Opening the book of life … or Pandora’s box?

Prepared by: FLORENCE JHUN F. ALMADIN

Topic Outline:
• History and Discovery of DNA
• Contributors

• Recombinant DNA technology

• Genetically Modified Organisms
• Human Genome Project
• Genetic Engineering
• USES OF GENETIC ENGINEERING
• Industrial
• Agricultural
• Animal
• Medicinal
• Ethical Concern
 Leading up to the Discovery....
• 1868: DNA “Saga” began when Swiss biochemist
Miescher isolated Nuclein
• 1869: DNA isolated
• 1910: Levene - Tetranucleotide Hypothesis
• 1928: Griffith - Transforming Principle
• 1944: Avery, MacLeod & McCarty - DNA is
Transforming Principle (DNA proved to be the
hereditary material)
• 1950: Chargaff’s Rules - A=T, G=C
• 1952: Hershey & Chase - Blender Experiment
• 1953: Watson & Crick - A Structure for DNA (DNA www.chem.ucsb.edu/.../images/WatsonCrick.jpg

structure determined).
• Revolutionized the field of biology into a global industry
• Enabled scientists to access genetic information about life
that had not been available previously
• In the 1970’s, scientists began developing mechanisms to
swap portions of DNA between species
• Through knowing the DNA structure we have made
advances such as:
• GMOs
• Cloning
• Genome
 Working with DNA
• 1961-- DNA can be split on heating and stuck
back together again on cooling (reannealing)
DNA hybridisation possible
• 1962--The first restriction endonucleases
discovered (Molecular scissors).
• 1963-- The genetic code worked out
Discovered to be a universal code
• 1967-- DNA ligase discovered (Molecular glue
Fragments of DNA can be stuck together).

© 2016 Paul Billiet ODWS

 Transgenic mice express
enhanced green fluorescent
Recombinant DNA technology protein

• In 1972: Paul Berg, a biochemist at

Stanford University, created the first
recombinant DNA molecule by combining
DNA strands from a monkey virus and a
lambda virus.
• 1973 – 1982: Rudolf Jaenisch, a
Professor of Biology at MIT, created the
world’s first transgenic mouse, by
introducing foreign DNA into the mouse
embryo in 1973.
• 1983 Polymerase chain reaction
invented
• 1985 Genetic fingerprinting
developed.
• 1989 Cystic fibrosis gene
cloned and sequenced
• 1990 Trials for gene therapy
begin.
 Polymerase Chain Reaction
PCR
• PCR allows scientists to make many
copies of a piece of DNA.

1. Heat the DNA so it “unzips”.

2. Add the complementary nitrogenous

bases.

3. Allow DNA to cool so the complementary

strands can “zip” together.
Gel Electrophoresis

• This technology allows

scientists to identify someone’s
DNA!
Steps Involved in Gel Electrophoresis
1. “Cut” DNA sample with restriction
enzymes.

2. Run the DNA fragments through a gel.

3. Bands will form in the gel.

4. Everyone’s DNA bands are unique and

can be used to identify a person.

5. DNA bands are like “genetic

fingerprints”.
Genetically Modified Organisms
• The Flavr Savr tomato, introduced in 1994, was the world’s first
genetically altered food (the first GM crop was an antibiotic
resistant tobacco plant).
 Cloning….
• 1996: The first cloned mammal (a sheep) is created
from differentiated cells at the Roslin Institute in
Edinburgh, UK.
• Ian Wilmut and his team transferred the nucleus of
a donor cell into a blank egg cell and inserted the
cell into the mother
• The cloned sheep, named Dolly, lived for 6 years,
about half of the average lifespan of a Finnish
Dorset sheep
• This experiment sparked enormous controversy,
and the debate about cloning and genetic
engineering rages on to this day
 Genome..
• Thanks to the discovery of the structure of DNA,
entire genomes of species are able to be
sequenced
• The first free living organism to have a completely
sequenced genome was the bacterium
Haemophilus influenzae in 1995
• The human genome was completely sequenced in
2003, within the limits of our technology
• This was handled by the Human Genome Project
Human Genome Project
• 1990-2003 The human genome worked out Goals of the
human genome project
• identify all the approximately 20,000-25,000 genes in human
DNA
• determine the sequences of the 3 billion chemical base pairs
that make up human DNA
• store this information in databases
• improve tools for data analysis
• transfer related technologies to the private sector
• address the ethical, legal, and social issues (ELSI) that may
arise from the project.

© 2016 Paul Billiet ODWS

http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/project/about.shtml
 Genomics
• Today (2015):
Over 13700 genomes for different species have
been sequenced
NCBI database Genome http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genome/

• Of which over 2400 Eukaryotes sequenced

About 587 of these are animals
Over 7300 prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea)
have been sequenced.

© 2016 Paul Billiet ODWS

 What is Genetic Engineering?
• DEFINITION OF GENETIC ENGINEERING
• IUPAC definition:

• Also Known as Recombinant DNA technology,

gene modification, and gene therapy
What is Genetic Engineering?

Genetic Engineering is a new process

that scientists use to alter the genetic
instructions in organisms.
Why would altering DNA affect our
characteristics/traits?
• The genetic code is universal and a
certain codon codes for the same
amino acid in all organisms.
• This has enabled scientists to
transfer genetic material between
species.
• Consequently, if a certain human
gene is transferred to a bacterium,
the bacterium will make the human
DNA codes for the protein coded for that by gene.
• Every gene codes for one specific
proteins that determine protein.
our traits.
Why would scientists want to alter the
genetic instructions of organisms?

