ATA 32. Landing Gear AS-05-02 (PLAN-06) PDF

ATITA AIRFRAME STUDY PLAN: 06
MODULE AS-05-02 REVISION: 00
BOOKLET:01
CONTENTS
Objectives/Advice 2
Introduction 2
Multiple Axles and Wheels 3
Activity 1 4
Bogie Beams 5
Activity 2 9
Door Sequencing 10
Self Assessment 15
Self Assessment Review 16
Summary 16
Suggested Practical Activities 16
Essential Reading 16
Page 1 of 100
OBJECTIVES/ADVICE
I have assumed that you have already gained the knowledge covered
by study Plan No. 4 of Module No. 3 (Landing Gear Systems).
At the end of this booklet you should be able to:-
 State the advantages of multiple axle and wheel assemblies.
 Understand the principles and operation of 'bogie beams and

their associated parts.
 Understand the need for and the operation sequencing and the
methods employed.
You will find activity questions in this booklet. Answer them as you
reach them, and if you find difficulties re-read the previous pages.
This booklet should take you about one hour of study time.
INTRODUCTION
The increase in size and weight of aircraft has led to an increase in

the wheel loading. Since most of the weight of an aircraft is carried
on the main wheels, it is these wheels that have received the most
attention. The amount of main wheel loading dictates the type of
surface the aircraft can load or park on; high wheel loadings can
prevent aircraft from operating from many runways.
Page 2 of 100
MULTIPLE AXLES AND WHEELS
To allow for the maximum utilization pf aircraft when operating from

as many runways as possible, multi-wheel landing gear is used
typical configurations are shown in Fig. 1.
LOAD DISTRIBUTION
AREA MEDIUM LOW (VERY LOW IF 8 USED)
LARGE WHEEL
DIFFICULT TO
STOW AND
HANDLE
SMALL WHEELS EASY TO

STOW AND HANDLE
SINGLE TANDEM DOUBLE BOGIE
Fig. 1 TYPICAL MULTIWHEEL CONFIGURATIONS
Since it is very expensive to strengthen long runways for heavy jet

transports, many aircraft are designed with multiple wheels on their
landing gear. The philosophy is simple; large single wheels are
replaced by a number of smaller wheels, e.g. larger aircraft use eight
wheels on each main landing gear. The actual configuration chosen is
decided after consideration of storage problems on retraction. Multi-
wheel landing gears have other advantages other than just spreading
the load over a large area:
 They are easier to stow. As the wheels are smaller the volume
is reduced, and some undercarriages can be folded to reduce
the volume even more.
 They provide greater safety. As the load is spread over several

wheels, a tyre burst is not as critical as the remaining wheels
can accept the extra load.
 They are easier to service. The wheels are smaller and

therefore easier to handle.
 They are lighter. The more wheels on a landing gear, the

lighter the assembly, because of the reduction in size of the
wheels.
Page 3 of 100
 However, multiple wheel assemblies do have some

disadvantages:
 There are more moving parts, so therefore more maintenance

is required.
 They are more expensive to produce.
 Due to the large footprint during turning, the tyres tend to

crab; this leads to increased tyre wear. To prevent or reduce
this wear, the turning circle has to be increased, thus leading
to less maneuverability.
Try these questions on what we have looked at so far.
ACTIVITY 1 5 Minutes
1. Why are multi-wheel landing gears safer than single

wheels?
2. What is the main advantage of having multi-wheels on

landing gear?
3. How can tyre scrub be reduced during taxying?
1.
2.
3.
Page 4 of 100
COMMENTS ON ACTIVITY 1
Your answers should read something like these:
1. As the load is spread over several wheels, a burst tyre will be

less critical as the remaining tyres will share the weight.
2. The main advantage is to spread the load over a larger area.
3. Tyre scrub can be reduced by increasing the turning radius

while taxying.
Let's now move on to bogie beams and their associated parts.
BOGIE BEAMS
Landing gears which use the bogie or truck principle consist of the
following parts:-
 A telescopic leg incorporating a shock absorber.
 A bogie beam pivoted about the bottom of the telescopic leg.
 Stub axles carried on the front and rear of the bogie beam.
 Torque links between the leg and the bogie beam to prevent
beam rotation relative to the leg.
A typical bogie landing gear (sometimes called trucks) is shown in

Figs. 2(a) and 2(b).
Page 5 of 100
SHOCK
ABSORBER
BOGIE PIVOT
TORQUE
LINKS BOGIE TILT
JACK
BOGIE BEAM
STUB AXLE
2(a)
TORQUE
LINKS
TILT JACK
BOGIE BEAM
2(b)
Fig. 2 TYPICAL BOGIE BEAM INSTALLATIONS
Page 6 of 100
The bogie is designed so that the undercarriage can perform two

types of shock absorption. When the weight is off the wheels, as in
flight, a small jack which is attached between the beam and the
undercarriage leg ensures that the rear wheels are tilted down, and
touch down first on landing. The tendency for the front wheels to be
slammed on t6 the runway is resisted by this jack, which is known as
a bogie tilt jack or hop damper, as it does two jobs.
The initial landing shocks are taken by the bogie tilt jack and the
landing gear acts as a levered suspension. Once all the wheels are on
the ground (aircraft weight overcomes hydraulic pressure in the tilt
jack) the undercarriage becomes a direct action type with all loads
being taken by the main shock absorber, any unevenness in the
runway being compensated for by the tilt jack allowing the bogie to
pivot about the bottom of the main shock absorber.
On some aircraft the tilt jack is used to position the bogies at the
correct angle for correct stowage in the undercarriage bay.
A/C WEIGHT OVERCOMES

ALWAYS POWERED TILT JACK –PULSE AGAINST
TO RETRACT HYD. PRESSURE HOP DAMPER
LEVER ARM DIRECTION ACTION
Fig. 3 OPERATIONAL SEQUENCE OF BOGIE ON TOUCHDOWN
The major problem with bogie undercarriages, i.e. resistance to

turning, has been overcome by use of the following methods.
Page 7 of 100
Castoring Bogie
On the castoring or steered bogie, the rear set of wheels swivel on

the bogie beam and castors when the nose wheels are steered
through a large angle. Under normal circumstances the swiveling
bogie is locked in line with the fixed bogie using hydraulic jacks (see
Fig. 4).
BOGIE BEAM
BOGIE BEAM
CASTORING PIVOT PIN
BOGIE PIVOT PIN
TILT JACK
STEERING JACK
Fig. 4 TYPICAL CASTORING BOGIE
Rotating Bogie
On this landing gear the torque links are replacement by steering

jack inputs from the nose wheel steering system, which will rotate
the whole bogie.
Single Axis Bogie
Another method used is to put all the main wheels on one axis, two
main wheels either side of the shock absorber. This also overcomes
the tyre scrub experienced with multi-wheel bogies.
Fig. 5 SINGLE AXIS BOGIE
Page 8 of 100
1. What is the purpose of the torque links?
2. What prevents the forward wheels of bogie from slamming

onto the runway on initial touchdown?
3. Can you name the two types of shock absorber the bogie
becomes, and at what stage it changes over?
1.
2.
3.
Page 9 of 100
1. The purpose of the torque links is to prevent the bogie rotating

relative to the leg, but to allow up and down movement of the
shock absorber.
2. Slam down is prevented by the tilt jack (hop damper).
3. (i) Lever arm - initial touchdown.
(ii) Direct action - when all wheels contact.
Let's move on to door sequencing.
DOOR SEQUENCING
To reduce the drag on the aircraft during flight, the landing gear is
retracted and faired using doors, which are normally hydraulically
operated.
The purpose of door sequencing is to ensure that the landing gear

and its doors operate in a logical order. Obviously, before the leg can
enter the undercarriage bay on the retract cycle the door must be
open, and once the leg has locked up the door should close to fair
the undercarriage in order to reduce drag. The down cycle will work
in the same way, that is:-
1. The door will open.
2. The leg will be unlocked and lowered.
3. On some aircraft the door is closed again after extension.
Anything that jeopardizes the sequence can cause considerable

damage to the aircraft structure and could lead to an unsafe landing
condition.
Operation
For efficient operation there must be some form of interconnection

between the position of the undercarriage leg and the position of the
doors. This may be by using mechanical linkages to programmer the
opening and closing of the doors relative to the undercarriage
position. This form of linkage uses push-pull rods or cables and bell-
cranks driven by the movement of the leg.
Page 10 of 100
PIVOT
GROUND RELEASE
LEVER
PIVOT
LANDING GEAR
LINK RODS
AFT DOOR ARROW SHOWS RETRACT DIRECTION
FORWARD DOOR
Fig. 6 TYPICAL MECHANICALLY OPERATED DOOR SYSTEM (BOTH DOORS SHOWN

OPEN)
Most undercarriage systems are powered by the aircraft hydraulic

system, although electrical and pneumatic systems do exist. Door
sequencing on hydraulically operated systems relies on the
movement of valves, operated by the door and the movement of the
leg, to allow pressure to go to the door jack or retraction jack. These
valves can be slide type valves or plunger operated; on electric
undercarriage systems they are of course micro switches.
There are a number of door sequencing valves; these include:-
 Door operated.
 Gear operated.
 Plunger operated.
Door Operated
A simple door operated valve is shown in Fig. 7. As the diagram

shows, when the door is open pressure is allowed to flow to the
retraction jack; if the door is not fully open then the undercarriage
jack will be isolated from the system.
Page 11 of 100
DOOR OPERATED SEQUENCE VALVE

