M. M.

ALI

CHAPTER 0
 CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

1) Understand the orthogonal coordinate systems.

2) Be able to understand the transformations among the coordinate systems.
3) Know and be able to compute gradient, divergence, curl and Laplacian of
a field.
4) Understand and be able to use the Divergence and Stokes’ theorems in
electromagnetics.

0.1 INTRODUCTION
Our lifestyle has been changed in last few decades. The secret of this rapid
advance in our social life, we believe, lies mostly in the diverse application
of electromagnetics.
Electromagnetics is a branch of physics or electrical engineering which is
used to study the electric and magnetic phenomena. The study of
electromagnetics is indispensable in the understanding of the principle of
various devices invented based on the theory of electric and magnetic fields.
Electric charge produces a field around it which is known as electric field.
Moving charges produce a current which is the source of magnetic field. In
such a case, where the electric and magnetic fields are related to each other,
it is called electromagnetic field. These fields may be time varying or time
independent.
We know that the distribution of a physical quantity in space is defined by a
field. To quantify the fields, 3D representation plays an important role. A
complete pictorial representation and clear understanding of the fields and
the laws governing such fields, is possible with the help of vector analysis.
Thus a good knowledge of vector analysis is an essential prerequisite for the
understanding of engineering electromagnetics. Here we review the
orthogonal coordinate system and vector calculus.

0.2 ORTHOGONAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS

Vectors are easy to handle when they are resolved into their components
along three mutually perpendicular directions. Such directions are
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represented in terms of various coordinate systems. Out of various

coordinate systems, Cartesian or rectangular, Cylindrical and, Spherical
coordinate systems are used in this course to specify the location of a point
in space with respect to a reference origin and components of a vector
accurately. Therefore, before going to main text of electromagnetics, we will
discuss first the coordinate systems in brief.

0.2.1 Cartesian or rectangular Coordinate System

The Cartesian or rectangular coordinate system is formed by three mutually
perpendicular straight lines named as x, y, and z axes. The point where these
three axes meet together is called origin and usually denoted by O. Once the
x and y-axes are fixed, the z-axis is determined by using cork-screw rule
whereby one curls the fingers of his/her right hand in the direction from x to
y then the thumb points in the z-direction. The location of any point P in
space in this coordinate system can be specified uniquely by defining its x, y
and z coordinates as shown in figure 0.1(a). The coordinates x, y and z are
the perpendicular distances of P from yz-plane at x=0, zx-plane at y=0 and
xy-plane at z=0, respectively.

(a)
z-axis

O y-axis

x-axis

(b) (c)
Fig. 0.1
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The values of coordinates at O are zeros. Unit vectors ax, ay, and az are used
to indicate the directions of the components of any vector along the x, y, and
z axes, respectively. Now the position vector r, a vector directed from the
origin O to point P, is expressed as r=x ax+y ay +z az. A differential volume
dv=dxdydz can be obtained by six differential planes/surfaces at x, x+dx, y,
y+dy, z, z+dz as illustrated in Fig. 0.1(b). Each surface is defined by a unit
vector normal to it. Thus the differential surfaces in the positive direction of
the unit vectors are, respectively, dsx=dydz ax, dsy=dzdx ay and dsz=dxdy az -
as shown in Fig. 0.1(c). The differential length from P to Q in vector form is
obtained from the difference between the position vector of point Q and that
of point P, and is given as dL=dx ax+dy ay +dz az. The ranges of the
coordinate variables are:    x  ,    y   and ,    z  .

0.2.2 Cylindrical Coordinate System

Any point P in this system is specified by assigning its coordinates (ρ, , z)
as illustrated in Fig. 0.2. Here ρ is the perpendicular distance of the point
from z-axis,  (called as azimuthal angle) is the angle between x and ρ axes
and is measured from the x axis in the anticlockwise direction, and z is the
perpendicular distance of the point along z axis from the xy plane at z=0.
Unit vectors along ρ,  and z are aρ, a and az, respectively; note that the unit
vector a is tangent to the cylinder and pointing in a direction of increasing
, at the given point P. The position vector of point P is r= aρ+z az.

Fig. 0.2
A differential volume dv= ρdρddz is formed by the surfaces at ρ, ρ+dρ, ,
+d, z and z+dz as illustrated in Fig. 0.3. Thus differential surfaces in the
positive direction of the unit vectors aρ, a and az are, respectively, dsρ =
ρddz aρ, ds= dρdz a and dsz= ρdρd az. The elemental length from P(ρ, ,
z) to Q(ρ+dρ, +d, z+dz) in vector form is dL= dρ aρ + ρd a +dz az. The
ranges of the coordinate variables are: 0    , 0    2 and ,    z  .
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Note that in cartesian coordinate system, the unit vectors are not dependent
on the coordinates. But in cylindrical coordinate system, aρ and a are
functions of  coordinate as their directions change as  changes.

