F E A T U R E A R T I C L E

Power Transformer Disruptions—

A Case Study
Key words: power transformer, diagnostics, failure, defect, disruption

Introduction André Pereira Marques

A power transformer is one of the most important and costly
pieces of equipment in electrical systems. Its importance is
CELG Distribuição, Goiânia, GO, Brazil
attributed directly to the continuity in the supply of electrical and Federal Institute of Education,
power, since its loss through failure or defect means an Science and Technology of Goiás,
interruption in the supply of electrical power. This is a large
piece of equipment whose substitution is expensive and involves Goiânia, GO, Brazil
a lengthy process.
Research for new technologies and new predictive Cacilda de Jesus Ribeiro
maintenance techniques has greatly contributed to reducing School of Electrical, Mechanical
outages, thereby ensuring improved reliability of energy supply.
Several studies have highlighted the importance of optimizing
and Computer Engineering, Federal
maintenance processes and diagnostics of substation equipment University of Goiás, Goiânia, GO, Brazil
such as transformers [1].
In this context, the purpose of this research was to study Cláudio Henrique Bezerra Azevedo
faults and defects that occurred over a period of 33 years of and José Augusto Lopes dos Santos
34.5-kV through 230-kV mineral-oil-filled power transformers
at the electric power concessionaire CELG, which supplies more
CELG Distribuição, Goiânia, GO, Brazil
than 2 million customers, distributed in 237 municipalities, in
the state of Goiás, Brazil.
Felipe Resende de Carvalho Sousa
In this article a defect is considered as an anomaly in a School of Electrical, Mechanical
transformer that can cause it to operate irregularly and/or below and Computer Engineering, Federal
its nominal capacity, and if not corrected, the defect in time can
lead to failure of the transformer and its removal from service [2]. University of Goiás, Goiânia, GO, Brazil
A fault is an anomaly in a transformer that causes a failure in
its operation, forcing its removal from service [2]. It should be
Leonardo da Cunha Brito
noted that, in this study, the removal of transformers showing School of Electrical, Mechanical
imminent danger of failure, for example, forced removal from and Computer Engineering, Federal
operation, was also considered a fault.
As it is used here, the term “disruption” indicates that the University of Goiás, Goiânia, GO, Brazil
service of a transformer was interrupted, as it was removed
from operation because of a defect or fault. In this study
autotransformers are also included.
The article presents an analysis over
Power Transformers an operational period of 33 years of
For this study, the faults and defects causing interruptions of 34.5-kV through 230-kV mineral-oil-
power transformers were identified and put into the applicable
compartments, as illustrated in Figure 1. filled power transformers that have
Number of Disruptions
been removed from service because
In this study from 1979 to 2012, three hundred 3-phase of faults and defects.
transformers and transformer banks (devices) caused 411

March/April — Vol. 30, No. 2 0883-7554/12/$31/©2014/IEEE 17

 Table 2. Distribution of Transformer Disruptions.

Disruptions Number of disruptions %

Faults 208 50.6

Defects 203 49.4

Total 411 100

and degradation of the insulation system is usually the main

Figure 1. Compartments of a power transformer for analysis of
faults and defects causing interruptions.
service disruptions and several of these devices showed more
than one disruption. Table 1 summarizes the number of devices
that suffered damage, with their respective nominal voltage and
power rating.
Of the transformer service disruptions over the 33-year study
period, a certain number were due to faults and other defects,
as indicated in Table 2, reaching a total of 411 disruptions. It
should be noted that this study took into account the devices that
were removed from service and included those that were added
to the system.
Causes of Transformer Disruptions
Figure 2 shows the various causes of transformer disruptions
as a percentage of the overall number of disruptions, with
disruptions caused by the protection system and human error
excluded from the study. In summary, the components most
affected were windings (35%), bushings (12%), on-load
tap changers (10%), de-energized tap changers (11%), and
unidentified causes due to incomplete records (9%).
The insulation system of the transformers in this study
is composed of mineral oil and solid insulation (cellulose,
varnish, or polyester), although most of it consists of oil–paper.
It was found that the disruptions due solely to problems in the
insulation oil accounted for only 5% of the total disruptions,
parameter that causes electrical faults in these devices.
The assessment of the remaining life of a transformer is
the desired result of diagnostic procedures, and generally it
is understood that the life of the insulation paper determines
the transformer’s service life [3]. Thus, when factors such as
water, oxygen, temperature, and the decomposition products
of the oil are continuously monitored and controlled, the
degradation of the insulation system is lowered, which means
less of a risk of electrical faults [4]. CELG carries out systematic
physicochemical testing and analyses of dissolved gases to
monitor and control the condition of the insulating oil of its
transformers, which is the main reason for the low percentage
of problems (5%) attributable to insulating oil in its equipment.
Transformer Failure Rates Over Time
Without considering disruptions due to the protection system
or human error, disruptions in service are caused by both defects
and faults; the difference between them is that interventions to
correct equipment defects can be programmed, unlike faults,
which are unpredictable. It is therefore essential to know the
individual transformer failure rates.
Figure 3 shows the transformer failure rates in the CELG
system per year for various voltage classes of transformers. As
can be seen, although the failure rates exceeded 10% in the years
1986 (138 kV), 1990 (69 kV), and 1992 (138 kV), the overall
rates for the entire 33-year period are quite acceptable. These
rates are listed in Table 3 and were calculated using (1).