TO RETRACT ACTUATOR
DOOR FULLY
OPEN
GARE UP
PRESSURE
RETRACT ACTUATOR
CONTROL ROD DOOR

U/C DOOR CLOSED
DOOR SHOWN GEAR UP

CLOSED PRESSURE
Gear Operated
Gear operated sequence valves (see Fig. 8) are used to ensure that
the door is open or in the process of opening prior to the
undercarriage entering or leaving the undercarriage bay. The transit
position ensures that while the undercarriage is moving (in transit)
the valve will ensure that the door remains open.
LINK TO U/C
CAM BOX
SLIDE VALVE
TRANSIT
UP DOWN
Fig. 8 GEAR OPERATED SEQUENCE VALVE
Page 12 of 100
Plunger Operated
Plunger operated valves allow hydraulic pressure to enter the door or

the undercarriage jack only after previously required components are
in the correct location. A typical plunger type valve is shown in Fig.
9. The left hand view shows a down selection made; pressure can go
to the door jack to begin to open the door, but cannot get past the
valve to go to the down side of the undercarriage jack. On the right
hand diagram, the door is now fully open; the plunger has been
operated by the door or its jack, and now the undercarriage jack has
pressure available to power the leg down.
TO DOOR JACK
DOOR JACK
VALVE
OPEN
SYSTEM SYSTEM
SPRING PRESSURE PRESSURE
EXTENDED SPRING
COMPRESSED
PLUNGER
OUT
PLUNGER
IN DOOR
FULLY
U/C OPEN
DOOR
CLOSED
NO FLOW TO
U/C JACK VALVE
SEATED
Fig. 9 PLUNGER OPERATED SEQUENCE VALVE
Door Sequencing System
The simplified hydraulic diagrams shown in Figs. 10 and 11 illustrate

the operation of the sequence valves in the undercarriage system;
only one undercarriage is shown, and only relevant valves are shown
for clarity. The system shown has its door left open when the
undercarriage is lowered.
Undercarriage Up (Fig.10)
System pressure is ported from the control valve direct to the

retraction jack. When the undercarriage is up and locked, the jack
pushes in the plunger and allows pressure to go to the door jack to
close the door. Until the sequence valve has been actuated, the door
must remain open as it can receive no pressure.
Page 13 of 100
KEY
UP LINE
RETURN LINE
TO NOSE AND OTHER LEG
CONTROL VALVE
RETURN LINE
DOOR
SYSTEM
PRESSURE CLOSE
(UP
SELECTION) DOOR
JACK
U/C U
UNDERCARRIAGE JACK
SEQUENCE VALVES
Fig. 10 DOOR SEQUENCE - UNDERCARRIAGE UP
Undercarriage Down (Fig. 11)
When undercarriage down has been selected, the pressure from the
control valve passes directly to the door jack, and no pressure can
get to the main jack so the undercarriage remains up until the door
is fully open. When the door has been fully opened and has operated
the sequence valve, the pressure will then be ported to the main jack
to extend the undercarriage.
DOWN LINE
RETURN LINE
TO NOSE AND OTHER LEG
DOOR
SYSTEM
PRESSURE RETURN LINE OPEN
(DOWN
SELECTION) JACK
DOOR
U/C D
UNDERCARRIAGE JACK
SEQUENCE VALVES
Fig. 11 DOOR SEQUENCE - UNDERCARRIAGE DOWN
Page 14 of 100
SELF ASSESSMENT
When you have finished this booklet, spend about ten minutes
answering these questions.
1. State the type of aircraft which have steer able bogies, and
from where the steering input originates.
2. What holds a steer able bogie straight ahead for landing and
take off?
3. On an aircraft with hydraulically sequenced doors, what would

be the result if on retraction, the door failed to open?
4. In a slide type sequence valve, how is the door maintained

open while the gear is moving?
Page 15 of 100
SELF ASSESSMENT REVIEW
The correct answers are:-
1. Large aircraft with long wingspans that need ground

maneuverability. Inputs come from the nose wheel steering
system.
2. The bogies are held straight by hydraulic jacks when no

steering input is present.
3. If the door failed to open, no pressure would go to the retract

actuator so the leg would stay down.
4. There is a transit position which ports pressure to the open side

of the door jack.
SUMMARY
We have looked at some basic landing gear systems in this booklet,

as well as bogie beams and door sequencing. You should now have
some idea of the purpose and operation of these components. Clearly
not all aircraft work this way, there are many variations and
differences incorporated in different aircraft; however, no matter
what the differences are, the theory behind their operation remains
the same.
SUGGESTED PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES
If you have access to a bogie equipped aircraft or its documentation,

look for the dbfup6nents we have discussed; find the undercarriage
extend-retract circuit and follow the fluid path through the sequence
valves.
ESSENTIAL READING
For more information, the following leaflets should be read:-
CAIPs Book 2, Leaflets AL/3-6 and AL/3-21, para 6.5.
Page 16 of 100
BOOKLET:02
CONTENTS
Objectives/Advice 18
Introduction 18
Main Brake Systems 19
Modulator 22
Brake Metering Valve (BMV) 23
Activity 1 24
Alternate Brake Provision 25
Self Assessment 29
Summary 30
Page 17 of 100
OBJECTIVES/ADVICE
This booklet has been written to enable you to understand brake

systems both main and alternate. I have assumed that you will
already have knowledge of simple brake systems and components
covered in Booklet No.4 of Study plan No.4, Module No.3. This
booklet will go deeper into brake systems and at its completion you
will be able to:-
State the reasons for split braking systems.
Explain the purpose, and describe the operation of alternate systems.
Identify the components used in main and alternate braking systems.
Describe the various types of brake system used on modern aircraft.
You will find a number of activities in this booklet. If you find any
difficulty with any of them I suggest you re-read the previous
section. This booklet will take about one hour of study.
INTRODUCTION
One of the most important systems on an aircraft is its brake system,

as I am sure you can imagine the havoc that would occur if an
aircraft lost all means of stopping whilst it was on the ground.
Most modern aircraft use a hydraulic brake system that receives its
pressure from the main aircraft system. Obviously in any system
faults can occur and to cover this eventuality alternate or back-up
systems are incorporated in aircraft. These allow hydraulic pressure
from a different source to be diverted to the brakes.
Page 18 of 100
MAIN BRAKE SYSTEMS
High pressure hydraulic brake systems use the normal aircraft

hydraulic system to provide pressurized fluid to the brakes. The
brakes can be applied by using the toe pedals attached to the rudder
bar or by a handbrake lever which is usually used for parking
purposes. An accumulator is often incorporated in the brake system
to provide a reserve of fluid pressure in case of total loss of hydraulic
pressure, or to 'top up' pressure when using the parking brake.
The hydraulic system pressure is fed to a brake metering valve

(BMV) or brake control valve (BCV) which is operated by the foot
pedals. This allows variation of system pressure to the brake units,
the more the BMV is moved the greater will be the pressure
transmitted to the brakes. Some aircraft reduce the pressure from
the hydraulic system by using a reducing valve.
A typical hydraulic brake system is illustrated in Fig. lover the page.
Page 19 of 100
SYSTEM
PRESS RETURN
NON RETURN VALVE
PRESSURE
RELIEF
VALVES
NO 2 SYSTEM
ACCUMULATORS
No 1 SYSTEM
LOW
ACCUMULATOR PRESSUR PRESSURE
E SWITCH REDUCING
VALVE
HAND
BRAKE 1st 2nd
1st 2nd PILOT’S
PILOT’S
RIGHT SIDE
LEFT SIDE
FOOT MOTORS
MODULATORS
RETURN
RETURN FROM
A/SKID
PRESSURE
TRANSMITTERS
ANTI-SKID
UNITS
OUTBOARD WHEELS
INBOARD WHEEL
Fig. 1 TYPICAL SINGLE SOURCE HYDRAULIC BRAKE SYSTEM
Let us work our way through one type of hydraulic brake system as
shows in Fig. 1 above. The numbers in the diagram relate to the
steps listed in the following script.
 System pressure (1) enters the system and passes to the No. 1
and No. 2 brake systems via NRVs (2).
Page 20 of 100
 The accumulators (3) accept the fluid pressure and store it as a

reserve supply.
 At a predetermined pressure low pressure lights on the pilot's

panel will be extinguished (4).
 Checking the gas pressure in the accumulators is done using the

pressure relief valves (5) and the gauges ( 6 ).
 System pressure passes through the pressure reducing valves (7)

and enters the brake control valve, which receives the inputs from
the pilot's pedals.
 The BCV will pass the metered pressure to Modulators (8) located
near the brake units after passing through the transmitter to give
brake pressure read-outs on a gauge on the pilot's panel. The
Modulator's purpose and operation will be explained later in this
booklet.
 Metered brake pressure passes through to the anti-skid and brake

unit.
On this particular system No. I brake system supplies the inboard

brakes and No.2 system supplies the outboard brakes. In the event
of damage to one of the systems the remaining system would
continue to be operational on its pair of wheels, loss of hydraulic
system pressure would not affect braking as the two NRVs would trap
the accumulator pressure for an emergency stop.
Another method for a split brake system is shown in Fig. 2 (over the
page). In this case the aircraft has two separate hydraulic systems
and dual brake metering valves. Each system again feeds one pair of
wheels; No. 1 system feeds the inboard brakes and No. 2 the
outboard ones.
Page 21 of 100
PILOTS PEDALS
No 2
SYS.
SHUTTLE VALVE
INPUT FROM
AUTO BRAKE
No 1
SYS.
DUAL BRAKE
METERING VALVE
ANTI-SKID VALVE
BRAKE UNIT
Fig. 2 BRAKE SYSTEM USING TWO SOURCES
Let's now look at some of the components.
MODULATOR
The Modulator is used in brake systems that have anti-skid units. Its
purpose is to allow full flow (known as brake fill) to the brakes on the
initial application. After the first surge it will allow a restricted fluid
flow to the brakes so that if the anti-skid system operates, it can
fully release the brakes without them being immediately re-applied.
The Modulator, through its restricted flow (Fig. 3), also conserves
main system pressure during rapid anti-skid operations; the swept
volume of the Modulator is equal to the volume of the brake
operating pistons.
FROM BRAKE TO BRAKE

HYDRAULIC UNIT
SYSTEM
RESTRICTOR PISTON
ORIFICE
Fig. 3 SIMPLIFIED MODULATOR
Page 22 of 100
BRAKE METERING VALVE (BMV)

A typical brake metering valve is shown in Fig. 4. Its purpose is to
port aircraft system pressure to the brake units. Its slide is moved by
inputs from the pilot's pedals.
The BMV also incorporates a feedback chamber which is filled with

fluid as the brakes are applied, the harder the pedals (and thus the
sleeve valve) are pressed, and the greater will be the pressure built
up in the feedback chamber. This pressure will give the pilot brake
feel and also return the valve rapidly to 'brakes off' when the pedal is
released.
RETURN PORT
PRESSURE PORT
PEDAL FEEDBACK CHAMBER

INPUT
SLIDE
VALVE
PORT TO BRAKE
R P R P
FEEDBACK
CHAMBER
R P
BRAKE
BRAKE
BRAKE
RELEASED BRAKE APPLIED
BRAKE HELD ON
Fig. 4 BRAKE METERING VALVE
Page 23 of 100
1. Why are brake systems ‘split’ between inboard and outboard

wheels?
2. Why are accumulators used in brake systems?
3. How is the accumulator gas pressure checked?
1.
2.
3.
Page 24 of 100
These were, I hope, fairly straightforward. Your answers should

resemble these.
1. The brake systems are split so that no one malfunction in

either system will cause complete loss of braking performance.
At least 50% will remain.
2. Accumulators are used to store a reserve supply of pressure in
case of main hydraulic power loss. They also act to top up the
system when the parking brake is in use.
3. Accumulator gas pressure is checked by exhausting the
hydraulic pressure using pressure relief valves or operating the
brakes and reading the gas pressure on the gauge.
Let's now have a look at alternate brake provision.
ALTERNATE BRAKE PROVISION
Alternate braking systems are provided to ensure that another

system is available to retard the aircraft should the primary or main
system become inoperative. We have in fact already looked at one
type of alternate system, that of using the accumulator, which will
normally allow approximately six applications of the brakes.
Aircraft that have a split braking system do not need alternate

brakes as 50% braking power will remain usable after one system
failure.
Large public transport aircraft using multiple wheel and brake

assemblies rely on one hydraulic system to power all the brake units.
If this system should fail, another of the aircraft's hydraulic systems
will be automatically or manually brought in. Let's look at an
automatically operated system first (Fig. 5).
No. 1 system is used for normal brakes; No. 2 system is used for
alternate brakes. Both systems are a full time system that is both
systems are pressurized under flight conditions.
No 1 SYSTEM HYDRAULIC FUSE No 2 SYSTEM
ACCUMULATOR
ACCUMULATOR VALVE AUTOMATIC
SELECTOR VALVE
Fig. 5 NORMAL BRAKE SYSTEM ALTERNATE BRAKE

SYSTEM
Page 25 of 100
Normal Operation
1. Both systems power the selector valve and will block off the
input to alternate brakes due to differential piston area.
2. No. 1 system will charge the accumulator and go to the normal

brake system.
3. The alternate brake system is now unpressurised.
Normal System Failure
Fig. 6 shows the normal system failure mode.

