Cylinder Block (Automobile)

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Engine Construction
The major components of an automobile reciprocating piston engine are the
cylinder block, oil pan, cylinder head, intake manifold, exhaust manifold, crankshaft,
flywheel, camshaft, oil seals, bearings, connecting rod, piston, piston rings, valve
train etc. This chapter deals with all these components with respect to their function,
construction, design considerations, materials, trends, etc.
3.1.

Cylinder Block
The cylinder block is the portion of the engine between the cylinder head and sump (oil
pan)
and is the supporting structure for the entire engine. All the engine parts are mounted
on it or
in it and this holds the parts in alignment. Large diameter holes in the block-castings
form the
cylinder bores required to guide the pistons. These holes are called bores as they are
made by
boring. The cylinders are provided with a web or bulkhead to support the crankshaft and
head
attachments. Each main bearing bulkhead supports both a cam bearing and a main
bearing.
The bulkhead is well ribbed to support and distribute loads applied to it. This gives the
block
structural rigidity and beam stiffness. The cylinders are surrounded by cooling passages.
The
block has drilled passages for the flow of coolant and lubricating oil separately. When a
curved
passage is needed, intersecting drilled holes are used. After oil holes are drilled the
unneeded
open ends are capped by pipe plugs, steel balls, or cup-type soft plugs. The head, pan,
and timing
cover are fixed to the block with sealed joints for eliminating leakage. Gaskets are used
in the
joints to take up machining irregularities and to absorb variations due to pressure and
temperature extremities.
Within the cylinder, combustion process produces rapid and periodic rises in
temperature
and pressure. These induce circumferential and longitudinal tensile stresses, which act
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around
the cylinder and in the direction of the cylinder axis respectively. These induced stresses
are of
pulsating nature, so that the cylinder is continuously stretched and contracted while in
operation. Combustion pressure loads are carried from the head to the crankshaft
bearings
through the block structure. Mounting pads or lugs on the block transfer the reaction
loads
caused by the engine torque to the vehicle frame.
The cylinder head is fastened to the top surface of the block, called the block deck. The
deck
has a smooth surface to seal against the head gasket. Threaded bolt holes are provided
around
the cylinders to form an even holding pattern. These bolt holes go into reinforced areas
within
the block that carry the load to the main bearing bulkheads.
The cylinders may be of a skirt-less design, flush with the top of the crankcase, or they
may
have a skirt that extends into the crankcase. Extended skirt cylinders are used on engines
with
short connecting rods. As a result a low overall engine height can be obtained since it
has a
small block size for its displacement. In most skirtless cylinder designs, the cooling
passages
extend nearly to the bottom of the cylinder. In skirted cylinder designs, the cooling
passages are
limited to the upper portion of the cylinder.
Both spark-ignition cylinder blocks and compression-ignition cylinder blocks are similar,
but latter blocks are relatively heavier and stronger to withstand high compression ratios
and
internal pressure.
3.1.1.

Types of Block

In-line Cylinders.
The in-line cylinder block assembly is available with many variations. One type uses a
single
monoblock casting forming an integral cylinder block and crankcase (Fig. 3.1). Another
type
uses a separate casting for cylinder head, cylinder block and crankcase (Fig. 3.2). The
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monoblock
cylinder block and crankcase is relatively easy to cast, is cheap to manufacture, and
produces
a very stiff combined structure. This type is commonly used for small and medium
engines. The
detachable bolt-on crankcase is used on some large diesel engines where an aluminium-
alloy
crankcase is bolted on to a cast-iron block to minimize weight. The combined head and
cylinder
block casting with a bolt-on crankcase has been used in heavy duty diesel engines to
minimize
thermal distortion.

Fig. 3.1. Monoblock cylinder block and crankcase. Fig. 3.2 Cylinder block with
detachable crankcase.

Horizontally Opposed Cylinders.

Horizontally opposed cylinders generally have a separate crankcase with banks of two or
three cylinders bolted on opposite sides (Fig. 3.3) or two half integral cylinder block and
crankcase banks bolted together (Fig. 3.4). There is either a central camshaft to actuate
the
valve push-rods, or twin camshafts, one for each bank.