Table 1. Number of Devices by Voltage and Power Rating Causing

Disruptions.

3-Phase power (MVA)

Nominal Number of devices
voltage (kV) (3-phase and banks) Lowest Highest

34.5 132 0.15 12.0

69 85 1.0 20.0

138 56 7.0 50

230 27 36 150 Figure 2. Causes for transformer disruptions over a 33-year

study period. OLTC = on-load tap changer; DTC = de-ener-
Total 300    
gized tap changer.

18 IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine

Figure 3. Transformer failure rates over the period 1979 to 2012.

Figure 4. Equipment failure; details of the damaged head of a 138-kV bushing.

March/April — Vol. 30, No. 2 19

 Nf
Tf = t
⋅ 100,
(1)
∑ Ne,i
i =1
where Tf is the failure rate in the period under consideration [%],
Nf is the number of failures in the period under consideration,
Ne,i is the number of devices in each year i considered, and t is
the number of years of the period considered.
Analyzed quantitatively, the slightly higher rates of the
138- and 230-kV transformers are mainly due to the fact that
there are fewer of them. Table 3 lists the failure rates of the four
voltage classes of transformers, without taking into consideration
the reserves.
The transformer failure rates in CELG’s system are relatively
low, which is attributable to the use of predictive techniques.
To further reduce the failure rates, the company’s maintenance
engineering department is seeking new predictive techniques,
with emphasis on the detection of partial discharges (PDs) using
the acoustic method.
Predictive Techniques
The dissolved gas analysis (DGA) of insulating oil is
sensitive to some types of incipient faults (defects). To quantify
the efficiency of this technique in detecting defects in CELG’s
equipment, a comparison was made of the total number of
transformer disruptions that could have been detected by DGA
and the disruptions effectively detected by this technique.
This comparison revealed an efficiency of approximately
75%. However, sampling of transformer oil for DGA is done
periodically, according to the chromatography software program
CELG uses and to the specificity of each device. Thus, between
consecutive samplings, the device may undergo adverse
operating conditions, which may trigger or accelerate incipient
faults and cause the device to fail before the next sampling,
masking the efficiency of DGA. It is therefore understood that
the efficiency of the DGA technique, per se, is higher than
75%. In addition to DGA, the detection of PDs may increase
the overall efficiency of the predictive technique as DGA has
low sensitivity for detecting PDs [5] and this could possibly
lead to inaccuracy in the analytical method. Furthermore, DGA
does not allow for the identification of the site of an incipient
Figure 5. Damage to bushing due to internal fault.
20 IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine
Table 3. Transformer Failure Rates Over the 33-Year Study Period.
Voltage (kV) 34.5 69 138 230
Total failures 112 59 21 5
Rate (%) 1.71 2.33 1.46 0.40
fault, making it difficult to locate it, especially if its intensity is
low. Particularly interesting is the use of a noninvasive method
such as the acoustic PD detection method, which allows for
monitoring of the evolution of PDs even while the device is in
operation.
Throughout its operation, a power transformer has to withstand
numerous stresses that generally result in the degradation of the
oil–paper insulation system by decomposition of the paper and/
or oxidation of the oil. Degradation reduces the quality of this
insulation. Partial discharges can lead to winding breakdowns
and may cause accelerated aging. Partial discharges must
be inferred to build an early warning system. In this context,
PDs serve as an important measuring parameter for on-line
monitoring [6].
To illustrate the above, the photograph in Figure 4 shows the
failure of a 138-kV/13.8-kV, 33-MVA power transformer due to a
lightning surge. Systematic DGA monitoring of this transformer
showed a very slight increase in gas but failed to warn about the
need to remove this device from service, ultimately leading to
damage of its bushing (Figure 5).
This fault could have been prevented by PD detection,
preventing the defect from developing into a short circuit
between the winding spirals and, hence, failure. This indicates
the need for integrating predictive maintenance techniques
to improve diagnostic efficiency and ascertain the state of
transformer insulation.
Therefore, this article highlights the combination of DGA
with the detection of PDs by acoustic emission [7], which allows
PD activity to be pinpointed in the transformer while in service.
Conclusions
Although the failures rates and the number of disruptions that