Fig. 0.3

0.2.3 Spherical Coordinate System

A point P in space in spherical coordinate system is represented in terms of
r,  and  as shown in Fig. 0.4. Here r is the radial distance from the origin
to the point P,  is the angle that r makes with the positive z axis, and  is
the same as defined in the cylindrical coordinate system. Unit vectors along
r,  and  are ar, a and a, respectively; note that the unit vector a is
tangent to the sphere and pointing in a direction of increasing , at the given
point P. The position vector of point P is r=r ar.

Fig. 0.4
Six differential surfaces at r, r+dr, , +d,  and +d formed a differential
volume dv= r2sin drdd as illustrated in Fig. 0.5(a). The differential
surfaces in the positive direction of the unit vectors ar, a and a.are,
respectively, dsr = r2sindd ar, ds= r sindrd a and ds= rdrd a as
shown in Fig. 0.5(b). The elemental length from P(r, , ) to Q(r+dr, +d,
+d) in vector form is dL= dr ar + rd a + r sin d a. The ranges of the
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coordinate variables are: 0  r  , 0    2 and ,     . Note that in

spherical coordinate system, all the unit vectors ar, a and a are functions
of  and  coordinates as their directions change as  and  change.

(a) (b)
Fig. 0.5

0.3 TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES

Sometimes it is easy to handle the problem of electromagnetic field in one
coordinate system but desirable to have an answer in other coordinate
system. The following discussion on transformation between the coordinate
systems, therefore, plays an important role in this subject. The
transformation system involves two steps: (i) changing of independents
variables and (ii) changing of vector components.

0.3.1 COORDINATE AND VECTOR TRANSFORMATION

BETWEEN CARTESIAN AND CYLINDRICAL
The coordinates of a point P in both Cartesian and Cylindrical coordinate
systems are shown in Fig. 0.6 (a).

Fig. 0.6 (a) Fig. 0.6(b)

The relations among the independent variables are therefore:
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Cartesian to Cylindrical Cylindrical to Cartesian

ρ=(x2 + y2) x= ρ cos 
= tan-1(y/x) y= ρ sin 
z=z z=z

If a vector A=Aρ aρ + A a + Az az is given in cylindrical coordinate system,

it can be expressed in the rectangular coordinate system as A=Ax ax + Ay ay
+ Az az. The vector components Ax, Ay and Az can be obtained in terms of
the vector components and independent variables of cylindrical system by
dot multiplying the vector A in both systems by ax, ay, and az, respectively.
(Ax ax + Ay ay + Az az)  ax = (Aρ aρ + A a + Az az)  ax
or Ax= (Aρ aρ + A a + Az az)  ax
From Fig. 0.6(b), we have
aρ=cos  ax+ sin  ay and a= - sin  ax+ cos  ay
Hence, aρ  ax= cos , a  ax= - sin , and az  ax= 0.
 Ax= Aρ cos  - A sin  ........................................................................(0.1)
Ay can be obtained from
(Ax ax + Ay ay + Az az)  ay = (Aρ aρ + A a + Az az)  ay
or Ay= (Aρ aρ + A a + Az az)  ay
Now,
aρ  ay= sin , a  ay= cos , and az  ay= 0.
 Ay= Aρ sin  + A cos  .......................................................................(0.2)
And Az can be obtained from
(Ax ax + Ay ay + Az az)  az = (Aρ aρ + A a + Az az)  az
or Az= (Aρ aρ + A a + Az az)  az
As,
aρ  az= 0, a  az= 0, az  az= 1.
 Az= Az ..................................................................................................(0.3)

Similarly, the vector components Aρ, A and Az can be obtained in terms of

the vector components and independent variables of Cartesian system by dot
multiplying the vector A in both systems by aρ, a, and az, respectively.
(Aρ aρ + A a + Az az)  aρ =(Ax ax + Ay ay + Az az)  aρ
or Aρ =(Ax ax + Ay ay + Az az)  aρ
= Ax cos +Ay sin =Ax (x/(x2+ y2)1/2) + Ay (y/(x2 + y2)1/2) ............(0.4)
A can be obtained from
(Aρ aρ + A a + Az az)  a =(Ax ax + Ay ay + Az az)  a
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or A =(Ax ax + Ay ay + Az az)  a
= -Ax sin +Ay cos = -Ax (y/(x2+y2)1/2)+Ay (x/(x2+ y2)1/2) ............(0.5)
Az can be obtained from
(Aρ aρ + A a + Az az)  az =(Ax ax + Ay ay + Az az)  az
or Az=(Axax+Ayay+Azaz)az = Az ............................................................(0.6)