No 1 SYSTEM No 2 SYSTEM
NORMAL BRAKES ALTERNATE

BRAKES BRAKES
Fig. 6 NORMAL SYSTEM FAILURE
Operation:
1. No. 1 system pressure falls.
2. No.2 system remains on full pressure and moves the

selector valve to allow No. 2 system to enter the
alternate brake system.
3. At the same time the accumulator valve moves across

under No. 2 system pressure to reserve the pressure in
the accumulator.
Normal and Alternate System Failure
Should both the normal and alternate systems fail the situation in
Fig. 7 will result.
Page 26 of 100
No 1 SYSTEM No 2 SYSTEM
NORMAL ALTERNATE
BRAKES BRAKES
Fig. 7 NORMAL AND ALTERNATE SYSTEM FAILURE
Operation:
1. If both No. 1 and No. 2 systems fail the pressure stored

in the accumulator will force the accumulator valve
across.
2. This will allow the accumulator to pressurize the normal

brake system.
3. Check valves prevent accumulator pressure escaping into

the depressurized No. 1 system.
Manual Alternate Systems
Many aircraft rely on the crew to initiate alternate braking in the

event of failure of the main system. One system uses a brake
interconnect valve to allow No. 2 system to be ported into the normal
brake system. Such a system is shown in Fig. 8.
ALTERNATE ACCUMULATOR
HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
NORMAL
SYSTEM
BRAKE
INTERNATIONAL
VALVE
TO BRAKE SYSTEM
Fig. 8 MANUAL BRAKE INTERCONNECT SYSTEM
Page 27 of 100
Pneumatic System
Yet another method used is to give the brake system a head of

pneumatic pressure stored in a bottle. A valve controlled by the pilot
is opened by pneumatic pressure when the normal system has failed.
The valve is a progressive type valve so the more it is opened the
greater will be the pressure applied to the brakes. A specially shaped
transfer tube is used to prevent the gas entering the brakes. The
shuttle valves on the brake units prevent the two systems being
applied to the brakes at the same time, and also keep the two
systems separated. A pneumatic alternate brake system is shown in
Fig. 9.
PNEUMATIC BRAKE
SELECTOR VALVE
COMPRESSED GAS
BRAKE FLUID
NITROGEN
BOTTLE
NORMAL BRAKE SYSTEM

TRANSFER TUBE
NORMAL
BRAKE SYS
SHUTTLE VALVE
(4 OFF)
Fig. 9 PNEUMATIC ALTERNATE BRAKE SYSTEM (SHOWN PNEUMATIC BRAKE

APPLIED)
Page 28 of 100
SELF ASSESSMENT
Spend about ten minutes on these short self questions.
1. Why do aircraft need alternate brake systems?
2. What prevents the two systems feeding the same brake unit at
the same time?
3. In an automatic brake change over system how is the

accumulator prevented from discharging into an unpressurized
system?
4. Why are Modulators fitted to some brake systems?
1.
2.
3.
4.
Page 29 of 100
Your answers may be worded differently but should be something

like these:-
1. Alternate braking systems are required by aircraft having one

hydraulic system supplying all braked wheels, to give another
source of braking should the normal system fail.
2. Shuttle valves.
3. By using an accumulator valve to block off the supply to the

normal brake system and NRVs to prevent flow back to the
normal hydraulic system.
4. It allows instant 'brake fill' on selection and then a restricted

flow to enable the anti-skid system to fully release the brakes
when required.
SUMMARY
Clearly not all braking systems are identical with the ones we have
looked at in this booklet. Many variations exist, but all types have the
same end result, that is to supply pressure to th0 brake units even
under system failure conditions.
You should now have an understanding of how essential braking is

supplied.
We have covered main braking systems with, in particular, brake

metering valves and Modulators. The alternate brake provisions dealt
with included automatic, manual, and pneumatic methods. The next
booklet will cover anti-skid systems and aquaplaning.
ESSENTIAL READING
CAIPs - Book 2.
AL/3-19 para 8 brake systems
AL/3-21 paras 5.3

5.4
5.5 hydraulic Valves
6.4
6.6
7
Page 30 of 100
BOOKLET:03
CONTENTS
Introduction 32
Anti-Skid Requirements 33
Mechanical Anti-Skid Systems 33
Activity 1 37
Electronic Anti-Skid Systems 38
Maintenance Precautions 41
Activity 2 42
Aquaplaning 43
Self Assessment 44
Summary 45
Page 31 of 100
OBJECTIVES/ADVICE
This booklet has been written to give you knowledge of the various
types of anti-skid systems used on aircraft braking systems. I have
assumed you have read the Braking Performance Booklet (Module
No.3, Study Plan No.4 and Booklet No.4).
When you have completed this booklet you will be able to:-
 Describe the operation of mechanical and electronic anti-skid

systems.
 Explain the requirements for an anti-skid system.
 Identify the components used in anti-skid systems.
 Explain the term aquaplaning and the reasons for its

occurrence.
Throughout this booklet you will find activities, try them as you
arrive at them, it is best if they are attempted before moving on to
the next section.
This booklet will take about one hour of study time.
INTRODUCTION
With the increase in landing weights and speeds of modern aircraft,

the tendency for the pilot to apply the brakes hard to reduce the
speed of the aircraft as quickly as possible, has led to the increased
likelihood of the wheels locking up or skidding. Because of the fully
powered nature of brake systems using the aircraft's hydraulic
system, it-is very difficult for the crew to sense or feel when a wheel
is locking. These situations lead to tyre damage, reduce the tyre's life
and lead to inefficient brake performance.
Landing on wet or icy runways may also cause problems as the grip
of the tyres is reduced to such an extent that even efficient brake
systems at low pressure will result in locked wheels.
Another phenomenon which occurs on wet runways is that of

aquaplaning where the tyres float on a film of water, thus
dramatically reducing the stopping efficiency of the aircraft.
Page 32 of 100
ANTI-SKID REQUIREMENTS
All anti-skid systems work on the principle of releasing the brake on

a wheel that has, or is about to lock up, this is termed skid
anticipation. Information of a wheel about to skid (rapid deceleration)
can be received by either mechanical or electrical devices. The
mechanical system uses the principle of inertial weights; the
electrical system uses wheel speed signals sent to a computer which
in turn transmits signals to the anti-skid valves to release the
appropriate brake unit.
The advantages of anti-skid systems are:-
 Maximum braking efficiency.
 Reduces the landing run.
 No skidding or locking of the wheels.
 Increased tyre life.
 The pilot can apply any degree of braking effort without fear of
tyre scrub damage.
Let's now look at the mechanical method of skid control.
MECHANICAL ANTI-SKID SYSTEMS
This type of anti-skid system uses components that are situated

around the wheel area, they are self contained systems which can
when required, interrupt the supply of metered brake pressure going
to the brake unit. There are two types of mechanical systems in
common use:-
 Externally mounted.
 Axle mounted.
These mechanical units are referred to as MAXARETS (Maximum

Retardation Units). The principle of operation is the same for both
types so we will only discuss one type.
Page 33 of 100
Installation
Fig. 1 shows the installation of externally mounted and axle mounted

maxaret units.
RUBBER TYRE
DRIVEN BY
AIRCRAFT
WHEEL
HYDRAULIC COUPLING
FLEXIBLE
SPACER MAXARET COUPLING
MAXARET HUB CAP
RETAINING
BRAKE PIPES NUT
WHEEL
EXTERNALLY MOUNTED MAXARET AXLE MOUNTED MAXARET
Fig. 1 INSTALLATION OF MAXARET UNITS
Externally mounted maxarets are mounted either on the brake

torque plate, the leg or the bogie beam. The maxaret is driven by a
rubber tyred wheel which contacts the aircraft wheel. The maxaret is
adjusted so the tyre will firmly contact the aircraft wheel, about 1" of
tyre contact is normal. This adjustment can be carried out by two
methods, depending on the type.
The methods of adjustment are:-
 Shimmed installation.
 Self adjusting (by spring loading).
Page 34 of 100
Axle mounted maxarets are mounted inside the wheel axles. They
are driven by the aircraft wheel via the hub cap and a flexible drive
to prevent damage in case of seizure of any of the components. The
hydraulic connections are made via a self sealing hydraulic coupling
on installation. An extractor tool is normally used when removing the
maxaret. The advantages of axle mounted maxarets over external
types are:-
 That they are less susceptible to damage as the entire unit is

enclosed by the axle.
 That they are easier to replace as no pipeline connections are
involved.
 That there are no drive problems, such as oil on the aircraft wheel
to cause slip.
Operation
The maxaret unit is connected to the hydraulic line between the pilot
metered pressure from the brake metering valve and the associated
brake unit. The unit is sensitive to the angular deceleration which
occurs when entering a skid, at such a moment sufficient energy is
released by the flywheel to operate the valve system and release the
brake. When the wheel regains speed the flywheel setting is restored
and the brake reapplies until there is a further tendency to skid.
Sequence of Operation
Fig. 2 shows the non skid condition with brakes applied. The aircraft
wheel and the maxaret are spinning at the same speed and pressure
is allowed to pass to the brake unit.
THRUST BALLS
TO BRAKE FLYWHEEL
BASE
OF
CAM
THRUST
PLATE
PRESSURE
SUPPLY THRUST
ROD
WHEEL
RIM
Fig. 2 NORMAL BRAKING CONDITION
Page 35 of 100
FROM BRAKE
RETURN
PRESSURE
SUPPLY
Fig. 3 ANTI-SKID CONDITION
Fig. 3 shows the assemblies in a skid condition, the following events

have taken place:-
 The wheel has slowed down (impending skid) and the outer
tyred drum has decelerated too as it is being driven by the
aircraft wheel.
 The flywheel, due to inertia, continues to rotate against the

main spring, and travels about 600 relative to the drum.
 The thrust balls are driven up the earn profile and operate the
push rod.
 The inlet valve is closed and the exhaust valve is opened thus
releasing the brake.
 The flywheel is gradually slowed down by the drag of the main

spring and with the brake off the landing wheel regains speed.
 The drive drum begins to drive the flywheel again and the
thrust balls return to base of the earn and normal braking is
returned.
Page 36 of 100
Points to Note
Maxarets must be fitted correctly to take account of the direction of

wheel rotation. The following codes are used:-
 L left hand installation.