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Fig. 3.3. Horizontally opposed cylinder Fig. 3.4. Horizontally opposed cylinder
with detachable crankcase. with divided crankcase.

V-banked Cylinders.
V-banked cylinders have compact and rigid arrangements and are common in engine of
2.5
liters or above. The angle between banks is generally 60 degrees for four- and six-
cylinder
engines, and 90 degrees for eight-cylinder engines. An integral cylinder block and
crankcase is
used with this block. In this arrangement a central camshaft actuates the valves in each
cylinder
block (Fig. 3.5). However, in some heavy-duty diesel engines a separate crankcase is used
with
a separate camshaft for each bank (Fig. 3.6).

Fig. 3.5. Monoblock V cylinder Fig. 3.6. ‘V cylinder block

block and crankcase. with detachable crankcase.

3.1.2.

The Coolant Passages

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The coolant passages are cast in the cylinder block. These surround the cylinder walls
circumferentially and lengthwise covering approximately the full depth of the cylinders.
The
coolant passages terminate near the bottom of the cylinders, where the cylinder walls
merge
with the crankcase. At the top of the cylinder, the coolant passages end either at the
level of the
block’s joint face, called as an open deck (Fig. 3.7), or just below the block’s machine face,
known
as a closed deck (Fig. 3.8). In the closed deck cylinder block, the vertical drillings, which
communicate with corresponding holes in the cylinder head, provide coolant circulation.
A closed
deck has better joint reliability than an open deck. On the other hand, it is easier to cast
an
open-deck cylinder block.

Fig. 3.7. Closed-deck cylinder block. Fig. 3.8. Open-deck cylinder block.

3.1.3.

The Crankcase
The crankcase supports the individual main journals and bearings of the crankshaft and
also maintains the alignment of the journal axes of rotation as they are subjected to
rotary and
reciprocating inertia forces and the periodic torque impulses. A tunnel-roof construction
of the
crankcase is partitioned-off by bulkhead cross-webs, which mount and support the
crankshaft
main journals and bearings (Fig. 3.8). This semicircular ceiling construction with spaced-
out
cross-webs offers a very stiff and relatively light crankcase structure.
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Over the underslung crankshaft, the crankcase walls from a skirt, which is either
separately
attached to the cylinder block’s lower deck (Fig. 3.2) or merged into it as integral casting
(Fig.
3.1). The crankcase skirt may enclose the crankshaft from cylinder block to crankshaft-
axis level
(Fig. 3.1). However, to provide extra rigidity the walls also extend well below the
crankshaft
(Fig. 3.2). This is suitable for both high-performance and heavy-duty engines. Ribs run
from the
bottom of the cylinder block diagonally towards the main-bearing housings for
additional
support to the cross-webs. In some aluminium-alloy integral cylinder-blocks and
crankcases,
stiffening ribs are cast longitudinally and vertically downwards on the outside walls of
the block
and crankcase.

Fig. 3.9. V-type engine block. Fig. 3.10. Y-type engine block.
The crankcase walls are flanged at the bottom
to strengthen the casing and to attach the sump.
Two types of lower block designs are in use, name-
ly V-block (Fig. 3.9) and Y-block or deep block :
(Fig. 3.10). The base of V-block is close to the
crankshaft centre. This block is compact and
lightweight. The Y-block improves the stiffness of
the entire engine, which provides smooth and
quite operation, and durability.
3.1.4.

Cylinder Block Material

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The cylinder blocks are cast in one piece from
gray iron or iron alloy containing nickel or
chromium for high strength and wear resistance.
Some cylinder blocks are cast from a silicon
aluminium alloy. The cylinder block is a compli-
cated casting. A V-8 cylinder block is illustrated
in Fig. 3.11.
When cast in a monoblock form, the cylinder
block material should have adequate strength
and rigidity in compression, bending, and torsion.
This is necessary to resist the gas pressure loads
and also for the components, which convert the
reciprocating motion of individual piston into a
single rotary motion.
The cylinder-block material should
(a) be relatively cheap,
(b) readily produce castings with good impressions,
(c) be easily machined,
id) be rigid and strong enough in both bending and torsion,
(e) have good abrasion resistance,
(f) have good corrosion resistance,
ig) have high thermal expansion,
(h) have a high thermal conductivity,
(i) retain its strength at high operating temperatures, and
(J) have a relatively low density.
Although cast iron meets most of these requirements, it has a low thermal conductivity
and
is comparatively heavier. Due to these limitations, light aluminium alloys have been used
as
alternative cylinder-block materials for petrol engines. Cylinder liners (refer section 3.1.5)
are
optional with cast-iron blocks; but are more essential with the relatively soft light
aluminium
alloy blocks, as they cannot directly withstand wear resistance. Because of the lower
strength
of the aluminium alloys, the blocks are cast with thicker sections and additional support
ribs,
so that their weight becomes about half of the equivalent cast-iron blocks.