The result of vector transformation from Cartesian to Cylindrical and vice-

versa are summarized in the following table:

Cartesian to Cylindrical Cylindrical to Cartesian

Aρ= Ax (x/(x2 + y2)1/2) + Ay (y/(x2 + y2)1/2) Ax= Aρ cos  - A sin 
A= -Ax (y/(x2 + y2)1/2) + Ay (x/(x2 + y2)1/2) Ay= Aρ sin  + A cos 
Az = Az Az = Az

0.3.2 COORDINATE AND VECTOR TRANSFORMATION

BETWEEN CARTESIAN AND SPHERICAL
From the projection of r on the z axis and onto the xy-plane as shown in Fig.
0.7, we have x=r sin cos, y= r sin sin and z=r cos.

Fig. 0.7
The relations among the independent variables are therefore:

Cartesian to Spherical Spherical to Cartesian

r=(x2 + y2 +z2) x= r sin  cos 
= cos-1(z/(x2 + y2 +z2)) y= r sin  sin 
=tan-1(y/x) z= r cos 
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Fig. 0.8
From Figs. 0.8 and 0.6(b), we have ar=sinaρ+cosaz=sin(cosax+sinay)
+cosaz= r/r=(xax+yay+zaz)/(x2+y2+z2)1/2,
a=cosaρ-sinaz=cos(cosax+sinay)- sin az and from our previous result
a= - sin  ax+ cos  ay.

Now if a vector A=Ar ar + A a + A a is given in spherical coordinate

system, it can be expressed in the rectangular coordinate system as A=Ax ax
+ Ay ay + Az az. The vector components Ax, Ay and Az can be obtained in
terms of the vector components and independent variables of spherecal
system by dot multiplying the vector A in both systems by ax, ay, and az,
respectively.
(Ax ax + Ay ay + Az az)  ax = (Ar ar + A a + A a)  ax
or Ax= (Ar ar + A a + A a)  ax
Now,
ar  ax= { sin(cos  ax+ sin  ay)+ cos az }  ax = sin  cos 
a  ax={ cos(cos  ax+ sin  ay) - sin az}  ax=cos  cos 
a  ax= - sin .
Ax= Ar sin  cos +A cos  cos  - A sin ........................................(0.7)
Ay can be obtained from
(Ax ax + Ay ay + Az az)  ay = (Ar ar + A a + A a)  ay
or Ay= (Ar ar + A a + A a)  ay
Since,
ar  ay= { sin(cos  ax+ sin  ay)+ cos az }  ay = sin  sin 
a  ay={ cos(cos  ax+ sin  ay) - sin az}  ay =cos  sin 
a  ay= cos .
Ay=Ar sin  sin +A cos  sin  + A cos ........................................(0.8)
And Az can be obtained from
(Ax ax + Ay ay + Az az)  az = (Ar ar + A a + A a)  az
or Az= (Ar ar + A a + A a)  az
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Now,
ar  az= { sin(cos  ax+ sin  ay)+ cos az }  az = cos 
a  az={ cos(cos  ax+ sin  ay) - sin az}  az = - sin 
a  az= 0.
Az=Ar cos  - A sin ..........................................................................(0.9)

Similarly the vector components Ar, A and A can be obtained in terms of

the vector components and independent variables of catesian system by dot
multiplying the vector A in both systems by ar, a, and a, respectively.
(Ar ar + A a + A a)  ar =(Ax ax + Ay ay + Az az)  ar
or Ar=(Ax ax + Ay ay + Az az)  ar
=Ax sin  cos  + Ay sin  sin  + Az cos = Ax (x/r)+ Ay (y/r)+ Az(z/r)
=Ax(x/(x2+y2+z2)1/2)+Ay(y/(x2+y2+z2)1/2)+Az(z/(x2+y2 +z2)1/2) .....(0.10)
A can be obtained from
(Ar ar + A a + A a)  a =(Ax ax + Ay ay + Az az)  a
or A=(Ax ax + Ay ay + Az az)  a
= Ax cos  cos  + Ay cos  sin  - Az sin 
=Ax(zx/((x2+y2)1/2 (x2 + y2 +z2)1/2))+Ay (zy/((x2 + y2)1/2 ( x2 + y2 +z2)1/2))
- Az ((x2 + y2)1/2/(x2 + y2 +z2)1/2))..................................................(0.11)
A can be obtained from
(Ar ar + A a + A a)  a =(Ax ax + Ay ay + Az az)  a
or A=(Ax ax + Ay ay + Az az)  a
= -Ax sin  + Ay cos 
= - Ax (y/(x2 + y2)1/2) + Ay (x/(x2 + y2)1/2) ......................................(0.12)
The result of vector transformation from Cartesian to spherical and vice-
versa are summarized in the following table:

Cartesian to Spherical Spherical to Cartesian

Ar= Ax (x/(x2 + y2 +z2)1/2) + Ay (y/( x2 + y2 Ax= Ar sin  cos +A cos  cos  - A
+z2)1/2) + Az(z/(x2 + y2 +z2)1/2) sin 
A= Ax (zx/((x2 + y2)1/2 (x2 + y2 +z2)1/2)) + Ay= Ar sin  sin +A cos  sin  + A
Ay (zy/((x2 + y2)1/2 ( x2 + y2 +z2)1/2)) - Az cos 
((x2 + y2)1/2/(x2 + y2 +z2)1/2)) Az= Ar cos  - A sin 
A=- Ax (y/(x2 + y2)1/2) + Ay (x/(x2 + y2)1/2)

0.4 GRADIENT OF A SCALAR FIELD

In this section, we consider the spatial derivatives of a scalar function, which
led to the definition of the gradient. Then, in the following sections, we will
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pay our attention to the spatial derivatives of a vector field, which will lead
to the definitions of the divergence and the curl of a vector.
If f(x, y, z) be a real-valued function of x, y, and z, as shown in the following
figure, the differential change in f from P to Q, can be written as
f f f  f f f 
df  dx  dy  dz   a x  a y  a z   (dxa x  dya y  dza z )
x y z  x y z 
 N  dl
df
or ,  Nan  al
dl

From the above equation, it is evident that the rate of change in the function
f is maximum when al and N are collinear. That is,
df
 N ……………………………………………………………..(0.13)
dl max

For the ratio df/dl to be maximum, the distance dl from P to Q must be

minimum. In other words, df/dl is maximum when both al and N are normal
to the surface f(x, y, z)=constant. N, by definition, is then the gradient of the
scalar function f(x, y, z) and is written as f where  is called the del
operator.
The gradient of a scalar function f is a vector that represents both the
magnitude and the direction of the maximum space rate of increase of f.

The expressions for the gradient of a scalar function f in Cartesian,

cylindrical, and spherical coordinate systems are, respectively
   
f   a x  a y  a z  f
 x y z 
 1   
  a  a  a z  f (0.14)
    z 
 1  1  
  ar  a 
r sin   
a f
 r r 
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We summarize the properties of the gradient of a scalar function at a point as

follows:
1. It is normal to the surface on which the given function is constant.
2. It points in the direction in which the given function changes most
rapidly with position.
3. Its magnitude gives the maximum rate of change of the given function
per unit distance.
4. The directional derivative of a function at a point in any direction is
equal to the dot product of the gradient of the function and the unit
vector in that direction.
5. If A=f, f is said to be the scalar potential of A.

0.5 DIVERGENCE OF A VECTOR FIELD

If A is any vector, then the divergence of A is
 A  ds
div A    A  lim s
(0.15)
v 0 v
The divergence of A at a given point is a measure of how much the field
represented by A diverges or converges from that point. In the following
figure, the field is diverging at point P in (a), in (b) the field is converging,
and in (c) whatever the field at P is converging, same is diverging.

Fig.: 0.9
For the above example, the divergence of A at P in (a), in (b), and in (c) are,
respectively, positive, negative, and zero. A positive divergence for any
vector field indicates the presence of a source of that field at that point. A
negative divergence for any vector field indicates a sink (absorber) of that
field at that point. A zero divergence indicates there exist no source or sink
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at that point; in this case,   A  0 and A is said to be a continuous or

solenoidal vector field.
We shall now derive an expression for the   A in Cartesian coordinates
using equation (0.15). Suppose we wish to evaluate the divergence of A at
point P (x, y, z) which is enclosed by a differential volume as in Fig. 0.10.

