variety of
characteristics
 Obfuscate
-To cloud an issue
-Implies a purposeful attempt by one person to confuse another through the use of
perplexing language.
 Noise
 Physical noise
-Busy surroundings
-Telephone rings, secretaries enter with messages, subordinates seem to be buzzing
around.
-Noise from machinery, noise from typewriters or printers
 Perceptual noise
-A distortion of meanings and selective filtering of messages created by a receiver’s
personal frame of reference and attitude
-People develop mental roadblocks that impede effective conversation.
-Cultural habits, beliefs, personality traits, and attitudes influence their frames of
reference
-Sometimes they simply tune out mentally and cannot hear what is being said.
-Most people cannot focus their attention for long, and although they hear what is
being said, they don consciously register the full context of the message
 Poor listening
-Screening: a subconscious blocking of information to avoid unpleasant facts
-Filtering: a conscious and deliberate filtering of messages to manipulate information to
one’s benefit
 Jaundiced viewpoints
 -the frozen evaluation is an assumption of no change. It is the naïve belief that the work
environment or some other phenomenon is now the way it was in the past and the way it
should be in the future. It is a rational for not listening
 Stereotyping
-The tendency to attribute characteristics to an individual on the basis of an assessment of
the group to which the individual belongs. Often times people have already made up their
mind on the basis of generalization without looking at individual situations.

16. What are the solutions to them?

Communication killers
Semantic confusion -Be clear and concise in your communication
-Avoid jargon
Obfuscation -Use common words
-Do not “blow smoke”
Physical noise -Find a quiet environment
-Do not introduce noise
Perceptual noise -Get your listener’s attention
-Reinforce your message through repetition
Poor listening -Focus on the sender
-Actively give and take during communication
Jaundiced viewpoints -Be aware of personal and cultural biases
-Avoid polarizes and frozen viewpoints
Stereotyping -Do not oversimplify situations and individuals
-Adapt personal attitudes to the needs of others

17. How does attitude impact on communication

-An attitude is a “predisposition to respond favorably or unfavorably towards objects, persons,
and concepts”
-Most communication problems are rooted in the attitudes of individuals who must work
together in complex environment because they respond to each other in their own particular
manner (predisposition) without concern as to how others are predisposed.
-Our cultural frame of reference predisposes us to act in certain ways in certain situations
although this may be tempered by our work group, personal standards, aspirations, and many
other factors
-Because people have different attitudes, they are bound to make different perceptual
interpretations of communications
-Confusion and conflict arise when attitudes are so divergent that they adversely affect
organizational communication and behavior
-Managing is partly the ability to accommodate the diverse attitudes, traits, and personal
characteristics of individuals in organizations.

18. Learned traits

-Our unpleasant experiences with certain individuals or groups tend to limit our association with
them and we develop patterns of dissociation
 -Since an organization can hardly function effectively with dissociation, managers need to
strengthen employee associations and reinforce social relationships that lead to pleasant
experiences at work
-Today, managers try to identify patterns of learned attitudes and try to understand how
individuals will respond to others in work groups and find ways to help create an atmosphere of
association rather than dissociation through effective communication.

19. How does complementary needs impact on communication

-Attitudes are tempered by personalities. Some need to dominate people while others prefer to
be submissive
-The existence of complementary needs creates expectations where employees expect managers
to complement their needs
-Expectations for communication behavior make employees who are used to a free flow of
information to distance themselves from a supervisor who has a more restrictive style of
communication
-When communication behavior coincides with expectations for leadership style, managers and
employees are likely to have compatible works associations
-When incongruence exists, employees often welcome the opportunity to misinterpret or
otherwise twist meanings
-Employees may purposely distort information simply to discredit the manager
-Managers to whom this happens are in “no slack” situation
-Because managers are accountable for the performance of subordinates, their attitudes take
second place to the attitudes of people in their work groups
-Responsible managers consistently evaluate group attitudes, complement them, and then
reinforce a close association by positive communication
-They listen well, converse within the framework of complementary expectations, and reinforce
cohesion through positive feedback.

20. Listening
-Using Listening Skills

Types of listening Putting methods into practice

Empathizing -Empathize by imagining yourself in the other person’s position, trying
-Drawing out the to understand what they are thinking, and letting them feel comfortable
speaker and getting – possibly by relating to their emotional experience. (“I can see that you
information in a are upset because you feel that management treated you unfairly.”)
supportive, helpful -Pay close attention to what the person is saying, talk very little, and use
way encouraging nods and words
Analyzing -Use analytical questions to discover the reasons behind the speaker’s
-Seeking concrete statement, especially if you need to understand a sequence of facts or
information and thoughts.
trying to disentangle -Ask questions carefully, so you can pick up clues from the answers and
fact from emotion use the person’s response to help you formulate your next set of
questions
-Paraphrase to clarify exactly how you understood what was said
Synthesizing -If you need to achieve a desired result, make statements to which
 -Proactively guiding others can respond with ideas.
the exchange towards -Listen and give your answers to others’ remarks in a way that suggests
an objective which ideas can be enacted and how they might be implemented
-Alternatively, include a different solution in your next question

-Screening
-A subconscious blocking of information to avoid unpleasant facts
-A conscious and deliberate filtering of messages to manipulate information to one’s
benefit
-Filtering: a conscious effort to distort the content of a message by omitting vital
information
-Guarding against certain information; an automatic defense mechanism that acts to
shut off hard-to-take criticism and other unpleasant information
-Frozen evaluation
-An assumption of “no change”
-A naïve belief that the work environment or some other phenomenon is now the way it
was in the past and the way it should be in the future
-This attitude impedes progress and hampers change
-It shuts out incoming information that could help a manager adapt in an ever changing
world
-It is a rationale for not listening
21. Toward More Effective Communication
-Start with empathy
-Develop a conversational tone and demeanor that reinforce your key points
-Good eye contact helps to gain and retain attention for both persons
-Do not employ so many gestures that may distract attention from the message
-Structure your message for the greatest impact with the least risk of being misunderstood
-Concrete words used in simple contexts help to clarify a message
-Have the message clear in your own mind before you attempt to convey it
-Don’t pretend to possess knowledge you don’t have, and if you are wrong about something,
acknowledge it instead of trying to cover up your error
-Avoid noise whenever possible
-Do not polarize a conversation. Confrontation seldom leads to improve communication or
closer associations
-Develop communication behavior that is congruent with attitudes of your receivers