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Fig. 3.11. A V-8 engine block.
A typical cast iron is a gray cast iron, which
contains 3.5% carbon, 2.25% silicon, 0.65%
manganese, and the balance (93.6%) iron.
The carbon improves lubrication property
of graphite,
the silicon controls the formation of a
laminated structure, called pearlite, which
has good wear
resistance, and the manganese
strengthens and toughens the iron
structure. A common
aluminium alloy composition is 11.5%
silicon, 0.5% manganese, and 0.4%
magnesium, with the
balance (87.6%) aluminium. The high
silicon content in this alloy reduces expansion but
improves cast-ability, strength, and abrasion resistance, while the other two elements
strengthen the aluminium structure. While this alloy provides a good corrosion
resistance, it
can absorb only moderate shock loads.
Advantages of cast iron cylinder blocks are;
(i) Good casting properties.
(ii) Free graphite helps to give good wearing properties. The cylinder bore, for example,
can be machined directly in cast iron.
(Hi) Good sound damping properties.
(iv) Tapped holes (i.e., cylinder head studs) are less easily stripped than with aluminium.
Advantages of aluminium cylinder blocks are ;
(i) Lighter in weight.
(ii) Attractive appearance.
(Hi) Easier machining during production.
(iv) Better heat dissipation.
3.1.5.

Cylinder Liner
The liner increases cylinder bore life, as this can be made of an iron suitable more for its
wearing properties than for its casting properties. A single grade of cast iron used to cast
cylinder
block cannot have all the optimum individual mechanical properties such as strength,
tough-
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ness, hardness, and corrosion and wear resistance. Separate cylinder liners are
therefore used.
These provide prolonged cylinder life, which outweighs the extra cost. The liners can be
made
from lightly alloyed cast iron. They are centrifugally cast into the cylindrical sleeve,
machined,
the then heat-treated to produce the optimum wear-resisting properties.
These liners are of two classes :
(i) Those, which are in direct contact with the cylinder bore walls of the cylinder block,
are known as dry liners.
(ii) Those, which are supported only at each end in the cylinder block and are elsewhere
in direct contact with the engine coolant, are known as wet liners.

Dry Liners.
Normally dry cylinder liners (Fig. 3.12) are provided under the following circumstances :
(a) When the cylinder block is made from aluminium alloy, the cylinder bore wall should
be stronger and of much harder wear resistant material.
(b) For heavy duty operating conditions, the normal wear resistance of a cast-iron
cylinder
block can be improved through sleeves with superior properties.
(c) When the cylinder block is designed with siamesed adjacent cylinder bores in order to
reduce the over all length, then only dry liners are suitable.
(d) When a cylinder block has been rebored two or three times, then dry liners are used
to restore to the original size of the cylinder bore.
(e) If both bending and torsional rigidities are of concern, a cylinder block with cast-in
coolant passages and cylinder bores fitted with dry liners is more suitable than a block
using wet liners.
The three basic fits used with dry liners are (i) cast-in fit, (ii) force (press) fit, and (Hi) slip
fit.

(i) Cast-in-fit Liner.

For using dry cylinder liners in aluminium-alloy cylinder blocks, the
outside cylindrical surface of the liner is machined to form a helical groove running from
top to
bottom. The liners are generally preheated to 473 K and are then placed correctly in the
cylinder-block casting dies before casting starts. This forms a strong metallic bond
between the
aluminium-alloy block and the cast-iron sleeve after solidification.

(ii) Force-fit (Press-fit) Liner.