Fig.:0.10
There are three pairs of plane parallel surfaces perpendicular to the
coordinate axes so that
 A  ds   A ( x)dydz   A ( x  x)dydz
s 1
x
1
x

  Ay ( y  y )dxdz   Ay ( y )dxdz
2 2

  Az ( z  z )dxdy   Az ( z )dxdy
3 3

where the primed surfaces are differential distances behind the

corresponding unprimed surfaces. The minus signs arise because the
outgoing normal on the primed surfaces point in the negative coordinate
directions.
The components of A are assumed approximately constant along each
surface because of the differential size of the surfaces. Therefore, the above
equation become
 
 Ax ( x)  Ax ( x  x) Ay ( y  y)  Ay ( y) Az ( z  z )  Az ( z ) 
 A  ds  
s
x

y

z
xyz

In the limit that the volume becomes infinitesimally small (in other words
x, y, z are all tends to zero), each of the bracketed terms defines a partial
derivative, so that
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 Ax Ay Az 

lim  A  ds   x
v 0 s

y
 V
z 
(0.16)

The divergence of vector A is therefore given by

 A A A 
  A   x  y  z  (0.17)
 x y z 
In a similar way we can obtain the expressions for the divergence of A in
cylindrical and spherical coordinate systems by considering the
corresponding small volumes around the point and compute
lim  A  ds .
v0 s

The divergence of vector A in cylindrical system is then given by

 1 ( A ) 1 A Az 
  A     . (0.18)
     z 
And the divergence of vector A in spherical system is given by
 1 (r 2 Ar ) 1 ( A sin  ) 1 A 
  A   2    . (0.19)
r r r sin   r sin   

0.5.1 THE DIVERGENCE THEOREM

From the definition of divergence of a vector field A given by equation

(0.15), we obtain for a very small differential volume vj enclosing by a
surface sj,
(  A) j v j   A  ds (0.20)
sj

A macroscopic volume V with enclosing surface S is assumed to be made of

N such small differential volumes, as shown in Fig. 0.11.

Fig.:0.11
Let us now combine the contributions of all these differential volumes to
equation (0.20), that results
N  N 
lim  (  A) j v j   lim   A  ds (0.21)
v j 0
 j 1 
v j 0
 j 1 s j 
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The left side of (0.21) is the volume integral of   A and is:

N 
lim  (  A) j v j    (  A)dv (0.22)
v j 0
 j 1  v
The surface integrals on the right side of (0.21) are summed over all the
faces of all the differential volumes. The contributions from the internal
surfaces of adjacent small volumes will, however, cancel each other;
because at a common internal surface, outward flux from one differential
volume is inward to the neighboring differential volume. Therefore, the net
contribution of the right side of (0.21) is due only to that of the external
surface S enclosing the volume V; that is
N 
lim   A  ds   A  ds (0.23)
v j 0
 j 1 s j  s
From (0.21) to (0.23), we obtain
 (  A)dv   A  ds
v s
(0.24)

which is divergence theorem(also known as Gauss-Ostrogradsky theorem).

It states that the volume integral of the divergence of a vector field equals
the total outward flux of the vector through the surface that bounds the
volume provided that A and   A are continuous in the region.
The divergence theorem enables us to convert a closed surface integration
into a volume integration and vice-versa.

0.6 CURL OF A VECTOR FIELD

If A is any vector, then the curl of A is

 C A  dl 
curl A    A   lim a (0.25)
 S 0 S  maxn
 
where the area S is bounded by the curve C and an is the unit vector normal
to the surface S and is determined using the right-hand rule.
The physical significance of the curl of a vector field is evident in equation
(0.25). The curl provides the maximum value of the circulation per unit area
of the vector field taken around a small area of any shape. Its direction,
determined by the right-hand rule, is normal to the plane of the surface. In
other words, if the line integral of a vector field about a closed elementary
path is nonzero, the curl of the vector field is also nonzero and we say that
the vector field is rotational. The flow of water out of a tub or a sink is an
example of a rotational velocity field of the flow. On the other hand, if the
 M. M. ALI

curl of a vector field is zero, the vector field is said to be irrotational or

conservative. A common example of a conservative field is the work done
by a force acting on a body.
We shall now derive an expression for   A in Cartesian coordinates using
equation (0.25). The line integral in (0.25) for the considered infinitesimal
area on the xy-plane as in Fig. 0.12 is obtained as:

Fig.:0.12
x  x y  y x y

 A  dl   A ( y)dx   A ( x  x)dy   A ( y  y)dx   A ( x)dy

C x
x
y
y
x  x
x
y  y
y (0.26)

The components of A are approximately constant over each differential leg so that (0.26)
can be approximated as
 [ A ( y)  Ax ( y  y)] [ Ay ( x  x)  Ay ( x)] 
C A  dl   x y

x
xy

(0.27)

In the limit as x and y become infinitesimally small, from (0.27) we get

 A  dl  A A 
(  A) z  lim C
  y  x  (0.28)
x 0 S z  x y 
y 0

In the similar for yz and zx planes, we get:

 A  dl  Az Ay 
(  A) x  lim C
    (0.29)
y 0 S x  y z 
z 0

 A  dl  A A 
(  A) y  lim C
 x  z  (0.30)
z 0 S y  z x 
x0

(  A) x , (  A ) y , and (  A) z are, respectively the x, y, and z components of

curl of A. With the equations (0.28)-(0.30), we may write the curl of A in
Cartesian coordinate system as
 M. M. ALI

ax ay az
  
curl A    A  (0.31)
x y z
Ax Ay Az
The expressions for curl of the vector field A in cylindrical and spherical
coordinate systems are given, respectively by (0.32) and (0.33).
aρ aφ az
1   
curl A    A  (0.32)
   z
A A Az
ar raθ r sin aφ
1   
curl A    A  2 (0.33)
r sin  r  
Ar rA r sin A

0.6.1 STOKES’ THEOREM

From the definition of curl of a vector field A given by equation (0.25), we

obtain for a very small differential area sj enclosing by a contour Cj,
(  A) j  s j an   A  dl (0.34)
Cj

Suppose an arbitrary surface S with enclosing contour C is divided into N

small differential areas as shown in Fig. 0.13, of which sj is typical.

Fig.:0.13

Let us now combine the contributions of all these differential areas to

equation (0.34), which results
N  N 
lim  (  A) j  s j an   lim   A  dl  (0.35)
s j 0
 j 1 
s j 0
 j 1 C j 
The left side of (0.35) is the surface integral of   A and is:
 M. M. ALI

N 
lim  (  A) j  s j an    (  A)  ds (0.36)
s j 0
 j 1  S
We now sum up the line integrals around the contours of all the differential
elements represented by the right side of (0.35). Since the common part of
the contours of two adjacent elements is traversed in opposite directions by
two contours, the net contribution of all the common parts in the interior to
the total line integral is zero, and only the contribution from the external
contour C bounding the entire surface S remains after the summation. That is
N 
lim   A  dl    A  dl (0.37)
s j 0
 j 1 C j  C
From (0.35) to (0.37), we obtain
 (  A)  ds   A  dl
S C
(0.38)

which is Stoke’s theorem. It states that the integral of the normal component
of the curl of a vector field over an area is equal to the line integral of the
vector field along the curve bounding the area provided that A and   A are
continuous on S.
The Stoke’s theorem enables us to convert a surface integration into a closed
line integration and vice-versa.

0.7 THE LAPLACIAN

The operator that results by taking the dot product of the del operator with
itself is denoted by 2 and is called the Laplacian operator.
The Laplacian of a scalar field f is obtained by taking the divergence of the
gradient of the scalar field f. Thus, in Cartesian system,
2 f 2 f 2 f
Laplacian f    (f )  2 f    (0.39)
x 2 y 2 z 2
The Laplacian of f in cylindrical and spherical are given, respectively, by
1   f  1  2 f  2 f
2 f     (0.40)
      2  2 z 2
1   2 f  1   f  1 2 f
2 f   r    sin    (0.41)
r 2 r  r  r 2 sin      r 2 sin 2   2
If the Laplacian of a scalar field f in a region is zero, that is if 2f=0
(Laplace equation), then the solution of f is harmonic (sine/cosine function).
The Laplacian of a vector field A is defined as the gradient of the
divergence of A minus the curl of the curl of A. That is,
 2 A  (  A)      A (0.42)
 M. M. ALI

0.8 NULL IDENTITIES

Two identities involving repeated del operations are of considerable
importance in the study of electromagnetism, especially when we introduce
potential function. We shall discuss them in the following sub-article.

0.8.1.1 Identity I
If any scalar function V and its first derivatives both exist everywhere in a
region, the curl of the gradient of the scalar function is identically zero; that
is
  (V )  0 (0.43)
Conversely, if a vector field is curl free, then it can be expressed as the
gradient of a scalar field. That is, if E is a vector field and   E  0 , we can
define a scalar function V such that E  V . The use of –ve sign in this
equation will be clear in the next chapter.

0.8.1.2 Identity II

The divergence of the curl of any vector field A is identically zero; that is
  (  A)  0 (0.44)
Conversely, if a vector field is divergenceless, then it can be expressed as
the curl of another vector field. That is, if B is a vector field and   B  0 , we
can define a vector field A such that B    A .

0.9 CLASSIFICATION OF FIELDS

The divergence and curl of a vector field are independent operations;
therefore, neither one is sufficient to describe a field completely. In fact, in
the study of electromagnetics, we will find that fields fall into four basic
classifications.

