76. What do you understand by the terms elastic deformation and plastic deformation?

Deformations which disappear completely after the external forces cease to act is called
elastic deformation. Deformation, which does not disappear, is called plastic (permanent)
deformation.

Note: 1.In engineering design, structural parts are, as a rule, so dimensioned and
proportioned as to avoid permanent deformations.
2.There are neither perfectly elastic nor perfectly inelastic bodies in nature.
3.Examples of elastic bodies: Steel, wood etc.,

77. What do you mean by the strength of a material?

Strength of a material is its ability to resist external loads without fracture or excessive
deformations that it fails to serve the purpose (although fracture has not taken place and
the stress is within elastic limit) Egs., Slender ductile column carrying a load P may
deform as shown:-

(a) (b)
Fig 58.

78.What do you mean by critical force in buckling.

The limiting value of the force at which the straight-line configuration of equilibrium
changes from stable to unstable is called critical force.

(a) (b)
Fig 59.
Note: 1. Failures due to buckling are dangerous since they occur suddenly.
2. Compression members must be so dimensioned that critical force would be
considerably larger than the force actually applied to the member.
3. Critical force is a function of geometrical and material properties and
independent of load applied.

79. What are principal stresses?

Planes on which no shearing stresses occur are termed principal planes and the normal
stresses acting on these planes are called principal stresses.
Under any stress conditions it is possible to pass through each point of a body in
three mutually perpendicular principal planes (ie., such planes on which no shearing
stresses occur). Egs., σ1 , σ2 ,σ3 such that Iσ1I > Iσ2I > Iσ3I
Say σ1 = +500 kgf/cm2 . σ2 = -200 kgf/cm2 . σ3 = -300 kgf/cm2 .

80. What are three types of supports used in beams? Explain.

(i) immovable hinged support(or simple support)
(ii) movable hinged support(or roller support)
(iii) fixed support.

(i)Immovable hinged support (or simple support)

(a) (b) N
(c) Schematic Representation of
Immovable Hinged Support Hinged Support
[imposes 2 restraints]
(d)
Fig 60.

The end of the beam is supported by a hinge at O. The latter rests on a bearing pad A,
which in turn is rigidly fastened to foundation N. This support permits, no movement to
the end of the beam in any direction except for rotation about the centre of the hinge O.

Fig 60(e)
(ii) Movable hinged support (or roller support)

(a) Fig 61. (b)

In this case bearing pad is placed on rollers, which permit it to move together with the
end of the beam along the axis of the latter. This support imposes only one constraint on
the end of the beam, namely, it permits no movement of the end of the beam in a
direction perpendicular to axis of the beam. Involves one unknown reaction in magnitude
but known in direction.
(iii) Fixed support
This support
prevents two
lateral movements
and one rotation.
Fig 62. (dy/dx = 0, y=0)

81. What is meant by statically indeterminate beams. How do you solve them?

A statically indeterminate beam is a beam in which the total number of unknown

reactions is greater than the number of available equations of statics expressing the
conditions of equilibrium of the beam.
The redundant unknown reactions impose additional deformation conditions on a
beam. These conditions expressed mathematically provide the lacking number of
equations for determining reactions; the determination of each redundant reaction
requires an additional equation.

Fig 63.
Equilibrium equations:
∑y = 0 ⇒ RA + RB = P ....................................………….....(1)
∑MA = 0 ⇒ RBl - mB - Pxa - mA = 0 ..............……….....….(2)

Compatibility Conditions: deflection at B = 0; Slope of tangent at B=0;

∴ mAl +RAl2/2 – Pb2/2 = 0 ( slope at B = 0) .....…............(3)

and mAl2/2 + RA l3/6 – Pb3/6 = 0 (deflection at B=0) ...........(4)

Solving the system of equations (1) to (4), We get

RA = Pb2(l+2a)/l3; RB = Pa2(l+2b)/l3;

mA = Pab2/l2; mB = Pa2b/l2;

Note: B.M. at C = -mA + RAa = - Pab2/l2 + Pab2(l+2a)/l3

= 2Pa2b2/l3

Fig 64.

82.A semicircular thin ring has a radius r and uniform flexural stiffness EI. The ring
carries equal and opposite loads W at the ends. Find the increase in distance between the
loaded points.(Ref St. Of Materials G.case & A.H.Chilver)

Fig 65.
B.M at any angular position θ is M = Wr sinθ
Since the ring is thin, change of curvature at any section is

1/R = M/EI
Now consider the virtual work of the forces and couples on their resulting displacements;
if δ is the increase in distance between the loaded points, then
θ=π π π

Wδ = ∫ M(1/R) ds ⇒ ∫ M2r dθ/EI ⇒ (W2 r3 /EI)∫ sin2θ dθ

θ=0 0 0

δ = πWr3/2EI

Note: Since the ring is thin, shear stress across its thickness is neglected.

