Water treatment processes (Group 9) • Gravel filters may be used to remove turbidity and algae.

The raw
water enters through an inlet distribution chamber and flows
Introduction horizontally through the tank. Gravel filters can operate for several
• Larger water supplies serving many properties or commercial or years before cleaning becomes necessary.
industrial premises usually have shared upstream treatment systems slow sand filters
similar in principle to those used at municipal water treatment works.
This means that water is fully treated before being supplied to a • Slow sand filters, sometimes preceded by microstrainers or coarse
distribution system from where it will go on to feed consumers. filtration, are used to remove turbidity, algae and microorganisms.
Coagulation and flocculation disinfection/chlorination
• Coagulation and flocculation are used to remove colour, turbidity, • The use of disinfection to kill or inactive pathogenic microorganisms is
algae and other microorganisms from surface waters. The addition of necessary if the raw water contains such organisms.
a chemical coagulant to the water causes the formation of a
precipitate, or floc, which entraps these impurities. The floc is
separated from the treated water by sedimentation and/or filtration, WATER CHEMISTRY
although flotation process may be used in place of sedimentation.
• Nitrogen cycle – present as atmospheric nitrogen, ammonia, nitrite, or
Sedimentation nitrate
• Simple sedimentation (i.e. unassisted by coagulation) may be used to • pH
reduce turbidity and solids in suspension. Sedimentation tanks are
designed to reduce the velocity of flow of water so as to permit • Alkalinity
suspended solids to settle under gravity.
• Hardness
Filtration
• Salinity
Turbidity and algae are removed from raw waters by
• Hydrogen sulfide
• screens,
• Supersaturation
• gravel filters,
Nitrogen
• slow sand filters,
• Atmospheric nitrogen (N2) makes up 80% of the air we breathe
Screens
• Ammonia – produced by breakdown of proteins; present as ionized
• Screens are effective for the removal of particulate material and (NH4+) or unionized (NH3); unionized is 10X as toxic
debris from raw water and are used on many surface water intakes.
• Nitrite (NO2-)
gravel filters
 • Nitrate (NO3-) • Redclaws can get fungal infection below 70oF and die below 50oF
ALKALINITY WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT CONCERNS
• Measure of the pH buffering capacity of water (prevents major pH • Oxygen depletion
shifts)
• Buildup of nitrogen compounds
HARDNESS
• Presence or excess of other compounds and substances
• Measure of calcium and magnesium in water (crawfish need calcium
for their shells) • Turbidity and color