Class I fields To be a class I vector field everywhere in a region, the vector field E
must satisfy   E  0 and   E  0. In this case the vector field
E is said to be solenoidal (such a field has neither source nor sink of
flux lines) and irrotational (also known as conservative field which
can be explained by Stokes’ theorem). Examples of class I fields are
electrostatic field in charge free medium and the magnetostatic field
in the current free medium.
Class II fields We will refer to a vector field E as a class II field in a given region
if   E  0 and   E  0. In this case the vector field E is said
 M. M. ALI

to be irrotational (also known as conservative field which can be

explained by Stokes’ theorem) but not solenoidal (such a field has
either source or sink of flux lines). Electrostatic field in a charged
region is an example of class II fields.
Class III fields We will consider a vector field E as a class III field in a given region
if   E  0 and   E  0. In this case the vector field E is said
to be solenoidal but not irrotational. Magnetostatic field around a
current carrying conductor is an example of class III fields.
Class IV fields For a vector field E to be class IV, neither its divergence nor its curl
is zero; that is   E  0 and   E  0. In this case the vector
field E is said to be neither solenoidal nor irrotational. An electric
field in a charged medium with a time varying magnetic field is an
example of class IV fields.

SUMMARY
1) A point P is represented as P(x, y, z), P(, , z), and P(r, , ) in
Cartesian, Cylindrical, and Spherical coordinate system respectively.
2) The following conversion tables can be used to transform coordinate
variables from one system to another:
Cartesian to Cylindrical Cylindrical to Cartesian
ρ=(x2 + y2) x= ρ cos 
= tan (y/x)
-1
y= ρ sin 
z=z z=z

Cartesian to Spherical Spherical to Cartesian

r=(x2 + y2 +z2) x= r sin  cos 
= cos (z/(x + y +z ))
-1 2 2 2
y= r sin  sin 
=tan (y/x)
-1
z= r cos 
3) The position vectors in Cartesian, Cylindrical, and Spherical system are
respectively: r=x ax+y ay +z az, r= aρ+z az, and r=r ar.
4) The distance vector between two points in Cartesian, Cylindrical, and
Spherical system are respectively: dL=dx ax+dy ay +dz az, dL= dρ aρ +
ρd a +dz az, and dL= dr ar + rd a + r sin d a.
5) The differential volumes in Cartesian, Cylindrical, and Spherical
system are respectively: dv=dxdydz, dv= ρdρddz, and dv= r2sin
drdd.
6) In Cartesian system, the three distinct surfaces in the positive direction
of x, y, and z axes are dsx=dydz ax, dsy=dzdx ay and dsz=dxdy az -
respectively.
 M. M. ALI

7) In Cylindrical system, the three distinct surfaces in the positive

direction of , , and z axes are dsρ = ρddz aρ, ds = dρdz a and dsz=
ρdρd az respectively.
8) In Spherical system, the three distinct surfaces in the positive direction
of r, , and  axes are dsr = r2sindd ar, ds = rsindrd a and ds =
rdrd a respectively.
9) The gradient of a scalar function f in Cartesian, Cylindrical, and
Spherical system are:
   
f   a x  a y  a z  f
 x y z 
 1   
  a  a  a z  f
    z 
 1  1  
  ar  a 
r sin   
a f
 r r 
10) The divergence of a vector field A in Cartesian, Cylindrical, and
Spherical system are:
 A A A 
  A   x  y  z 
 x y z 
 1 ( A ) 1 A Az 
  A     
     z 
 1 (r 2 Ar ) 1 ( A sin  ) 1 A 
  A   2    .
r r r sin   r sin   
11) The curl of a vector field A in Cartesian, Cylindrical, and Spherical
system are:
ax ay az
  
curl A    A 
x y z
Ax Ay Az
aρ aφ az
1   
curl A    A 
   z
A A Az
ar raθ r sin aφ
1   
curl A    A  2
r sin  r  
Ar rA r sin A
 M. M. ALI

12) The Divergence theorem:  (  A)dv   A  ds

v s

13) The Stokes’ theorem:  (  A)  ds   A  dl

S C

14) The Laplacian in Cartesian, Cylindrical, and Spherical system:

2 f 2 f 2 f
2 f   
x 2 y 2 z 2
1   f  1  2 f  2 f
 f 
2
  
      2  2 z 2
1   2 f  1   f  1 2 f
 f  2 r   sin  
2

r r  r  r 2 sin      r 2 sin 2   2
15) Vector identities:   (V )  0 and   (  A)  0 .
16) There are four types of fields:
a) Solenoidal and irrotational:   E  0 and   E  0.
b) Irrotational but not solenoidal:   E  0 and   E  0.
c) Solenoidal but not irrotational:   E  0 and   E  0.
d) Neithger solenoidal nor irrotational:   E  0 and   E  0.