 R right hand installation.
 A anti-clockwise rotation.
 C clockwise rotation.
 M mineral oil system.
 V vegetable oil system.
There is an arrow etched onto the casing to show direction of rotation

of the wheel.
See how you get on with these questions.
1. How is correct tyre contact area achieved on an

externally mounted maxaret?
2. What are the advantages of an axle mounted maxaret?
Page 37 of 100
How did you get on with those? These are the answers you should
have:-
1. Shim adjusted or automatically adjusted by a spring.
2. Less susceptible to damage; no tyred drum adhesion problems.

Easier to replace as no pipelines to disconnect.
Let's now move on to the electronic method of skid control.
ELECTRONIC ANTI-SKID SYSTEMS
Many modern aircraft have electronic anti-skid systems, which also

prevent skids by releasing the brake pressure, they are much more
sensitive and can modulate the brake pressure for optimum braking
efficiency. The electronic systems are more reliable and require less
maintenance than the mechanical types. Only one item of this
system is around the wheel area, the transducer, all the rest of the
components are out of harm's way from stones and other debris. The
components that make up the system are:-
 Wheel speed transducer.

 Anti-skid control unit.
 Anti-skid valve.
We shall look at each component and its purpose, starting with the
wheel speed transducer.
Wheel Speed Transducer
The purpose of the wheel speed transducer is to relay to the control

unit the speed of the wheel to which it is fitted, there is one
transducer per wheel/brake assembly. Transducers are fitted in the
axle and driven by the hub cap as shown in Fig. 4. Transducers are
speed sensing devises whose rotation creates an a.c. signal; the
voltage produced being proportional to the wheel speed. The signal is
sent via electrical cables to the anti-skid control unit.
Page 38 of 100
AXLE NUT
ELECTRICAL
PLUG
HUB CAP
CAP WHEEL
DRIVE
RETAINER NUT
CLAMP
FLEXIBLE DRIVE
Fig. 4 TRANSDUCER INSTALLATION
Anti-Skid Control Unit
The anti-skid control unit contains printed circuit cards that send
brake release signals to an anti-skid valve. There is normally one
card for each brake assembly.
The a.c. voltage is converted for comparator purposes to d.c. which

is then a voltage reference for wheel speed. This voltage is compared
to a reference voltage which has been set at the maximum
deceleration rate for the aircraft. If any rapid reduction occurs during
braking this will be reflected as a sudden fall in transducer output
voltage. This information from the control box is sent to an anti-skid
valve to release the brake, the wheel will then regain speed, the
transducer voltage rises and the control box de-energizes the valve
and the brake will then be re-applied.
Some electronic systems incorporate a safeguard to prevent landing

with brakes 3Lplied, pressure to the brakes is held off until the
wheels have "spun up" to a predetermined speed.
Page 39 of 100
Anti-Skid Valve
The purpose of the anti-skid valve is to send or remove pressure to

the brake depending on signals it receives from the anti-skid control
unit. It consists of two sections:-
 1st Stage Electrically operated

 2nd Stage Hydraulically operated
Operation
Consider the typical anti-skid valve shown in Fig. 5.
FROM ANTI-SKID FIRST STAGE

CONTROL UNIT ELECTRICAL VALVE
DIAPHRAGM
FLAPPER VALVE
BIAS SPRING
BIAS SPRING
FEEDBACK
CHAMBER BRAKE
ON
NRV
FILTERS
SECOND STAGE
SLIDE VALVE
METERED
BRAKE BRAKE RETURN
PRESSUR
Fig. 5 TYPICAL ANTI-SKID VALVE
Page 40 of 100
 The metered brake pressure goes to the pressure side of the

flapper valve.
 If no signal is present from anti-skid control unit, flapper

covers return port.
 The pressure pushes the slide across to allow the metered

pressure to the brake unit; also the feedback chamber is
pressurized ready for immediate brake release.
 When a skid condition exists the flapper moves to cover the

pressure port.
 The return port is now open and the slide valve is pushed by
the feed back chamber to open the return port to the brake
port.
 The NRV allows for the rapid release of brakes when the
metered pressure is removed.
MAINTENANCE PRECAUTIONS
 Cleanliness is essential due to the orifices in the small maxaret.
 Ensure pipelines on the externally mounted unit are attached

to the correct unions.
 Pipelines should be correctly angled to prevent interference

with structure on retraction (refer to aircraft Maintenance
Manual).
 Keep grease away from the tyre drum of externally mounted

units.
Page 41 of 100
Try these questions on electrical anti-skid systems.
1. What is the purpose of the wheel speed transducer?
2. What are the advantages of the electronic type of anti-skid

system over the mechanical types?
3. Where is wheel 'spin up' used in an anti-skid system?
4. What do the letters R, C, and M mean in relation to the

maxaret code?
1.
2.
3.
4.
Page 42 of 100
Your answers should read something like these:-
1. The purpose of the wheel speed transducer is to send speed

signals to the anti-skid control unit.
2. The advantages are:-
 Faster response.
 Less maintenance required.
 More reliable.
3. 'Spin up' is used to prevent touchdown with pressure applied

to the brakes.
4. Right hand installation, clockwise rotation, mineral oil

system.
Let's now move on to aquaplaning.
AQUAPLANING
Aquaplaning or hydroplaning is a condition that occurs on wet

runways, although it is a comparatively rare occurrence. It occurs
when a wave of water builds up in front of a spinning wheel, the
water is pumped under the wheel by its rotation eventually the
tyre is floating on a film of water and not contacting the runway.
The result is a complete loss of braking efficiency from the
relevant wheels, on multi-bogie undercarriages only the front
wheels are affected as they wipe a path clear of water for the
back wheel to travel through. Some large modern public transport
aircraft have aquaplane/hydroplane protection built in to their
anti-skid control units to prevent it occurring; this system
compares speeds of tandem wheels on the bogies. Cross cutting
of runways has also been tried to allow water to escape from
under the tyres, but on dry runways cross cutting accelerates tyre
wear.
Page 43 of 100
SELF ASSESSMENT
Spend about 10 minutes on these questions.
1. List the advantages of anti-skid systems.
2. What maintenance precautions are required when fitting an

externally mounted maxaret?
3. If an electronic anti-skid system and had total electrical failure,

what would happen to the brake system?
1.
2.
3.
Page 44 of 100
The correct answers are:-
1. (a) A maximum braking efficiency.

(b) No skidding or locking of the wheels.
(c) Reduces the length of the landing run.
(d) Longer tyre life.
(e) The pilot can apply as much brake as necessary without
fear of wheel lockups or tyre damages.
2. (a) Cleanliness to prevent ingress of dirt and grit.

(b) Ensure unions are connected to correct pipelines and wire
locked at the correct angle.
(c) No oil or grease on drum tyre or wheel rim.
(d) Refer to the Maintenance Manual for bleeding instructions
and any specified operations required.
3. Aircraft are designed to fail safe. If power is lost the bias spring
in the anti-skid valve and the flapper valve would fail to the
brakes 'ON' position ready for metered pressure to go to the
brakes. The pilot would receive a warning, normally a light in
the flight deck, to inform him that he has no anti-skid system
operating.
SUMMARY
We have covered both mechanical and electronic anti-skid systems in

common use on aircraft; you should understand the requirements
and basic functions of both types. The booklet considered how both
the mechanical .and electronic systems operated and then dealt with
specific components in the electronic system. Maintenance
precautions were then covered. Finally, we looked at the problem of
aquaplaning on wet runways.
Anti-skid is an essential aid to the pilot to relieve him of one more of

his responsibilities during the landing phase of a flight.
IT SHOULD BE REMEMBERED –
NO ANTI-SKID CAN INCREASE THE AMOUNT OF METERED BRAKE

PRESSURE ENTERING THE BRAKE UNIT, IT CAN ONLY RELEASE OR
REDUCE THE PRESSURE TO A LOWER VALUE.
Page 45 of 100
BOOKLET:04
CONTENTS
Introduction 47
Landing Gear Unsafe Protection 48
Activity 1 49
Activity 2 51
Alternate Lowering 52
Self Assessment 56
Summary 58
Suggested Practical Activities 58
Recommended Reading 58
Page 46 of 100
OBJECTIVES/ADVICE
In this booklet we shall be looking at methods used to inform the air

crew of an incorrectly configured aircraft prior to landing. We shall
also be covering ways that the crew can extend the landing gear
should the normal system fail.
When you have completed this booklet you should be able to:-
 Describe the operation of a basic landing gear 'not down'

warning system.
 Identify the inputs into the gear 'not down' aural warning
system.
 Describe the methods of alternate lowering of the landing gear.
Throughout this booklet you will find activities, it will assist you if you
attempt them after reading the previous pages before moving on to
the next subject.
The study time of this booklet will be about one hour.
INTRODUCTION
For a successful landing to be completed all the landing gear must be

down and securely locked. Because of the heavy work load placed on
the crew during the landing phases of flight, many accidents have
occurred due to the landing gear being incorrectly positioned. To
prevent unsafe landing gear position causing accidents, aircraft are
equipped with a warning system so that the crew can be warned of
the danger prior to touch down.
If the normal system that lowers the landing gear malfunctions,

because of the essential nature of the gear, alternate methods are
incorporated to enable the gear operation to the down position to be
made.
Page 47 of 100
LANDING GEAR UNSAFE PROTECTION
The position of the landing gear is relayed to the pilot by means of

lights on the instrument panel. These lights are operated by micro
switches fitted on the "Up" and "DOWN" LOCKS of the landing gear.
On most conventional aircraft there are three lights for each landing
gear leg, one green and one red light for normal operation, and
another green light in case of bulb failure. Some aircraft use dual
bulbs to guard against bulb failure. Regardless of type, the
indications are as follows:-
 Green Light - landing gear locked down.

 Red Light. - Unlocked.
 No Light - locked up.
Fig. 1 shows typical landing gear position indicators.
GREEN
LIGHTS
RED
LIGHTS
RED
DIMMER
LIGHTS
SWITCH
LEFT RIGHT
GEAR GEAR GREEN
LIGHTS
LEFT RIGHT
GEAR GEAR
Fig. 1 TYPICAL LANDING GEAR POSITION INDICATORS
Dolls eyes or magnetic indicators are also used on some aircraft.
The landing phase of flight is a very busy time for the crew; the pilot
may select the undercarriage to the down position and then carryon
with other tasks. If a leg failed to lock down he would find out when
the leg collapsed on landing. Such a situation must not be allowed to
happen; an aural warning is sounded during the landing phase of
flight to warn the crew of an unsafe condition.
Page 48 of 100
Before moving on, give the indications that occur when the aircraft is
approaching a landing.
Page 49 of 100
You probably got some or may be all of these:-
1. Throttles retarded.
2. Flaps in the landing position.
3. Airspeed low.
4. Altitude low.
If you got two or more, well done. Because there are so many
systems of landing gear warning you may not have met some of the
items that operate it. Let's now look at a typical landing gear warning
horn system such as the one shown in Fig. 2.
POWER
SOURCE NOTE SWITCHES WILL CLOSE WHEN CONDITIONS
ARE MET BY SWITCH TITLE
LANDING GEAR
WARNING HORN OR
BUZZER
NO 1 THROTTLE NO 2 THROTTLE
RETARDED RETARDED
HORN CUT OUT
BUTTON
FLAPS IN
LANDING RANGE
LEFT GEAR NOT

LOCKED DOWN RIGHT GEAR NOT NOSE GEAR
LOCKED DOWN LOCKED
DOWN
Fig. 2 SIMPLIFIED LANDING GEAR WARNING HORN CIRCUIT
Page 50 of 100
If we look at Fig. 2 we can see that if either throttle is retarded

towards the idle range and any of the landing gear is not locked
down the relevant switches will close, the circuit in this case travels
through the horn cut out button to earth and the horn on the flight
deck will sound. As this situation could occur in cruise with an engine
shut down, provision is made for the horn cut out to be pushed and
so cancel the horn warning.
However, when the flaps are in the landing approach range the
circuit does not pass through the cut-out button so the only way to
silence the horn will be to lower the undercarriage or raise the flaps.
1. Why do landing gear position indicators have six green

lights?
2. What is indicated when no lights are on?
3. If during cruise an engine was shut down and the cut-out

button failed to cancel the horn, how could it be
cancelled?
1.
2.
3.
Page 51 of 100
The answers are:-
1. To allow indication in case of bulb failure.