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This liner (Fig. 3.12A) is a plain cylindrical sleeve. The
liner is positioned by drawing or pushing the sleeve into the cylinder block with force.
This
operation requires suitable end-plates and guides, and either a screw-and-nut draw-bar
attach-
ment or a hydraulic-press set-up. Typical interference fits between the sleeve and cast-
iron
cylinder block are 0.050 mm and 0.075 mm for bore diameters of 75 to 100 mm and 100
to 150
mm respectively.

(ill) Slip-fit Liner.

This liner (Fig. 3.12B) is a cylindrical sleeve, flanged at one end for
positioning and securing in its location. There is little or no contact between the liner and
the
block walls. The liner is inserted by hand pressure. The flange projects above the block
face by
0.05 to 0.125 mm to prevent vertical movement relative to the block while in use.

A. Plain force-fit- B. Flanged slip-fit.

Dry Liner Installation.

First the cylinder walls and their counter-bores are cleaned of
rust, carbon, and any burrs. Then diametrical distortion is checked with a micrometer or
any
other similar instrument. For fitting the slip-fit liner, the matching between the flange
and the
recess bore is checked by blueing the sleeve top face, upturning the sleeve, and rubbing
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it against
the counterbore face. The sleeve bore is checked for ovalness with a micrometer at two
locations
at right angles to each other at the top, middle, and bottom of the sleeve. If the
difference at any
of the locations checked exceeds 0.05 mm, the sleeve is rotated through 90 degrees in
the cylinder
block and rechecked until the best position is obtained.
During boring out the cylinder block to take the sleeve or re-boring a cylinder block, the
same care for alignment, circularity, straightness, diameter, and surface finish is
necessary.
The working tolerance for boring cylinder blocks is +0.0000 to 0.0125 mm.
Due to relatively thin walls the dry liners take up the contour of the finished wall profile.
‘ air pockets are formed by ridge marks from a rough single-point cutting tool, local hot
spots
re produced causing distortion, rapid wear and even piston seizure.
Force-fit dry liners are normally supplied with an unfinished internal-bore diameter with
an allowance of between 0.35 mm and 0.50 mm. This allowance is removed by boring
and honing
processes after the liners are installed in their respective cylinder-block bore holes. Slip-
fit dry
liners may be supplied either as semi-pre-finished liners with an internal-bore allowance
of
0.025 to 0.10 mm, which is removed by honing after fitting or as pre-finished liners with
no
internal-bore allowance.
The liner bore surface is honed to an accuracy of 0.6 to 0.8 um centre-line (average) with
a
Crosshatch angle of 120 degrees (Fig. 2.12A). This provides an optimum oil-retaining
surface for
running in new piston rings and cylinder bores (ring bedding). This is required for both
gas-sealing and oil control.

Wet Liners.
Wet cylinder liners (Fig. 3.13) provide the following advantages if used in petrol engines
with aluminium alloy cylinder block having a high coefficient of expansion.
(a) Due to isolation of the bulk of the sleeve from the block, difficult expansion problems
can be resolved at one or two locations only.
(6) The use of wet liners simplifies the casting of the cylinder block. Also, castings of
suitable material can be used with an appropriate heat treatment for structural
requirements, rather than the cylinder-bore wear-resistance treatments.

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(A) Fig. 3.13. Wet cylinder liners. (B)
A. Single sleeve support with open-deck. B. Double sleeve support with closed-
deck.
(c) With better outside surface finish and constant wall thickness the liner improves the
thermal conductance and uniformity of cylinder cooling.
The wet liner is more rigid than a dry liner as the normal cylinder wall is eliminated in this
case. Wet liners fit into the cylinder block at the top and near the bottom, and the
remaining
portion of the sleeve is unsupported. O-rings are used to prevent leakage of the coolant.
Some
wet liner sleeves have a flange at the top, which sits into a recess machined in the upper
deck
of the block. Sometimes a soft copper-asbestos or composite gasket is fitted between
the flangf
and the block recess. To hold in position, the sleeve flange protrudes above the block’s
top joir
face by 0.05 mm for bores up to 100 mm diameter and by 0.175 mm for cylinder
diamete:
ranging from 100 to 150 mm.
The liner is sealed at the bottom by one or more rubber O-rings, usually fitted in grooves
(Fig. 3.13 A). Sometimes an inspection drain hole as shown in the figure is provided in the
side
of the block between the seals, to check any leakage through the seals. In another wet
liner-sleeve arrangement, only the lower crankcase end of the liner is supported, which
is
flanged to have contact with the corresponding machined face in the block. A flat gasket
is used
between these two joint faces (Fig. 3.13B). Since the top of the liner sleeve has no side
support,