occurred during the 33-year period under study were relatively
low, it is important to implement predictive techniques other than
DGA that are sensitive to incipient faults in power transformers.
This is needed for the detection of defects involving windings,
bushings, and tap changers, which when taken together, account
for 69% of the disruptions caused by these components. These
techniques include the measurement of PDs by the acoustic
emission method, which in conjunction with DGA, could
increase the maintenance efficiency, reducing disruptions, and
therefore the quality of electric power supply.
Acknowledgments
This work was carried out in collaboration with the
Maintenance Engineering Division of CELG Distribuição,
CELG D, and the Federal University of Goiás School of
Electrical and Computer Engineering (EEEC/UFG) through a
partnership in an R&D Project - ANEEL.
References Cláudio Henrique Bezerra Azevedo was
[1] M. Wang, A. J. Vandermar, and K. D. Srivastava, “Review of condition born May 27, 1961, in Goiânia, Goiás,
assessment of power transformers in service,” IEEE Electr. Insul. Mag.,
Brazil. He holds a BSc (1983) and a MSc
vol. 18, no. 6, pp. 12–25, 2002.
[2] J. Lapworth, “Transformers reliability surveys,” Cigré Electra, no. 227, in electrical engineering from the School
pp.10–14, 2006. of Electrical, Mechanical and Computer
[3] I. Höhlein and A. J. Kachler, “Aging of cellulose at transformer service Engineering at the Federal University
temperatures. Part 2. Influence of moisture and temperature on degree
of Goiás. He works in the Department
of polymerization and formation of furanic compounds in free-breathing
systems,” IEEE Electr. Insul. Mag., vol. 21, no. 5, pp. 20–24, 2005. of Maintenance Engineering of CELG
[4] A. P. Marques, “Eficiência energética e vida útil de transformadores de Distribuição S.A.
distribuição imersos em óleo mineral isolante” (“Energy efficiency and
service life of distribution transformers immersed in insulating mineral
oil”), MS dissertation, School Electr. Comp. Eng., Federal Univ. Goiás,
Goiânia, Brazil, 2004. José Augusto Lopes dos Santos was born
[5] Técnicas de Ensaios Elétricos de alta Tensão—Medição de Descargas on July 28, 1954, in Porto, Portugal. He
Parciais, NBR-6940 (High-Voltage Electrical Testing Techniques— earned his BSc in electrical engineering
Measurement of Partial Discharges, NBR-6940), Associação Brasileira
(1982) from the School of Electrical,
de Normas Técnicas (Brazilian Technical Standards Association), Brazil,
1981. Mechanical and Computer Engineering
[6] C. Yonghong, C. Yu, L. Tong, X. Xiaowei, J. Linlie, C. Wei, and C. Lixin, at the Federal University of Goiás.
“Study of on-line monitoring method of partial discharge for power He manages and works in the Sector
transformers based on RFCT and microstrip antenna,” in Proceedings of
of Substation Maintenance at CELG
the 2005 Electrical Insulation Conference, 2005, pp.103–107.
[7] P. T. Cole, “Location of partial discharges and diagnostics of power Distribuição S.A.
transformers using acoustic methods,” in IEE Proceedings of Condition
Monitoring of Large Machine and Power Transformers, 1997, pp. 8/1–
8/3.
Felipe Resende de Carvalho Sousa was
born in Araguari, Minas Gerais, Brazil, on
André Pereira Marques was born on
March 26, 1992. Currently he is majoring
February 25, 1961, in Araguari, Minas
in electrical engineering at the School of
Gerais, Brazil. He earned his MSc (2004)
Electrical, Mechanical and Computer
in electrical engineering from the School
Engineering of the Federal University of
of Electrical, Mechanical and Computer
Goiás. He is also doing an internship in the
Engineering (EMC) at the Federal
Department of Maintenance Engineering
University of Goiás (UFG) and BSc (1984)
at CELG Distribuição S.A.
in electrical engineering from EMC/
UFG. He works in the Department of
Maintenance Engineering at CELG Distribution S.A. and is also
Leonardo da Cunha Brito was born
a professor in electrical engineering at the Federal Institute of
in Goiânia, Goiás, Brazil, on December
Education, Science and Technology of Goiás.
9, 1975. He holds a PhD in electrical
engineering (2003) from the University
Cacilda de Jesus Ribeiro was born on
of Brasilia. He is an associate professor
August 8, 1971, in Matão, São Paulo,
in the School of Electrical, Mechanical
Brazil. She earned her PhD (2002) and
and Computer Engineering at the Federal
postdoctoral degree (2004) in electrical
University of Goiás.
engineering from the São Carlos School
of Engineering, University of São Paulo.
She is an adjunct professor at the School
of Electrical, Mechanical and Computer
Engineering at the Federal University of
Goiás.

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