2. Landing gear up and locked.
3. The shut-down engine's throttle could be pushed forward.
Let's now move on to alternate lowering of the landing gear.
ALTERNATE LOWERING
The alternate lowering system is fitted to the aircraft to allow the

undercarriage to be lowered by a separate system should the
primary or normal method fails. Various methods of alternate
lowering have been used; the main ones are related to the use of:
 Compressed air.
 Gravity or free fall.
 An emergency hydraulic system.
Compressed Air System
This system uses compressed gas stored in a bottle which can then
be fed to the down lines via an emergency undercarriage valve.
When the valve operating lever in the flight deck is operated, it
causes gas under pressure to pass to the uplocks and opens them.
The gas then continues to travel to the down side of the main jacks
and 'blows' the undercarriage down. On some aircraft the returning
hydraulic fluid is dumped overboard via a jettison valve worked by
the same lever, this is done to prevent hydraulic locks occurring on
the up side of the system.
Free Fall or Gravity System
A more common system in use is the free fall system where gravity
is used and often assisted by the slipstream. The uplocks are
unlocked by a cable system with its operating handle on the flight
deck; some aircraft use one handle for each leg uplock. The
undercarriage is retracted forwards into its bay, when the uplock is
broken slipstream and gravity push the undercarriage down to the
locked position; springs on the down lock ensure its engagement.
Owing to the length of cables involved in some large aircraft, crank
handles are used to operate the cable system which in turn will
operate the uplocks. Fig. 3 shows a typical free fall system.
Page 52 of 100
MANUAL EXTENSION
HANDLE (ONE FOR EACH
UP LOCK
CRANK HANDLE
PANEL
IN PULLED
POSITION
CABLE TO UPLOCK
CABLE DRUM UNDER FLOOR OF

FLIGHT DECK
UP LOCK ROLLER
GEAR BOX
HYDRAULIC
CABLE UP LOCK
ATTACHEMENT JACK
WHEN PULLED,
LIFTS ROLLER
AND ALLOWS
GEAR TO FALL
UPLOCK HOOK
UPLOCK ROLLER
UNLOCKED
Fig. 3 FREE FALL SYSTEM
Emergency Hydraulic System
On large public transport aircraft the alternate lowering system uses

a separate hydraulic system to power an extra jack on each
undercarriage leg. This jack can only extend the leg; it receives the
pressure either from one of the other aircraft hydraulic systems or
from a dedicated electrical hydraulic pump controlled by a switch on
the flight deck. Some aircraft supplement this system by having an
additional reservoir and a hand pump in case of electrical failure.
Page 53 of 100
Undercarriage Doors
On aircraft with hydraulically sequenced doors if the hydraulic system

that operates the door malfunctions or fails, then to ensure the
undercarriage is not held up by the door on alternate lowering, the
door jack is mechanically unlocked. On some aircraft safety bars are
fitted to the doors (Fig. 4) so the wheels will forcibly open the doors
to allow the wheels to fall from the bay, on these systems the doors
will remain open after the undercarriage has been lowered.
UNLOCK CABLE
BELL CRANK
AND RODS TO
OPEN DOORS
FWD
DOOR JACK
SAFETY BAR
Fig. 4 SAFETY BARS - u/e DOORS
Aircraft have visual indicators that can be seen by the crew in cases
of an emergency lowering or failure of the flight deck indicators.
These indicators can take many forms, from painted lines on the
locking braces viewed through windows in the cabin floor, to 'pop up'
indicators that stand- proud of the upper wing surface when the
landing gear is down and locked (Fig. 5). These can be viewed
through the passenger cabin windows.
Page 54 of 100
SIDE
STRUT
UPPER
RED LINES LINE UP

WHEN LEG IS OCKED
DOWN SIDE
STRUT
LOWER
INDICATOR
UPPER WING LOCK

SURFACE LINK
Fig. 5 VISUAL LOCKED DOWN METHODS
Page 55 of 100
SELF ASSESSMENT
Spend about 6 minutes on these short answer questions:-
1. During retraction tests - starting with the legs locked down,

state the light sequences you would expect to see as the
landing gear lever is cycled to UP and back to DOWN.
2. On a landing gear with hydraulically operated doors how is

interference prevented during an alternate lowering?
3. How are hydraulic locks prevented in the up lines when a

compressed air alternate system is operated?
Page 56 of 100
1.
Light Sequence
Handle down legs down - 3 greens on.
Handle moved from, down to up - 3 reds on

- 3 greens off.
Handle up - wheels up - no lights.
Handle from up to down - 3 reds.
Handle down, wheel down and locked - 3 reds off

- 3 greens on.
2. The door is mechanically unlocked and forced fully open by a

safety bar.
3. The up lines are ported to atmosphere by a fluid jettison valve

which is operated by the emergency handle.
Page 57 of 100
SUMMARY
In this booklet we have looked at the undercarriage warning systems

employed in aircraft, and as you can see a great deal of trouble has
been taken to ensure the pilot knows the position of the landing gear
particularly during critical aspects of the flight.
To ensure the landing gear can be lowered even in the event of

malfunctions in the normally used system, a completely separate
system is used.
This booklet covered compressed air, free fall and emergency

hydraulic systems.
Finally, the booklet covered the method of opening the undercarriage

doors in the event of a main system failure.
SUGGESTED PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES
Obtain access to an aircraft or its manuals, find out what sort of

alternate lowering system it has, and also find the conditions which
would cause the landing gear warning device to operate.
RECOMMENDED READING
Aircraft Electrical Systems by E.H.J. Pallett.
Page 154, landing gear position indication.
CAIPs Book 2
Leaflet AL/3-6 Paragraphs 4.5

4.63
4.64
Page 58 of 100
BOOKLET:05
CONTENTS
Introduction 61
Weight ON/Weight OFF Systems 67
Activity 1 68
Air/Ground Information - Systems Served 69
Activity 2 70
Fire Detection in the Undercarriage Bay Area 70
Brake Fire on the Ground 71
Self Assessment 72
Summary 72
Page 59 of 100
OBJECTIVES/ADVICE
The objective of this booklet is to introduce you to weight ON/OFF

sensing and wheel well fire detection.
When you have completed this booklet you will be able to:-
 State the purpose of weight ON/OFF systems.
 Describe the various methods used, and their operation.
 Identify the components used.
 Explain the safety precautions to be followed for an aircraft

equipped with weight ON/OFF during servicing.
 State the purpose and operation of landing gear fire detection

systems.
 Explain the safety precautions to be followed when dealing with

undercarriage area fires.
This booklet contains activities, which are there to assist you in

future examinations. Complete them before carrying on with the rest
of the booklet.
This booklet will take you about 1 hour of study time.
Page 60 of 100
INTRODUCTION
The philosophy behind weight ON/weight OFF sensing is

comparatively simple, it is a system of automatically switching
aircraft systems on and off as required when the aircraft changes
from an air to ground mode or vice versa. This automatic switching
relieves the pilot of the need to switch many systems on that are
needed for a safe flight, and switching them all off again when the
aircraft has landed.
Various terminologies exist for the weight ON/weight OFF systems,

the terms used vary with the manufacturer or the country of origin of
the aircraft, other names for these systems are:-
 Air/ground sense.
 Squat switches.
 WOG (weight on ground)
 Ground safety switches.
In addition to weight ON/OFF sensing this booklet will cover fire

detection in the wheel well area and the safety precautions required
for extinguishing fire in that area.
WEIGHT ON WEIGHT OFF SYSTEMS
The ground/air sensing control mechanism provides a mechanical or

electrical means of establishing a ground or flight mode for the
aircraft, the signal is used to operate or inhibit various systems
within the aircraft as the mode differs.
All weight ON/weight OFF systems work on the same principle. When
weight is on the landing gear the shock absorbers are compressed.
This compression is used through the torque links to give a ground
signal. When the weight of the aircraft is not on the wheels an air
signal is sent to the aircraft systems.
Although the principle is the same, there are many methods used to
achieve the air/ground status of the aircraft, we shall look at some of
these methods.
Page 61 of 100
Mechanical Methods
The mechanical operation of the air/ground sense is used via

linkages to operate hydraulic valves or pulleys to allow operation of
certain systems which would only be used on the ground. These
systems would include:-
 Nose wheel steering.

 Thrust reverse or reverse pitch.
 Ground spoilers.
A typical example is shown in Fig. 1; the torque links modify their

angle when the weight of the aircraft compresses the shock
absorber. The upper torque link compresses a spring cartridge which
rotates a cable quadrant, the cables move an eccentric pulley which
will, depending on its position permit or inhibit the systems we have
mentioned.
AIR/GROUND
CABLES U/C NOSE LEG
U/C MOUNTING TRUNNION
SPRING CARTRIDGE
STEERING COLLAR
UPPER TORQUE LINK
Fig. 1 TYPICAL MECHANICALLY OPERATED AIR/GROUND SENSOR
Electrical Systems
There are several types of electrical air/ground or weight ON/weight

OFF systems, the most common being the direct micro-switch type
shown in Fig. 2. With the landing gear fully extended the micro-
switch plunger is pushed in by a part of the casting of the leg; this
will signal that the aircraft is in the air mode. As soon as weight is
taken by the shock absorber the switch breaks contact due to the
movement of the torque links and the ground sense will be assumed.
Page 62 of 100
MICRO
SWITCH
U/C LEG
VIEW A
SLINDING CYLINDER FULLY EXTENDED
(AIR MODE)
UPPER
TORQUE
LINK
AXLE
LOWER
TORQUE LINK
Fig. 2 MICRO SWITCH AIR/GROUND SENSOR
Remote operated electrical sensors are fitted to aircraft, these types

are normally push rod and bell crank or teleflex cable operated are
that the:-
 Switches are located away from the elements, e.g., water slush
etc.
 Electrical components can't get stone damage, particularly

important if the aircraft is used for rough strip landings.
 Torque links can work more than one switch for safety.
 Mechanisms can also work hydraulic valves.
The only disadvantages of these systems are, they are more complex
and require more maintenance.
Page 63 of 100
Typical remote systems are shown in Fig. 3.
SWITCHES BOX IN
U/C BAY
AIR/GROUND SWITCHES
TELEFLEX CABLES
HYDRAULIC
FOLDING LINK VALVE
PROXIMITY
SWITCHES
PUSH
ROD
UPPER
BELL
TORQUE LINK
CRANK
PUSH
ROD
TELEFLEX OPERATED
UPPER TORQUE LINK AIR/GROUND SENSORS
PUSH ROD OPERATED