Example 0.1 Find the gradient of the magnitude of position vector to

an arbitrary point.
Sol: Let us use Cartesian coordinate system so that the position vector is
r  xax  ya y  za z and r  r  x 2  y 2  z 2
 r r r 
r   a x  a y  a z 
 x y z 


1
 r
xa x  ya y  za z   ar
x2  y 2  z 2 r
This is the required result which says that the distance from the origin
increases most rapidly in the radial direction and its rate of increase in that
direction 1(the magnitude of the gradient vector).
Example 0.2 Find the divergence of the position vector to an arbitrary
point.
Sol: Let us first use Cartesian coordinate so that the position vector is
r  xa x  ya y  za z . Therefore the divergence of r is
  

 
  r   a x  a y  a z   xa x  ya y  za z  3
 x y z 
In cylindrical coordinate system r  aρ  za z and its divergence is
 M. M. ALI

 1 ( A ) 1 A Az   1 (  2 ) z 

  r         3.
     z     z 
In spherical coordinate system r  rar and its divergence is
 1 (r 2 Ar ) 1 ( A sin  ) 1 A  1 r 3
  r   2     3.
r r r sin   r sin    r 2 r
Example 0.3 Obtain the vector from A(2, 2, 1) to B(3, -4, 2) and a unit
vector directed from A to B.
Sol: The coordinates of the points are given in Cartesian coordinate;
therefore the vector AB(vector from A to B) is
AB  ( xB  x A )a x  ( yB  y A )a y  ( z B  z A )a z  a x  6a y  a z
This can also be obtained from the difference of position vectors of points B
and A.
Now, the magnitude of the vector AB is
AB  1  36  1  6.1644 . Therefore the unit vector in the direction from A to
B is
AB a x  6a y  a z
a AB    0.1622a x  0.9733a y  0.1622a z
AB 6.1644
Example 0.4 If f(x, y, z) is a continuously differentiable scalar
function, show that   (f )  0.
Sol: The gradient of the scalar function f(x, y, z) is
 f f f 
f   a x  a y  a z  and its curl is
 x y z 

ax ay az
    2 f 2 f   2 f 2 f   2 f 2 f 
  (f )     a x    a y    a z =0
x y z  yz zy   zx xz   xy yx 
f f f
x y z
Because the curl of a gradient of a scalar function is always zero, f is an
irrotational or conservative field.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
0.1 If the line integral of vector E around a closed loop is zero, E
represents a __________ field.
0.2 If a vector field E can be written in terms of the gradient of a scalar
field f, the vector field is __________ in nature.
 M. M. ALI

0.3 If the divergence of a vector field B is zero, the vector field is

_______.
0.4 If the integral of a vector field B around a closed surface is zero, the
vector field is _________.
0.5 If the divergence of a vector field B is zero, B can be expressed in
terms of another unknown vector A such that B=_________.
0.6 A thermal field is defined as E=- and E=0. What is the class of
this thermal field?
0.7 If r=xax+ yay+ zaz and r=|r|, which of the following is incorrect?
(a) r=r/r (b) r=1 (c) 2(rr)=6 (d) r=0
0.8 Given A= 3x2yz ax+ x3z ay+ (x3y-2z) az, it can be said that A is
(a) Divergenceless (b) Solenoidal (c) Rotational (d) Conservative

EXERCISES
0.1 Two points P(1, , 0) and Q(0, -/2, 2) ar given. Find the distance
vector from P to Q. What its length?
0.2 Express the position vector r=xax+ yay+ zaz in the spherical
coordinate system.
0.3 Express the unit vectors ar, a, and a in Cartesian coordinates.
0.4 If F=rar+rtana+rsincosa, transform F to the rectangular
coordinate system.
0.5 Transform the vector 5ax at Q(3, 4, -2) to the cylindrical coordinate
system.
0.6 State the divergence/Stokes’ theorem.
0.7 What is the physical definition of the divergence/curl of a vector
field?
0.8 What is the physical definition of the gradient of a scalar field?
0.9 Find the gradient of r where r is the magnitude of position vector
r  aρ  za z in the cylindrical coordinate system.
0.10 Explain that a vector field with only radial flux lines cannot be
solenoidal.
0.11 Explain that a vector field with only straight flux lines can be
solenoidal.
0.12 What is the difference between an irrotational field and a solenoidal
field?
0.13 The position vectors of points P and Q are given as 5ax+ 12ay+ az and
2ax- 3ay+ az, respectively. What is the distance vector from P to Q?
 M. M. ALI

0.14 Show that the vector field E=yzax+ xzay+ xyaz is both solenoidal and
conservative (irrotational).
0.15 Using the rectangular coordinate system, verify that   (  A)  0 .
0.16 If the field E=E0cosar - E0sina, find the divergence and curl of E.