SALINITY • Excessive growth of weeds and algae

• Measure of the amount of sea salts in water (measured in parts per • Plankton bloom
thousand – ppt) WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT CONCERNS
HYDROGEN SULFIDE • Oxygen depletion
• Produced by anaerobic breakdown of waste products in water • Buildup of nitrogen compounds
• Smells like rotten eggs • Presence or excess of other compounds and substances
• Avoid overfeeding • Turbidity and color
• Aerate to eliminate anaerobic conditions • Excessive growth of weeds and algae
SUPERSATURATION • Plankton bloom
• Primary cause is mixing of waters with very different temperatures SIGNS OF OXYGEN DEPLETION
• Can be caused by excessive aeration or photosynthesis • Fish gasp at surface
• Can cause gas bubble disease • Fish group around incoming water
TEMPERATURE • Fish go off feed
• The temperature of the culture water must match the tolerance levels • Nonfish animals leave water
of the aquacrop
• Slow growth
• Improper temperature can cause poor growth or death
• Repeated health problems
• Tropical species such as the redclaw crawfish grow best at 82oF.
• Change in water color
 • Fish-eating birds present
CAUSES OF OXYGEN DEPLETION
• Overstocking – aquacrop uses up all the oxygen
• Weather – limited photosynthesis on cloudy days
• Time of day – lowest oxygen levels in hot weather just before sunrise
• Decay of feed – uneaten food will consume oxygen
• Feeding activity – aquacrop uses more oxygen
• Competition – trash fish and pests use oxygen
• Decay of vegetation – dead weeds, leaves, grass uses up oxygen
• Water temperature – the colder the water, the more oxygen it can hold
• Salinity – the saltier the water, the less oxygen it can hold
• Equipment failure – when aeration devices fail
AERATION
• Splashing the water
• Pumping air or oxygen into the water
• Spraying the water into the air
• Using chemicals (not a good way)
NITROGEN CONTROL
• Avoid overfeeding – protein breakdown releases ammonia
• Remove excessive feces, uneaten food, dead animals
• Use biofilters (if necessary)
• Water change or replacement
OTHER COMPOUNDS AND SUBSTANCES
• Eutrophication – excessive nutrient enrichment in water
• Heavy metals (lead, mercury, cadmium) – presence of heavy metals
can result in contaminated aquacrop
TURBIDITY AND COLOR
• Turbidity – presence of suspended particles of soil or plankton in
water
• Color – plankton blooms and release of tannic acid from decaying
vegetation
WEEDS AND ALGAE
• Can cause harvesting problems
• Can create off-flavor in some organisms
• Chemical control – uses herbicide
• Biological control – uses plant-eating organisms
• Mechanical control – physical removal
• Environmental control – draining or lowering water level during cold
weather
Wastewater Treatment (Group 10)
 Purpose:
To manage water discharged from homes, businesses, and industries
to reduce the threat of water pollution.
 Pre-treatment
- Occurs in business or industry prior to discharge
- Prevention of toxic chemicals or excess nutrients being discharged in
wastewater
  Water discharged from homes, businesses, and industry enters
sanitary sewers
 Water from rainwater on streets enters storm water sewers
 Combined sewers carry both sanitary wastes and storm water
 Water moves toward the wastewater plant primarily by gravity flow
 Lift stations pump water from low lying areas over hills
 Preliminary Treatment
- removes large objects and non-degradable materials
- protects pumps and equipment from damage
- bar screen and grit chamber
 Bar Screen
- catches large objects that have gotten into sewer system such as
bricks, bottles, pieces of wood, etc.
 Grit Chamber
- removes rocks, gravel, broken glass, etc.
 Mesh Screen
- removes diapers, combs, towels, plastic bags, syringes, etc.
 Measurement and sampling at the inlet structure
- a flow meter continuously records the volume of water entering the
treatment plant
- water samples are taken for determination of suspended solids and
B.O.D.
 Suspended Solids – the quantity of solid materials floating in the water
column
 B.O.D. = Biochemical Oxygen Demand
- a measure of the amount of oxygen required to aerobically
decompose organic matter in the water
 Measurements of Suspended Solids and B.O.D. indicate the
effectiveness of treatment processes
 Both Suspended Solids and B.O.D. decrease as water moves through
the wastewater treatment processes
Primary Treatment
-- a physical process
-- wastewater flow is slowed down and suspended solids settle to the
bottom by gravity
-- the material that settles is called sludge or biosolids
 Sludge from the primary sedimentation tanks is pumped to the sludge
thickener.
- more settling occurs to concentrate the sludge prior to disposal
 Primary treatment reduces the suspended solids and the B.O.D. of
the wastewater.
 From the primary treatment tanks water is pumped to the trickling filter
for secondary treatment.
 Secondary treatment will further reduce the suspended solids and
B.O.D. of the wastewater.
Secondary Treatment
 Secondary treatment is a biological process
 Utilizes bacteria and algae to metabolize organic matter in the
wastewater
 In Cape Girardeau secondary treatment occurs on the trickling filter
  the trickling filter does not “filter” the water heating appliances
 water runs over a plastic media and organisms clinging to the media vapors from building materials, paints, furniture
remove organic matter from the water
other materials within the home that emit unhealthy chemicals
 From secondary treatment on the trickling filter water flows to the final
clarifiers for further removal of sludge. Outdoor Pollutions

 The final clarifiers are another set of primary sedimentation tanks.  automobile exhaust

 From the final clarifiers the water is discharged back to the Mississippi  industrial emissions
River.  Natural Pollution
 The final clarifiers remove additional sludge and further reduce  Wildfires
suspended solids and B.O.D.
 Windblown dust
Disposal of Sludge or Biosolids
 Volcanic eruptions
-- the sludge undergoes lime stabilization (pH is raised by addition of lime) to
kill potential pathogens  Burning of fossil fuels (Chemistry Book)