AIR/GROUND SENSORS
Fig. 3 TYPICAL REMOTE AIR/GROUND SENSOR SYSTEMS
Fitted to .the end of the linkages the switches are safely housed in
the wheel well. Modern aircraft use one switch for the ground mode
and a separate switch to initiate an air mode signal. This gives
greater safety in case of a switch malfunction.
Bogie Equipped Aircraft
Many bogie equipped aircraft utilize the angle of the bogie beam for
weight on, weight off sensing. When the aircraft is airborne the bogie
is caused to tilt by using a tilt actuator. When the weight is on the
aircraft bogies the tilt actuator is overcome and the tilt no longer
exists. This movement is used to determine the air or ground mode
of the aircraft.
Page 64 of 100
TILT JACK
AIR GROUND
(WEIGHT OFF) (WEIGHT ON)
Fig. 4 BOGIE TILT CONDITIONS
Proximity Sensors
Many aircraft use proximity sensors instead of micro switches on the

air/ground sensing system. There are various shapes of sensor
depending on the space availability where it is fitted. All shapes work
on the same principle; that of a steel target moving through a
magnetic field produced by the sensor. When the target is in close
proximity to the sensor, (near), the voltage produced by breaking
the field is reduced. When the target is removed from close
proximity, (far), the voltage returns to normal. The proximity
switches have no moving parts so are maintenance free. The targets
are magnetic stainless steel and once adjusted (usually shimmed)
require no maintenance or regular adjustments unless disturbed. The
targets do not touch the proximity switches; when in close proximity
a gap of approximately 0.1 of an inch exists.
Fig. 5 shows two typical proximity sensors, one cylindrical and one
rectangular.
Page 65 of 100
RECTANGULAR CYLINDRICAL
Fig. 5 TYPICAL PROXIMITY SENSORS
Proximity Switch Installation and Operation
Proximity switches are normally operated by the torque links in a

similar manner to micro-switches, although many methods of
operation exist. Fig. 3 shows teleflex operated proximity switches.
The targets in this case are moved by a link system. Fig. 6 shows a
typical torque link operated proximity switch installation.
U/C LEG
WIRING LOOM
U/C LEG
UPPER TORQUE LINK
RIGGED GAP
SERSOR SHIMS
TARGET
UPPER TORQUE
LINK PROX
SENSOR TARGET
AIR MODE- LEG EXTENDED GROUND MODE – LEG

TARGET NEAR CONTRACTED TARGET FAR
Fig. 6 TORQUE LINK OPERATED PROXIMITY SWITCH
Page 66 of 100
Have an attempt at these questions on the subjects we have covered

so far.
1. What are the advantages of a remote operated air/ground

switch system?
2. Why is proximity switches used instead of micro-switches?
3. How cans bogie equipped aircraft monitor air/ground sense?
1.
2.
3.
Page 67 of 100
Your answers should read something like these:-
1. The advantages are:-
(a) Switches are located away from flying stones and

protected from the elements.
(b) Torque link assemblies can work more than one switch
and valves as well.
2. Proximity switches have no moving parts, therefore, require

less maintenance.
3. Bogie equipped aircraft can use bogie tilt as an indication of

weight ON weight OFF.
I don't expect you found those that difficult. Now we’ve seen how the
air/ground status is achieved let's look at some aircraft systems that
use the information.
AIR/GROUND INFORMATION - SYSTEMS SERVED
Information from the air/ground system is sent to relays fitted in the

aircraft electrical bay. On large public transport aircraft many
systems rely on air/ground information. The most common systems
that rely on air/ground sense are the:-
 Pitot heat.
 Stall warning.
 Ground test.
 Landing gear lever lock.
Let's look at one of the systems we have mentioned, the landing gear
lever lock. This system is incorporated to prevent retraction of the
landing gear while the aircraft is on the ground. A solenoid is used to
prevent the selector lever being moved to 'up'. The electrical power
is earthed through the air/ground relays. When the aircraft is
airborne the relays relax and the solenoid is energized to remove the
interference lever in the 'up' detent of the operating handle of the
landing gear selector, as shown in Fig. 7.
Page 68 of 100
UP
OFF
INTERFERENCE LEVER DOWN
IN ‘UP’ POSITION
MECHANICAL
LANDING GEAR OVERRIDE TRIGGER
SELECTION LEVER
SOLENOID TO SYSTEMS REQUIRED

ELECTRICAL IN THE AIR MODE
SUPPLY
AIR/GROUND RELAY
NOSE GEAR WEIGHT MAIN GEAR WEIGHT

ON/OFF SWITCH ON/OFF SWITCH
AIR
Fig. 7 U/C LEVER LOCK SYSTEM - GROUND MODE - SOLENOID DE-ENERGISED
Explain why the system shown in Fig. 7 requires the solenoid to

be powered to enable a landing gear ‘up’ selection to be made.
Page 69 of 100
A purely logical answer, if power were removed from the aircraft

whilst it was on the ground there would be no protection against
selecting the lever 'up'. Let's now move on to landing gear fire
detection.
FIRE DETECTION IN THE UNDERCARRIAGE BAY AREA
To protect the aircraft and its occupants against the possibility of a

fire occurring in the undercarriage bay when the wheels are
retracted, heat sensitive wire is arranged around the roof of the
wheel bays. The sensor wire is fitted to those wheel wells that accept
braked wheels.
If a brake fire should occur when the wheels are retracted a fire
warning will be generated and the pilot would be informed. If there
are no extinguishers for the wheel bays the only corrective action
would be to lower the undercarriage into the airflow and allow the
fire to be blown out. If the aircraft has wheel well viewers the state
of wheels and tyres can be inspected by the crew.
BRAKE FIRE ON THE GROUND
The most likely time for a brake to catch fire is after a high energy
stop or after long periods of taxying. Liquid extinguishers are NOT
recommended, as the rapid cooling of the wheels would cause-
fractures of the casting and an explosion of the tyre. The following
precautions should be taken when confronted with a brake or wheel
fire:-
 Use a dry chemical fire extinguisher.
 Never advance onto the wheel in line with the axle.
 Always advance onto the rolling direction of the tyre.
 After the fire has been extinguished wait until the assembly has
cooled down before disturbing it.
Page 70 of 100
SELF ASSESSMENT
Spend about 10 minutes on these short answer questions.
1. Why do some aircraft have two sensors on the weight

ON/weight OFF system?
2. How do you think an aircraft with hydraulically operated nose

wheel steering inhibits the steering system in the air when
using only an electrically operated weight ON/OFF system?
3. Name the other terms used for weight ON weight OFF.
4. What type of fire extinguisher should be used on brake fires?
Page 71 of 100
These are the answers to the self assessment questions.
1. For safety reasons, one for weight ON mode, one for weight
OFF, this is in case of a failure of one sensor.
2. It uses a solenoid operated hydraulic line to shut off system

pressure when the aircraft is airborne.
3. (a) Air/ground sense.

(b) Squat switches.
(c) WOG switches (weight on ground).
(d) Ground safety switches.
4. Dry powder. (NOT Liquid types).
SUMMARY
We have looked at weight ON/weight OFF systems installed on

various types of aircraft. On large public transport aircraft many
systems are controlled by air/ground sense, such as important
systems like ground spoilers, to others which are less important such
as the self cleaning ovens in the galley.
Air ground sensing is essential to the safe flight of an aircraft; its

function is to reduce the crews workload and to provide correct
sequencing of equipment dependent on the aircraft's status.
Extreme caution should be exercised when an aircraft is raised on

jacks. If electrical power is supplied the air sense will be
automatically activated as the legs extend. This would lead to a
dangerous condition. The Maintenance Manual must be consulted
prior to raising an aircraft clear of the ground.
Page 72 of 100
BOOKLET:06
CONTENTS
Introduction 74
Nose Wheel Steering Systems 75
Input Mechanisms 78
Activity 1 80
Nose Wheel Centering 81
Activity 2 84
Nose Wheel Steering Hydraulic Systems 85
Safety Precautions 87
Self Assessment 88
Summary 89
Page 73 of 100
OBJECTIVES/ADVICE
In this booklet we shall be looking at nose wheel steering systems.

Combined within this system is a self centering device to allow for
safe retraction of the wheels into their bay. When you have
completed this booklet you should be able to:-
 State the functions of nose wheel steering systems.
 Explain the operation of the common types.
 Describe the input and hydraulic system operation.
 Describe the safety precautions to observation during

maintenance.
 Identify the components and their uses.
I have assumed you have already read the previous booklets on

undercarriage and bogie unit steering systems as we shall not
discuss these items again. (Booklet No.3, Study Plan No. 4 of Module
No.3, and Booklet No. 1 of this Study Plan).
This booklet contains activities and answering them will help you to
get the most from it. It will take you about an hour of study time.
INTRODUCTION
Aircraft are designed to be at their most efficient whilst in the air, on

the ground they are cumbersome and difficult to maneuver.
Initially, aircraft were steered on the ground by using differential

braking, that is the application of the wheel brakes, either left or
right to slow down the relevant wheel, drag on that side of the
aircraft would swing or turn the aircraft in that direction.
With the advent of nose wheel equipped aircraft an improvement in

maneuverability was gained by making the nose wheels steerable.
This is achieved by using hydraulic jacks to .turn the axles, usually
via the torque links, and thus the nose wheels.
Page 74 of 100
NOSE WHEEL STEERING SYSTEMS
To improve the ground operation of aircraft nose wheel steering

(NWS) systems are employed, NWS also:-
 Improves tyre life through less scrub.
 Reduces brake wear.
 Improves straight line performance during take off and landing,
 Saves fuel and engine life, as brakes are no longer required to

turn the aircraft with the help of the engines, therefore, engine
power can be reduced.
Most nose wheel steering systems use the rotation of the torque links
to rotate the axles, a steering collar is attached to the leg casting,
the collar being driven by hydraulic jacks.
Steering inputs to a control valve come from a steering tiller which is

moved by hand, one tiller on the captain’s side is normal. Inputs can
also come from the rudder pedals or more rarely the aileron hand
wheel.
Apart from the mechanical type there are 3 basic methods of NWS,
i.e., use of:-
 Single jack.
 Double jack.
 Rack and pinion.
Single Jack
Many light aircraft have a single jack NWS system or a mechanical

system of linkages and bell cranks driven by the rudder pedals.
A typical single jack system is shown in Fig. 1. Both ends of the jack
ram are attached to the undercarriage leg casting, fluid is ported to
move the jack body along its ram, and using a cam and link
assembly moves the inner cylinder to rotate the axles. Action of the
shock absorber is unaffected as a splined shaft, allows the up and
down movement.
Page 75 of 100
STEERING JACK BODY
LINK
CAM
SPLINED SHAFT
Fig. 1 SINGLE JACK STEERING SYSTEM
Two Jack System
Larger aircraft employ a two jack system, the two jack rams are
fixed to a steering collar which is free to rotate around the
undercarriage casting and the rear side of the collar is attached to
the upper torque link which through the lower link rotates the axles.
Page 76 of 100
The two jack system utilizes swivel valves which can allow or cut off
fluid during high turn angles, so as a jack goes over centre the fluid
is pumped into the other side of the jack (see Fig. 2).
INPUT CABLES
SWIVEL VALVE
TORQUE LINK
STEERING COLLAR
FOLLOW UP STEERING
LINK JACK
TWO JACK SYSTEM
HYDRAULIC LINE
STEERING JACKS
R/HAND JACK R/HAND JACK