Scientists can generate organisms

with desired characteristics.
How is DNA Modified?
Step 1: DNA is first extracted
(removed) from cells.

..ATGAATTCT.. ..ATGAATTCT..
+..TACTTAAGA..
..TACTTAAGA..
DNA

DNA
How is DNA Modified?
Step 2: DNA is then cut into smaller
pieces with Restriction Enzymes.
ATGAATTCT ATG AATTCT
TACTTAAGA TACTTAA GA
Restriction enzymes are
“scissor-like” enzymes that
recognize and cut specific
sequences in the DNA.
What base sequence was this restriction
enzyme specific for? GA
What base sequences were these
Restriction Enzymes specific for?
“Sticky Ends”
ATGAATTCT ATG AATTCT
TACTTAAGA TACTTAA GA
GA “Sticky Ends”

GCATTACGTT G CATTAC GTT

CGTAATGCAA C GTAATG CAA
GC
How is DNA Modified?
Step 3: The cut DNA sequence is then
combined with the DNA of another
organism.

ATG AATTCT ATGAATTCT

+ TACTTAAGA
TACTTAA GA

Cut DNA Cut DNA from DNA from

another cell 2 sources
What do we call DNA that comes from
2 sources?

Source 1

Source 2

Recombinant DNA
Gene Splicing
DNA
Ligase

The process that allows scientists to

attach pieces of DNA segments to the
DNA of other organisms is called:
GENE SPLICING
How is DNA Modified?
Step 4: The recombinant DNA is then
placed inside a living cell.
“Cut DNA”
- What will the +
recombined DNA do? “Cut DNA”

It will allow for the production of

proteins from both sources of DNA.

Recombinant DNA
Steps of Genetic Engineering:
1)Scientists can target and identify a
gene.

2)Cut the gene with restriction

enzymes.
Steps of Genetic Engineering:
3)This gene is then
“spliced” to the
DNA of another
organism.

4)Once in the new organism,

the transferred genes direct
the new organism’s cells to
make the same protein as the
original organism.
Summary of Genetic Engineering:
The process occurs in 5 steps as
1. Isolation of desired gene (gene cloning
technology)
2. Selection of vector and insertion of a gene
3. Transfer of r-DNA vector into host cells.
4. Identification, isolation of recombinant gene
cells
5. Expression of cloned genes
Applications of Genetic Engineering:

Medical
Cloning Improvements
‘Designer
Babies’

Gene
therapy GMO
USES OF GENETIC ENGINEERING
• Industrial- mass production of hormones
and biofuels
• Agricultural- herbicide, insect resistant
plants
• Animals- Disease mechanisms and food
sources
• Medical- Gene Therapy
Industrial- mass production of hormones

• Industrial insulin production

Industrial- mass production biofuels
• Biofuel from Arabidopsis thaliana
Industrial
• Oil clean up using Pseudomonas putida
Agricultural- herbicide, insect resistant plants
• To produces a GENETICALLY MODIFIED FOOD (GMO)
Papa Ring virus
Agricultural- herbicide, insect resistant plants
 Agricultural- herbicide, insect resistant plants

• Insect resistant Corn

Bt Corn- Bacillus thuringiensis

Bacterial toxins (Cry proteins)
• Golden Rice – a
possible
Agricultural
solution to
Vitamin A
deficiency.
• Vitamin A in Rice
- The gene which
produces vitamin
A was taken
from daffodils
and put into rice
to help prevent
blindness.
Animals- Disease mechanisms and food sources

• GMO animals for food source

 Genetically modified organisms are called
transgenic organisms.
TRANSGENIC ANIMALS

1. Mice – used to study human immune

system

2. Chickens – more resistant to

infections

3. Cows – increase milk supply and

leaner meat

4. Goats, sheep and pigs – produce

human proteins in their milk
Pharming
• Gene pharming is a technology that scientists use
to alter an animal's own DNA, or to splice in new
DNA, called a transgene, from another species.
• In pharming, these genetically modified
(transgenic) animals are mostly used to make
human proteins that have medicinal value. The
protein encoded by the transgene is secreted into
the animal's milk, eggs or blood, and then collected
and purified.
Gene Therapy
• It involves modifying human DNA
either to repair it or to replace a faulty
gene.

• The idea of gene therapy is to

overcome the effects of a mutation
which causes a genetic disease.

• Cystic fibrosis is the best known

disease where gene therapy has
been tried.
Medical- Gene Therapy
• GENE THERAPY DIABETES
• GENE THERAPY ( CYSTIC FIBROSIS)
Xenotransplantation
• Xenotransplantation is the transplantation of
living cells, tissues or organs from one species
to another.
• However there are ethical issues and issues
with rejection
• There are also issues with virus transmission
from one species to another
 ETHICAL CONCERNS
• Health concerns
• Eating GMOs
• Livestock consuming GMOs
• Environmental concerns
• Pollution
• Gene Flow
• Genetic contamination
• Cross breeding
• Moral concerns
• Are we improving life or going too far?
• Do we have a medical obligation to humans with gene therapy?
• Do we have a moral obligation to produce food in quantity and
quality?
• Discovery of DNA structure led to the
revolution of the field of biology
• With this revolution, controversy and fierce
debate over the ethics of genetic
experimentation has arisen
• The scientists who helped create the atom
bomb have also given us the keys to
understand life as we know it
• END 
• GFP animals