-- the stabilized sludge is land applied by injection into agricultural fields Cars
Disposal of Sludge or Biosolids  Cars are wonderful things. You can go where you want and when. You
can travel with friends or family in a weatherproof lounge-room on
-- in the past, Cape Girardeau disposed of the sludge by landfill or wheels that whisks you along far faster than you could run. But they
incineration do create air pollution.
-- landfill disposal discontinued to the threat of leachate Lead in petrol
-- incineration discontinued because of the ineffectiveness and cost  Lead is put in petrol to make older designs of car engine work better –
but if it gets into your body it will have the opposite effect. The lead
comes from the exhausts of cars running on leaded petrol and it is
Air Pollution (Group 11) poisonous stuff. Babies and young children can be badly affected by
lead – because it can stop their nervous systems developing properly
Indoor Pollutions and it can damage their brains. Once lead has found its way into your
There are many sources of indoor air pollution. body it is difficult to get it out again, so it is obviously better to keep it
out in the first place. Changing from leaded to unleaded petrol has
Tobacco smoke already helped reduce the problems caused by lead poisoning. But
one of the problems is that Australians tend to keep their cars for a
cooking
very long time, so although unleaded petrol is used in all cars less
 than 10 years old, it will take a while for all the old cars using leaded
petrol to vanish from our roads.
Photochemical smog
 Photochemical smog (where ozone is generated) is the main air
pollution problem in the larger Australian cities, because of our sunny
weather. It is caused by the release of nitrogen oxides, mainly from
motor vehicles. Under the influence of sunlight, these oxides react
with certain hydrocarbon compounds to form various substances that
are toxic to humans and plants. The smog irritates people's eyes,
nose and throat, causing considerable discomfort.
 Ozone is an extremely irritating and poisonous gas, and
concentrations in our cities can exceed recommended health limits for
short periods during photochemical smog episodes. The air circulation
patterns in some of our cities (where polluted air may recirculate for
some time before being swept away) worsen the problem.
 (Ozone levels are rising in the lower atmosphere; the destruction of
ozone in the upper atmosphere is a quite separate problem, see our
Nova topic Earth's sunscreen – the ozone layer.)
 All of this is bad news for us and bad news for the planet – so what
are we doing about it?
Catalytic converters
 Development of catalytic converters has helped reduce pollutants in
car exhaust. The converter is a special box that goes onto a car's
exhaust system just past the engine. It is sealed on the outside, but
inside is a heat-proof block with lots of holes through it – a bit like a
big bundle of hollow spaghetti. As the car's hot exhaust gases pass
through this honeycomb of holes, they come into contact with a thin
coating of precious metal – usually platinum. This coating causes
chemical changes to take place in the exhaust gases, which much
reduce the pollutants coming out of the car.
 But as more and more cars take to the road, even these much cleaner
cars are still a major source of pollution. Also, using a precious metal
like platinum makes the converters very expensive to produce.
Natural Pollution
 Even before there were people, there were air pollution. Wildfires,
windblown dust, and volcanic eruptions added pollutants to the
atmosphere, and they still do so. Volcanoes spew ash and poisonous
gases into the atmosphere.
 Example: In 1995 eruptions of the Soufriere Hills volcano on
Montserrat covered much of the Caribbean island with ash. The ash
and fear of further eruptions caused the evacuation of more than half
the country.
 Dust storms, especially in arid regions, add massive amounts of
particulate matter to the atmosphere.
Types and Sources of Air Pollution
o Air Pollution
• Chemicals added to the atmosphere by natural events or
human activities in high enough concentrations to be harmful
o Two categories
• Primary Air Pollutant
• Harmful substance that is emitted directly into the
atmosphere
• Secondary Air Pollutant
• Harmful substance formed in the atmosphere when a
primary air pollutant reacts with substances normally
found in the atmosphere or with other air pollutants
Major Classes of Air Pollutants
o Particulate Material
 o Nitrogen Oxides o Carbon Oxides
o Sulfur Oxides • Gases carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2)
o Carbon Oxides • Greenhouse gases
o Hydrocarbons o Hydrocarbons
o Ozone • Diverse group of organic compounds that contain only
hydrogen and carbon (ex: CH4- methane)
Particulate Material
• Some are related to photochemical smog and greenhouse
o Thousands of different solid or liquid particles suspended in air gases
• Includes: soil particles, soot, lead, asbestos, sea salt, and Ozone
sulfuric acid droplets
o Tropospheric Ozone
o Dangerous for 2 reasons
• Man- made pollutant in the lower atmosphere
• May contain materials with toxic or carcinogenic effects
• Secondary air pollutant
• Extremely small particles can become lodged in lungs
• Component of photochemical smog
Nitrogen and Sulfur Oxides
o Stratospheric Ozone
o Nitrogen Oxides
• Essential component that screens out UV radiation in the
• Gases produced by the chemical interactions between upper atmosphere
atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen at high temperature
• Man- made pollutants (ex: CFCs) can destroy it
• Problems
Effects of Air Pollution
• Greenhouse gases
 Air pollution can cause health problems including burning eyes and
• Cause difficulty breathing nose, itchy irritated throat, and breathing problems. Some chemicals
o Sulfur Oxides found in polluted air can cause cancer, birth defects, brain and nerve
damage, and long-term injury to the lungs and breathing passages in
• Gases produced by the chemical interactions between sulfur certain circumstances. Above certain concentrations and durations,
and oxygen certain air pollutants are extremely dangerous and can cause severe
injury or death.
• Causes acid precipitation
Carbon Oxides and Hydrocarbons
  Air pollution can also damage the environment and property. Trees, What is Solid Waste?
lakes, and animals have been harmed by air pollution. Air pollution
has thinned the protective ozone layer above the Earth. Air pollution  It is defined as “non liquid, non-soluble materials ranging from
can damage buildings, monuments, statues, and other structures. municipal garbage to industrial wastes that contain complex and
sometimes hazardous substances”
 Air pollution also can result in haze, which reduces visibility in national
parks and elsewhere, and can sometimes interfere with aviation.  Solid waste also include:

Health Effects of Air Pollution • Garbage

Sulfur Dioxide and Particulate material • Rubbish

Irritate respiratory tract and impair ability of lungs to exchange gases • Demolition products

Nitrogen Dioxides • Dead animals

Causes airway restriction • Sewage treatment residue

Carbon monoxide • Manure and other discarded material

Binds with iron in blood hemoglobin Source of Waste

Causes headache, fatigue, drowsiness, death
Ozone
Causes burning eyes, coughing, and chest discomfort
Children and Air Pollution
o Greater health threat to children than adults
• Air pollution can restrict lung development
• Children breath more often than adults
 Households or Municipal Waste includes food, paper, cardboard,
plastic, textiles, leather, glass, metal, ashes, electronics waste etc.
Business and Industrial Waste
 includes toxic chemicals, oil, debris from construction site, packaging
waste, ashes etc.
Agriculture Waste
 includes pesticides, crops, water coming from the fields also consists
of small amount of toxic chemicals.

o Children who live in high ozone areas are more likely to develop Biomedical Waste or Hospital Waste
asthma  medicine bottles, expired medicines, syringes, medical instruments
such as scissors, blades etc.

SOLID WASTE (Group 11) Nuclear Waste

  includes radioactive substances coming from reactors, fuel (uranium,
thorium, plutonium etc.). Its highly dangerous and requires proper
disposal.
Hazardous Waste
 includes toxic chemical, acids, corrosive, ignitable and reactive
materials, gases etc.
Classification of Waste According to their Properties
Bio-degradable
 can be degraded (food, fruits and others)
Non-Biodegradable
 cannot be degraded (plastics, bottles, old machines, cans, containers
and others).
FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF THE WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
 Waste Generation refers to activities involved in identifying materials
which are no longer usable and are either gathered for systematic
disposal or thrown away.
 Onsite Handling, storage, and processing are the activities at the point
of waste generation which facilitate easier collection. For example ,
waste bins are placed at the sites which generate sufficient waste.
 Waste Collection, a crucial phase of waste management, includes
activities such as placing waste collection bins, collecting waste from
those bins and accumulating trash in the location where the collection
vehicles are emptied. Although the collection phase involves
transportation, this is typically not the main stage of waste
transportation.
 Waste transfer and transport are the activities involved in moving
waste from the local waste collection location to the regional waste
disposal site in large waste transport vehicles.
 Waste processing and recovery refer to the facilities, equipment, and
techniques employed both to recover reusable or recyclable materials
from the waste stream and to improve the effectiveness of the other
functional elements of the management.
 Disposal is the final stage of waste management. It involves the
activities aimed at the systematic disposal of waste materials in
locations such as landfills or waste to energy facilities.
WHAT IS SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT?
• Solid Waste Management is defined as the discipline associated with
control of generation, storage, collection, transport or transfer,
processing and disposal of solid waste materials in a way that best
addresses the range of public health, conservation, economics,
aesthetic, engineering and other environmental considerations.
• Solid waste management practices can differ for residential and
industrial producers, for urban and rural areas, and for developed and
developing nations. The administration of non-hazardous waste in
metropolitan areas is the job of local government authorities. On the
other hand, the management of hazardous waste materials is typically
the job of the generator, subject to local, national and even
international authorities.
SEGREGATION OF WASTE
• Biodegradable waste includes any organic matter inwaste which can
be broken down into carbon dioxide, water, methane or simple organic
molecules by micro-organisms and other living things by composting,
aerobic digestion, anaerobic digestion or similar processes.
 • Non-Biodegradable wastes are those that cannot break down or Electronic wastes, popularly known as E-wastes, can be defined as electronic
degrade for many years. These are waste that cannot change into and electrical equipment or products, which have become obsolete due to
manure and they pile up causing pollution
i. Changes in fashion, style and status
• Recyclable waste or materials can be processed and used again.
ii. Nearing the end of their useful life.
• Special or hazardous is a special type of waste because it cannot be
disposed of by common means like other by-products of our everyday
lives Agriculture (Group 13)
Agriculture: deliberate land modification through plant cultivation and raising
HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT (GROUP 12) animals for food or profit.