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it depends totally on vertical compression of the liner caused by the cylinder head and
gasket
during tightening down. For correct compressive support, the liner’s top face projects
above the
cylinder block’s deck by 0.03 to 0.10 mm, depending on the diameter of the cylinder
bore, and
the tightening-down torque.

Wet Liner Installation.

The old gasket or/and sealing rings are removed and the portion
of the block that comes into contact with the liner is cleaned using a scraper and emery
cloth.
The new liner is inserted into the block without sealing rings or gaskets. It is turned by
hand
to find out if there is any tightness, which could cause distortion of the sleeve. The liner
flange
must be smooth and square in the counter bore, otherwise the flange might break off
while
tightening the cylinder head. Any burrs or dirt that might lift the flange is removed. The
projection of the liner flange above the block face is measured to ensure an adequate
clamping
interface.
The seating rings are then fitted without overstretching or twisting them. A coating of
sealing compound may be applied and the liner sleeve is guided into place by hand,
followed by
lightly tapping with a soft hammer. At this stage, the sleeve cylinder bore is checked for
any
misalignment or distortion.

Liner Materials.
Some commonly used liner materials are nitrided steels, nitrided cast irons, and heat
treated
chromium and other alloy cast irons. The wear resistance of these metals is at least 50%
more
than the cylinder block material. The typical specification of liner material is :
Iron 93.92 to 92.22%
Carbon 3 to 3.5%
Silicon 1.8 to 2.4%
Manganese 0.5 to 0.8%
Phosphorous 0.4 to 0.7%
Sulphur 0.08%)
Chromium 0.3%
3.1.6.
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Gaskets
Gaskets or static seals are used between attaching engine parts to seal the joints for
preventing either internal or external leakage. A gasket must withstand the high pressure
and
temperature of the engine. Therefore, the gasket
(i) must be impermeable to the fluids in contact,
(ii) must conform to any existing surface imperfections,
(Hi) must be resilient to maintain sealing pressure, even when the joints are slightly
loosened as a result of temperature changes or vibration,
(iv) must be resistant to all expected changes in its environment due to temperature,
pressure variations, and age, and
(v) must be stable under compression conditions, avoiding excessive setting.
The essential considerations of a gasket are
(a) adequate shear and tensile strengths, particularly for use with narrow sections,
(b) adequate provision for the cooling of the mating surfaces specifically the cylinder
head
and for minimizing the effect of differential thermal expansion,
(c) maintenance of a gasket-thickness tolerance, and
(d) a gasket of simple construction, easy to assemble, and not readily damaged.
The gasket thickness and hardness must be chosen to match the degree of unevenness
of
either joint face due to large tolerances, distortion, surface roughness, or other factors
such as
lack of uniformity of bolt or stud loading. The following gaskets are commonly used in
automobile
engines.
(a) Copper-asbestos gasket.
(b) Steel-asbestos gasket.
(c) Steel-asbestos-copper gasket.
(d) Single steel ridged or corrugated gasket.
(e) Stainless steel gasket.
(f) Asbestos-coated steel sheet with separate steel beading around bore.
(g) Laminated steel and graphitized asbestos sheet with formed steel bore bead.
(h) Asbestos impregnated rubber bonded with reinforced ferrule bead.
(i) Asbestos/steel wire-reinforced tissue.
The material used for gaskets depends on the sealing requirement and cost. Cork, one of
the oldest gasket materials, has limited use only to lightly loaded joints having uneven
surfaces
such as rocker covers and oil pans. Aluminium coatings on cork gaskets help reduce heat
deterioration. In some cases cork gaskets are rubber coated. Cork gaskets are often
replaced by
gaskets made of fibers such as cellulose, asbestos, or a mixture of two. Gasket fibers are
bonded

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together with a binder, and the binder is impermeable to oil in some cases and other
cases it
swells on contact with oil, depending upon the use. Fiber gaskets require a better parting
surface
smoothness than is needed by cork gaskets.
Molded oil-resistant synthetic rubber is often used where the sealing requirements
dictate
special seal designs such as oil pan corner joints and intake manifold ends. A new
approach to
gaskets is a plastic gasket material in a tube used in place of paper and fiber-based
gaskets.