SWIVEL BOTTOMED PULLED
VALVE MECHANICALLY
MAX STROKE OF JACK (R/H)

JACK PULLED OUT BY
STRAIGHT AHEAD MOVEMENT OF STEERING
COLLAR
Fig. 2 SWIVEL VALVES
Page 77 of 100
Rack and Pinion System
Some large public transport aircraft use a rack and pinion NWS
system, again two jacks are used. Fig. 3 is self explanatory.
FOLLOW UP/INPUT LINKAGE
JACKS
METERING VALVE
JACKS (PLAN VIEW)
STEERING COLLAR
Fig. 3 RACK AND PINION STEERING SYSTEM
INPUT MECHANISMS
Inputs to the hydraulic control valve, which ports pressure to the

jacks, are sent by a cable system from the cockpit controls (Fig. 4).
The methods of control are:-
 Hand operated tiller.

 Rudder pedals.
 Occasionally aileron control wheel.
Page 78 of 100
Inputs from the tiller via a gearbox and pulleys move the control
valve in the required direction, follow-up action through links or
cables cancels the input when the desired rate of turn has been
achieved. Rudder pedals can also input to the control valve, in this
case the amount of turn is usually restricted to a smaller degree
(about 70 either side of neutral). Rudder pedal steering is normally
used on take off or landing and is normally inhibited whilst the
aircraft is airborne through the weight on weight off system.
RUDDER
CABLES
RUDDER
PEDALS
INPUT
CABLES
STEERING TILLER
AND GEARBOX
FOLLOW
UP LINK
Fig. 4 NOSE WHEEL STEERING INPUTS
Page 79 of 100
Do these questions on subjects we have covered so far.
1. How do aircraft maneuver on the ground without NWS?
2. Give four advantages which can be gained by using a NWS

system.
3. How is the NWS system commanded?
1.
2. (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
3.
Page 80 of 100
These are the answers you should have:-
1. Differential braking or engine power.
2. (a) Less tyre wear.
(b) Less brake wear.
© Saves fuel and engine life.
(d) Better straight line performance.
3. Tiller, rudder pedals or occasionally aileron wheel.
Let’s move on to centering
NOSE WHEEL CENTRING
In all cases, on retraction of the nose undercarriage the wheels must

be centered when the wheels enter the bay. The methods to centre
the wheels vary from aircraft to aircraft but the three most common
ways are by using:-
 Self centering cams.

 Centering jack.
 Mechanical/hydraulic centering.
We shall look at each method in turn.
Self Centering Cams
Cams are fitted into the shock absorber cylinders in the

undercarriage casting, one cam is fitted to the sliding cylinder and its
matching face is installed into the fixed part of the undercarriage leg
casting (Fig. 5). When the shock absorber is fully extended (aircraft
in the air) the cams engage with each other and the wheels are
centered ready for retraction. In the air mode the weight on weight
off system isolates the hydraulic power to the control valve so that
the cams can achieve the central position.
Page 81 of 100
SHOCK ABSORBER
FIXED
CAM
LOWER
CAM
AXLE
LEG COMPRESSED LEG EXTENDED

(GROUND) (AIR)
Fig. 5 SHOCK ABSORBER SELF CENTRING CAMS
Centering Jack
The centering jack uses ‘UP’ selection pressure from the

undercarriage system to ensure the wheels are hydraulically centered
prior to retraction. Steering pressure is removed from the control
valve by:-
 An aircraft weight on/off system.
 Being electrically isolated by a solenoid valve energized when

moving the undercarriage selector to the ‘UP’ position.
Up line pressure is directed to the centering jack, at the same time

both sides of the steering jack are ported to return. Up line pressure
enters the floating piston and drives the steering jack body to the
central position as shown in Fig. 6.
Page 82 of 100
JACK BODY
HYDRAULIC INPUT
FROM CONTROL
VALVE
U/C UP LINE
AIR PRESSURE
HOLE
U/C CASTING
FLOATING PISTON
WHEEL TURNED TO LEFT WHEEL CENTRED
Fig. 6 STEERING JACK ACTION
Mechanical/Hydraulically Centered NWS
On some aircraft rudder pedal steering is still operative whilst the

aircraft is in the air. On these types of systems the nose wheels
are centered mechanically, this is done by using a cam and roller
system. The pulley drum that carries the signals to the control
valve is centered as soon as the down lock strut is broken. (Fig.
7).
ROD OPERATED
INPUT PULLEY U/C LOCK LINK
ROLLER
(SHADED
PORTION OF
DIAGRAM IS
LIFTED UP PRIOR
TO LEG
UNLOCKING)
CAM
CABLES TO
CONTROL VALVE
U/C CASTING
Fig. 7 HYDRO/MECHANICAL CENTERD NOSE WHEEL STEERING
Page 83 of 100
Try these questions on centering.
1. Name three types of nose wheel centering.
3. Give three methods by which the pressure to the steering jack

is removed on take off.
1. (a)
(b)
(c)
2. (a)
(b)
(c)
Page 84 of 100
1. (a) Self centering cams.
(b) Centering jack.
© Mechanical/hydraulic centering.
2. (a) Aircraft weight on/weight off system.
(b) Solenoid controlled by undercarriage selector.
3. ©On the mechanical/hydraulic centering system,

hydraulic
pressure is maintained through both ‘UP’ and ‘Down’
lines.
Let’s now look at the hydraulic systems and components installed in

the NWS system.
NOSE WHEEL STEERING HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS
A typical system using two jacks is shown in Fig. 8. The components

shown are:-
 Two jacks with internal centering jacks.
 A metering (or control) valve sprung loaded to the centre

(wheels straight ahead) position.
 A bypass valve moved to the bypass position by undercarriage

up line pressure or a towing pin.
 Restrictor valves.
Page 85 of 100
U/C DOWN LINE
CONTROL VALVE
RETURN LINE
CENTRING BYPASS VALVE

SPRING
RESTRICTORS
U/C UP LINE
STEERING JACK
STERING CYLINDER
CENTRING
PISTON CENTRING CYLINDER
U/C LEG
Fig. 8 TYPICAL TWO JACK HYDRAULIC STEERING SYSTEM
Operation
Inputs are sent to the control valve from the steering tiller in the
form of hydraulic pressure from the undercarriage down line. When
the control valve is moved from the centre position the pressure is
ported to the jacks, one extends whilst the other retracts and the
other ports are opened to return. Damping is provided by the
restrictor valves. If the tiller is released the centering spring in the
control valve will return the wheels to the central position.
When undercarriage ‘UP’ is selected, up line pressure bottoms the

centering jacks, the down line becomes the return line. The bypass
valve is opened by up line pressure and ports all sides of the steering
jacks to return, so the nose wheels are centered ready to enter the
bay.
Page 86 of 100
Towing
On some aircraft a towing pin can be inserted to force the bypass

valve to open, this will allow free costarring of the nose wheels when
the hydraulic system is pressurized.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
The following precautions should be observed when working on or

around NWS systems.
 If the rudder is moved with hydraulic pressure ON, the nose

wheel will move.
 Don’t touch the tiller when the hydraulics is pressurized

especially when a towing arm is fitted.
 When carrying out functional checks of the NWS system reduce

the side loads on the tyres by using greased plates or a
turntable.
 If a tow pin system is fitted make sure the wheels are in the
straight ahead position and that the towing arm is removed
before removing the towing pin.
Page 87 of 100
SELF ASSESSMENT
Try these short answer questions allowing yourself about 5 minutes.
1. What is the purpose of swivel valves?
2. How can tyre scrub be eliminated while ground testing of the

nose wheel steering system?
3. Why do we need a follow up linkage?
Page 88 of 100
1. Swivel valves are fitted to allow pressure to be cut off to the

jacks at high angles of turn when the jack goes over centre.
2. Tyre scrub is eliminated by using greased plates under the

tyres or using a turntable.
3. Follow up linkages is used to cancel out the input commands

when the required amount of turn has been achieved.
SUMMARY
We have looked at the basic methods of nose wheel steering

systems; you will realize that there are many ways of achieving steer
able nose wheels. Because of the force required to move the .wheels
when the weight of an aircraft is on them, steering jacks are very
powerful. Extreme caution should be exercised when you are in the
vicinity of the nose wheels, particularly when hydraulic power is
applied.
If you have successfully completed all the activities you have done
well.
ESSENTIAL READING
More information can be gained from the following:-
CAIPs Book 2 Leaflet – AL/3-6Paragraph 5.
Page 89 of 100
BOOKLET:07
CONTENTS
Introduction 91
Auto-Brake System 92
Selector Panel 93
Auto-Brake Control Box 94
Auto-Brake Solenoid Valve 94
Activity 1 96
Operation 97
Auto-Brake Termination 98
Self Assessment 99
Summary 100
Page 90 of 100
OBJECTIVE/ADVICE
The objective of this booklet is to introduce you to auto-braking. I

have assumed that you have already read Booklet Nos. 2 and 3 of
this study plan on anti-skid and braking systems. When you have
completed this booklet you will be able to:-
 Explain the reason for auto-braking.
 Describe the normal arming requirements.
 Explain the method of operation.
 Identify the components and define the terms used in auto-

braking systems.
During this booklet you will encounter activities. Attempt them as

you reach them as they will help you to assess your understanding of
the topic. This booklet should take you about one hour of study.
INTRODUCTION
An automatic braking system can be of tremendous value to pilots

under normal and adverse landing conditions, for at anytime prior to
landing the pilot can select an aircraft deceleration rate to be
achieved by the brakes. Once a setting has been made the auto-
brake system on landing will smoothly apply the brakes to achieve
the selected deceleration rate down to a complete stop, without any
further action from the crew.
Page 91 of 100
AUTO-BRAKE SYSTEM
The auto-brake system represents a major advancement in landing

and take-off safety. It allows the pilot to concentrate on other
activities such as reverse thrust.
The auto-brake system utilizes the normal anti-skid and brake units,
but instead of using pressure from the brake metering valves,
hydraulic pressure is sent via solenoid valves which will allow a
predetermined amount of pressure through the anti-skid valves to
the brake units. Auto-brake is only available on aircraft equipped
with electrical anti-skid systems.
Fig. 1 illustrates the inter-relationship between the brake pedals and