• Toxic (hazardous) waste is a waste which make it dangerous or MDC farming:

potentially harmful to human health or the environment, because of its – Mixed crop and livestock farming: crops  animals  humans
quantity, concentration, chemical or infectious characteristics. (e.g. beef, milk, eggs)
• These waste can’t be handled, stored, transported, and disposed • crop rotation, nitrogen fixing crop intermixed with
without special precautions. primary crop(s)
• Toxic wastes can be liquids, solids, contained gases, or sludges. – Dairy farming: within range of market (avoid spoiling),
HAZARDOUS WASTE CLASSIFICATIONS: refrigeration extends this range

Ignibility – Grain farming: e.g. wheat belt

Corrosivity – Livestock ranching: often on marginal lands in the West, also

Amazonia, Pampas, Outback
Reactivity
– Mediterranean agriculture: Horticulture: growing of fruits and
Toxicity vegetables, and flowers
Radioactive wastes are wastes that contain radioactive material. Radioactive – Commercial gardening and fruit gardening: horticulture, large
wastes are usually by-products of nuclear power generation and other scale, migrant workers
applications of nuclear fission or nuclear techonology, such as research and
medicine. Radioactive waste is hazardous to most forms of life and the – Plantation farming: specialize in 1-2 crops, once slavery, now
environment, and is regulated by government agencies in order to protect import workers
human health and the environment. Strategies for increasing food supply:
E-Wastes: Increase agricultural land
 – marginal lands
• require careful management for long-term yields
• must worry about soil salinization, selenium, etc.
• desertification: human action causes land deterioration
to a desert-like state.
• Increase land productivity
– green revolution
• often requires nutrient inputs (external, cost)
• often relies on machines (external, cost, needs gas)
• seed stocks are foreign owned, possibly not self
propagating

Environmental Concerns (Group 13)

 Ionizing radiation (Group 15)
 flow of energy in the form of atomic and subatomic particle or
electromagnetic waves that is capable of freeing electrons from
an atom, causing the atom to become charged (or ionized)
Sources of ionizing radiation

 Nuclear reactions in the Earth’s sun and stars in space

 Radioactive decay in the body’s tissues and in the soil

 Radioactive decay of unstable elements in rocks, especially rocks that

contain radium and release radon gas

 Occupational sources from mining, medical, research and industrial

jobs.
Types of ionizing radiation
 X-rays/Gamma rays -X-rays and gamma rays travel in the
form of energy “packets” called photons. X-rays come from a
change in energy levels in an atom while gamma rays are
Noise Pollution (Group 14) photons that come from the nucleus of the atom.

WHAT IS NOISE POLLUTION?  Alpha particles- These particles are heavier and slower than x-
rays and gamma rays because they have two protons and two
 Sound that is unwanted or disrupts one’s quality of life is called as neutrons in their nuclei. Alpha particles are dangerous when
noise. When there is lot of noise in the environment, it is termed as inhaled.
noise pollution.
 Beta particles- these are electrons which are smaller and
 Sound becomes undesirable when it disturbs the normal activities
faster than alpha particles and can easily penetrate human
such as working, sleeping, and during conversations.
skin and cause tissue damage and burn.
 It is an underrated environmental problem because of the fact that we
can’t see, smell, or taste it.
 World Health Organization stated that “Noise must be recognized as a
major threat to human well-being