83. A thin circular ring of radius r and uniform flexural stiffness carries two radial loads
W applied along a diameter. Estimate the maximum B.M in the ring.

(a) (b)

Fig 66.

By symmetry the loading actions on a half-ring are W/2 and M0.The B.M at any angular
position θ
M = M0 – Wr/2 sinθ
Then complementary energy of half ring,
π

C=∫ (M0 –Wr/2 sinθ)2 * rdθ/2EI

0

( C = ∫ M2ds/2EI ) (c)
0

Now partial derivative of complementary energy w.r.t redundant couple = 0;

π π

∴∂c/∂M0=0, So that C = ∫ (M0dθ) ⇒ (Wr/2)∫sinθ dθ

0 0

⇒ M0 = (Wr/π)
84. A beam of uniform flexural stiffness EI carries a uniformly distributed load of
intensity w. Find the statistically indeterminate reaction at B.

(a)
Fig 67.

B.M |x = R.x – wx2/2

L L

Complementary energy stored = C = ∫(Rx – Wx2/2)2dx/2EI [ C = ∫(M2 ds/2EI) ]

0
0
L

Now ∂c/∂R = 0 ⇒ ∫(Rx – Wx2/2)2 x dx/2EI

0

=0
L L

ie., R∫ x2dx = W/2 ∫x3dx

0 0 (b)
3 4
or RL /3 = W/2.L /4
⇒ R = 3wL/8.

Note: Complementary energy property of redundant frames is also true for non-linear
systems.

85. It is known that a straight rod of uniform rigidity subjected to an external moment M
bends assuming the shape of a second order parabola.

y=Mx2/2EI ..............(1)

On the other hand, we know

the following expression:
1/ρ = M/EI ................(2) (a)
Fig 68.

If M and EI are constants, then 1/ρ is also a constant. But the curvature is constant only
for a circular arc and not for a parabola. So how is the beam bent? Into an arc of a
parabola or a circle?
 Ans: Expression (1) follows from the differential equation,
y” = M/EI, which is obtained from (2) on the assumption that the
displacements are small.
1/ρ =y”/(1+y12)3/2 ≅ y” Consequently, strictly speaking, in pure bending the beam bends
into a circular arc which can be represented by a second order parabola to a very high
degree of accuracy in the range of small displacements.

86.Draw Mohr’s circle for:

(i) Uniaxial tension (iii) Hydrostatic compression
(ii)Uniaxial compression (iv) Pure shear

τ τ
σ σ

σt σc (b)
(a)

τ τ

σ σ

(c) (d)

Fig 69.

87. Which is the method best suited for which type of problem in beams.

(a) Conjugate beam method for simply supported beams.

(b) Area moment method for cantilevers.
(c) Strain energy method for variable cross section beams.(for varying I)
(d) Three moment or moment distribution methods for continuous beams.
(e) Mathematical methods for all types of loading.

88. Give any one consistent sign convention for loading, S.F., B.M., slope and deflection
for a given coordinate system.

θA θB

Fig 70.
(i)EId4y/dx4 = +w (downwards load is positive)
(ii) EId3y/dx3 = -V (S.F)(right downwards positive)
(iii)EId2y/dx2 = -M (B.M) (Sagging positive)
(iv)dy/dx = θA (+ve slope); θB(-ve slope)
(v)y=+δ (downwards)

89.What is strain energy? Give expressions for strain energy in case of tension, bending,
shear and torsion.

The work done in deforming an elastic material is stored as elastic potential energy called
strain energy (which is capable of giving back equal amounts of work when returned to
original configuration).

U(tension) = ∫P2dx/2AE U(bending) = ∫M2dx/2EI

U(shear) = ∫V2dx/2GA U(torsion) = ∫V2dx/2GJ

Note: Elastic potential energy is capable of giving back equal amounts of work when
loads are released and the structure returns to original configuration.

90. State Betti’s theorem.

If two groups of forces act on clapeyron’s system, then the work of group 1 on
displacements of the forces of group2 is equal to the work of the forces of group2 on
displacements of forces of group1.

F o rc e s :{ Q } I F o r c e s :{ Q } II
D is p la c e m e n ts :{ q } I D is p la c e m e n ts :{ q } II