the anti-skid in auto-brake mode.
BRAKE
PEDAL AUTO-BRAKE AUTO-BRAKE AIRCRAFT
BRAKE SOLENOID CONTROL SPEED
METERING VALVE BOX INFORMATION
VALVE
ANTI-SKID
CONTROL
SELECTOR
WHEEL PANEL
PRESSURE
BRAKE
PRESSURE
LINES
Fig. 1 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ANTI-SKID, AUTO, AND PEDAL BRAKING
Let's look at some of the components in the auto-brake system. They

are the:-
 Selector panel.
 Auto-brake control box.
 Solenoid valves.
Page 92 of 100
SELECTOR PANEL
A typical selector panel is shown in Fig. 2. It consists of a solenoid

latched switch which will hold in a selected position only if all the
arming requirements are met. If the auto-brake system cannot be
armed the switch will return to the disarm position and the warning
light will illuminate to warn the pilot that the system will not function
or is not armed.
DISARM WARNING LIGHT
Fig. 2 AUTO-BRAKE SELECTOR PANEL
Let us consider the various switch positions on the auto-brake

selector panel.
1, 2, 3, 4, Max Auto.
These are preset deceleration rates which the auto-brake control box
will signal to the solenoid valve to port pressure to the brakes.
OFF
The system is off.
DISARM
The system is unable to be armed.
RTO
(Rejected Take-Off) This setting is armed on the ground prior to take
off. If after a certain speed has been achieved during the take off run
the throttles are retarded to idle, the brakes will automatically
receive full pressure and bring the aircraft to a rapid stop. If the
aircraft makes a normal take off, as soon as the air/ground sensor
detects an air mode the RTO mode will be cancelled and the switch
will move to OFF.
Page 93 of 100
AUTO-BRAKE CONTROL BOX
Selection on the panel will send an electrical signal to the auto-brake

control box, which is normally in the aircraft's electrical bay. The
control box is a microprocessor which commands the solenoid valve
to port pressure to the brake units.
Because the pressure must be gradually built up and released to

prevent brake snatch and jerking, a time delay and an electrical
ramp (Fig. 3) are used to achieve these ends. The terminology used
to indicate the operation of the auto-brake is:-
 ON RAMP
 OFF RAMP
 DROP OUT
PRESSURE
PRESSURE MODULATES TO
MAINTAIN SELECTED RATE
GROUND MODE
DROP
OUT
TIME
TIME DELAY
Fig. 3 HYDRAULIC PRESSURE DUE TO ELECTRICAL RAMP CONTROL
ON RAMP - A gradual build up of brake pressure to the

amount required for the selected deceleration
rate.
OFF RAMP - A gradual decrease in pressure down to zero

At the termination of the landing run or
cancellation of auto-brake.
DROP OUT - Instantaneous pressure release to zero e.g.

'go around' mode.
AUTO-BRAKE SOLENOID VALVE
These valves are electrically controlled hydraulic valves that allow

pressure to the brake units at a specific setting; the greater the
deceleration rate, the higher must be the pressure allowed to the
brake units. These valves are usually fitted in the undercarriage bays
Page 94 of 100
just upstream of the anti-skid valves.
The solenoid valve will open when all the arming requirements have
been met and the aircraft is on the ground. It is also this solenoid
valve that 'snaps shut' on DROP OUT.
The servo valve modulates the brake pressure to regulate the

deceleration rate. The pressure switch is connected to the disarm
warning light to monitor zero pressure when the auto-brakes are
armed.
Fig. 4 shows a typical auto-brake solenoid valve.
HYDRAULIC
RETURNS
PRESSURE
SWITCH
SOLENOID
VALVE
DISARM
PRESSURE
SWITCH
SERVO VALVE
METERED
PRESSURE TO
SYSTEM BRAKES
PRESSURE
Fig. 4 AUTO-BRAKE SOLENOID VALVE
Page 95 of 100
1. What is the purpose of auto-brake?
2. What does ON RAMP mean?
3. Why use a solenoid latched switch?
1.
2.
3.
Page 96 of 100
Your answers should contain points similar to the following:-
1. Auto-brake relieves the pilot of braking the aircraft after

landing, so enabling him to concentrate on other activities.
2. ON RAMP means a gradual build up of brake pressure to the

pressure required to maintain the selected deceleration rate.
3. The latched switch gives instant indication that the arming

requirements are met. If all is well the switch will stay in the
selected position. If auto-brake is not functioning the switch
will flick back to disarm.
Now we've seen the components that make up the system, let’s look
at the operation of auto-brake.
OPERATION
To arm the auto-brakes certain conditions must be met. The normal

requirements are that:-
 The aircraft is in the air mode.

 There is no fault in the anti-skid system.
 The anti-skid system is switched on.
 The throttles are retarded.
Once the aircraft touches down the anti-skid transducers send a

signal to the auto-brake control box. When the wheels have achieved
a certain speed (approx 60 knots) the brakes will be applied up the
ramp, (Fig. 3); waiting for the speed of the wheels to build up
constitutes a time delay. Once the required deceleration rate is
reached the auto-brake is modulated to hold that rate. Deceleration
rate is monitored by wheel transducer voltages or on some aircraft
information from the inertial reference system or the pitot system
which relays the aircraft's forward speed. If the aircraft slows down
more than required the servo valve will close slightly to reduce the
brake pressure and thus allowing the aircraft to speed up. In other
cases the anti-skid valves are used to modulate auto-brake pressure.
Once the aircraft comes to a complete stop (OFF RAMP) the auto-
brakes will switch off to enable the aircraft to taxi to dispersal.
Page 97 of 100
AUTO-BRAKE TERMINATION
Auto-brake can be cancelled by the pilot at anytime. He can override

the system by:-
 Pressing the brake pedals lightly, (auto-brake will go to OFF

RAMP).
 Moving the speed brake lever slightly forward. (auto-brake will

go to OFF RAMP)
If the brake pedals or speed brake lever are returned to their original
positions auto-brake will re-apply (ON RAMP).
Auto-brake needs to be cancelled rapidly if after landing an

immediate take-off is required. This is known as ‘go around’. The
following actions will cause immediate ‘DROP OUT’ of the auto-
brake:-
 The throttles are pushed forward.
 The speed brake lever is fully stowed.
Auto-brakes will also DROP OUT if the brake pedals are depressed
hard enough so that pedals brake pressure exceeds auto-brake
pressure.
Page 98 of 100
SELF ASSESSMENT
Spend about ten minutes on these questions.
1. What does RTO mean and how is it armed to operate?
2. Where does the auto-brake system get its aircraft speed

information from?
3. When would 'DROP OUT' take place?
4. Draw a graph of auto-brake pressure after a normal operation

initiation terminating in DROP OUT.
Page 99 of 100
Ref: AS-05-02 AIRFRAME (Study Plan-06)
1. RTO: Rejected take-off. It operates when selected after the

aircraft has achieved a pre-determined speed on take off and if
the throttles are closed to idle rpm.
2. From: The inertial reference system, or

The wheel speed transducers, or
The pitot system.
3. DROP out takes place if the throttles are advanced above idle
rpm or the brake pressure through the brake metering valves
(pedal braking) equals or exceeds the auto-brake pressure.
4.
AUTO BRAKES OPERATING
ZERO HYDRAULIC
DROP PRESSURE
OUT
AIRCRAFT
ON
GROUND
TIME DELAY
SUMMARY
We have looked at the fundamentals of auto-brake in this booklet.

Various manufacturers have different methods to achieve the same
ends. All auto brake systems relieve the crew of stopping the aircraft
after landing by using 'feet off' braking.
Auto-brake is particularly useful during landings on wet or slush

covered runways as the deceleration rate is constant and precisely
controlled while the crew is free to keep the aircraft straight on the
runway.
100 of 100

ATA 32. Landing Gear AS-05-02 (PLAN-06) PDF

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ATITA AIRFRAME STUDY PLAN: 06

MODULE AS-05-02 REVISION: 00

Multiple Axles and Wheels 3

Self Assessment Review 16

Suggested Practical Activities 16

At the end of this booklet you should be able to:-

 State the advantages of multiple axle and wheel assemblies.

 Understand the principles and operation of 'bogie beams and

The increase in size and weight of aircraft has led to an increase in

MULTIPLE AXLES AND WHEELS

To allow for the maximum utilization pf aircraft when operating from

SMALL WHEELS EASY TO

SINGLE TANDEM DOUBLE BOGIE

Fig. 1 TYPICAL MULTIWHEEL CONFIGURATIONS

Since it is very expensive to strengthen long runways for heavy jet

 They provide greater safety. As the load is spread over several

 They are easier to service. The wheels are smaller and

 They are lighter. The more wheels on a landing gear, the

 However, multiple wheel assemblies do have some

 There are more moving parts, so therefore more maintenance

 They are more expensive to produce.

 Due to the large footprint during turning, the tyres tend to

Try these questions on what we have looked at so far.

1. Why are multi-wheel landing gears safer than single

2. What is the main advantage of having multi-wheels on

3. How can tyre scrub be reduced during taxying?

Your answers should read something like these:

1. As the load is spread over several wheels, a burst tyre will be

2. The main advantage is to spread the load over a larger area.

3. Tyre scrub can be reduced by increasing the turning radius

Let's now move on to bogie beams and their associated parts.

 A telescopic leg incorporating a shock absorber.

 A bogie beam pivoted about the bottom of the telescopic leg.

A typical bogie landing gear (sometimes called trucks) is shown in

Fig. 2 TYPICAL BOGIE BEAM INSTALLATIONS

The bogie is designed so that the undercarriage can perform two

A/C WEIGHT OVERCOMES

LEVER ARM DIRECTION ACTION

Fig. 3 OPERATIONAL SEQUENCE OF BOGIE ON TOUCHDOWN

The major problem with bogie undercarriages, i.e. resistance to

On the castoring or steered bogie, the rear set of wheels swivel on

CASTORING PIVOT PIN

BOGIE PIVOT PIN

Fig. 4 TYPICAL CASTORING BOGIE

On this landing gear the torque links are replacement by steering

Single Axis Bogie

Fig. 5 SINGLE AXIS BOGIE

1. What is the purpose of the torque links?

2. What prevents the forward wheels of bogie from slamming

1. The purpose of the torque links is to prevent the bogie rotating

2. Slam down is prevented by the tilt jack (hop damper).

3. (i) Lever arm - initial touchdown.

(ii) Direct action - when all wheels contact.

Let's move on to door sequencing.

The purpose of door sequencing is to ensure that the landing gear

1. The door will open.

2. The leg will be unlocked and lowered.

3. On some aircraft the door is closed again after extension.

Anything that jeopardizes the sequence can cause considerable

For efficient operation there must be some form of interconnection

AFT DOOR ARROW SHOWS RETRACT DIRECTION

Fig. 6 TYPICAL MECHANICALLY OPERATED DOOR SYSTEM (BOTH DOORS SHOWN

Most undercarriage systems are powered by the aircraft hydraulic