Fig. 3.14. Head gasket with a

fire ring.
Sealing of the cylinder head at
the block parting surface is one of
the
most difficult sealing jobs. Earlier
head gaskets were copper-coated
as-
bestos. As engine design
improved,
copper on the gaskets was
replaced
by steel to withstand the higher
pressures and temperatures.
Steel
rings, called fire rings, were applied
to the gaskets around the cylinder
openings to seal the combustion
chambers (Fig. 3.14).
A more recent head gasket
development uses a thin steel core
with a thin coating of asbestos rolled
on the outside. This provides the gas-
ket the desired resilient properties
needed to withstand the head and
block temperature changes and the
pressure variations within each
cycle. Most head gaskets must be
installed in a specified direction because the gasket is often used to help control engine
coolant
flow. When this is required the gasket is marked top or front. Head gasket types are
shown in

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Fig. 3.15A,Band C.
Timing cover gaskets are usually made of thin fiber or paper. Cork, fiber and synthetic
rubber are used in different parts of the oil pan. The intake manifold uses embossed
steel or
reinforced fiber gaskets. Cork or synthetic rubber sections are used on the lifter valley
cover
portion of the intake manifold. After use, a gasket loses most of its sealing properties. It
is
common practice to use a new gasket each time a part is assembled. Often, the gaskets
are
coated with a special varnish, which
melts and seals all the smaller inter-
sticks between the meeting surfaces
when the engine warms up.
3.1.7.

Cylinder Block Attachments

A number of parts are attached to
the engine to enclose it and to adapt it
to the vehicle. These include covers,
housings, and mounts.
Bell Housings.
A bell housing enclosing the
flywheel and clutch or torque con-
verter is attached to the rear of the
cylinder block. It is positioned with
dowel pins for alignment. Offset
dowels and shims between the block
and bell housing may be used to align
the bell housing in standard transmis-
sion applications, so that the clutch shaft matches the pilot bearing. Alignment of the
automatic
transmission is simplified by using a flex plate transmission drive. Most automatic
transmission
cases from the bell housing, while standard transmission have separate bell housings
with cluth
lever attachments. Aluminium bell housings are normally used in passenger cars to
minimize
weight.

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Fig. 3.15. Types of head gaskets.
A. With metal outside the asbestos.
B. Steel embossed.
C. Steel core with outside coating of
asbestos.

Timing Covers.
The simplest timing covers are made of stamped steel or cast steel (Fig. 3.16A and B) and
attached with cap screws. Its only purpose is to protect the gears from foreign objects
and to
keep the engine oil in. A cast cover also tends to muffle the timing drive noise. Some
timing
covers are die-cast. The die-cast process produces an almost finished cover at extra
tooling cost,
which balances the savings made in machining costs. In some designs the timing cover is
made
more complicated (Fig. 3.16C) by including the oil pump and distribution drive along with
the
fuel pump and water pump. With this type of cover, the block contains no accessory
drives.

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Fig. 3.16. Timing covers.
A. Stamped steel- B. Cast steel.
C. Cast with fuel pump, water pump, oil pump, and distributor attachments.

Engine Mount.
Engines are mounted on the chassis through rubber insulators. The engine mounts are
positioned close to vibration nodes, which are points of minimum vibra tion. The rubber
used
in engine mounts is especially compounded to absorb vibrations, characteristic to each
specific
engine model. The mounts are usually located about half way back on each side of the
block.
The latest mounts (Fig. 3.17B) hold the engine even if the damper rubber breaks, in
contrast to
earlier mounts (Fig. 3.17A).

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Fig. 3.17. Engine mounts.
A. Old style.
B. New style.

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