Chemistry

1.Materials that have such lustre are usually metals. Iron, copper,
aluminium and gold are examples of metals.
2.Materials which can be compressed or scratched easily are called soft.
3.Materials which are difficult to compress are called hard.
4.Cotton or sponge is soft while iron is hard.
5.Those substances or materials, through which things can be seen, are
called transparent.
6.Glass, water, air and some plastics are examples of transparent
materials.
7.Materials through which you are not able to see are called opaque.
8.The materials through which objects can be seen, but not clearly, are
known as translucent.
9.Handpicking can be used for separating slightly larger sized impurities
like the pieces of dirt, stone, and husk from wheat, rice or pulses.
10.The process that is used to separate grain from stalks is threshing.
11.Separating components of a mixture is called winnowing.
12.Winnowing is used to separate heavier and lighter components of a
mixture by wind or by blowing air.
13.When the heavier component in a mixture settles after water is added
to it is called sedimentation.
14.When the water (along with the dust) is removed is called decantation.
15.Filtration is a process used to separate solids from liquids or gases
using a filter medium that allows the fluid to pass.
16.The process of conversion of water into its vapour is called evaporation
or vaporisation.
17.Common salt is obtained from this mixture of salts by further
purification.
18.The process of conversion of water vapour into its liquid form is called
condensation.
19.No more salt can be dissolved in the amount of water we have taken.
The solution is now said to be saturated.
20.Husk and stones could be separated from grains by handpicking.
21.Husk is separated from heavier seeds of grain by winnowing.
22.Excessive rain may cause floods.
23.Water drops appear on the outer surface of glass containing cold water
is condensation.
24.Stream rising from wet clothes while they are ironed is evaporation.
25.Frog appearing on cold winter morning is condensation.
26.Blackboard dries up after wiping it is evaporation.
27.Stream rising from a hot girdle when water is sprinkled on it is
evaporation.
28.Water vapour condenses to form tiny droplets of water in the upper
layers of air where it is cooler.
29.Acid contain taste sour.
30.Chemical nature of substance is acidic.
31.Substances like these which are bitter in taste and feel soapy on
touching are known as base.
32.Substances are used to test whether a substance is acidic or basic are
known as indicators.
33.Turmeric, litmus, China rose petals (Gudhal) are indicators.
34.Acetic acid/Ethanoic acid found in Vinegar.
35.Formic acid/Methanoic acid found in Ant’s sting.
36.Citric acid found in Oranges and lemons.
37.Lactic acid found in curd.
38.Oxalic acid/Ethanedioic acid found in Spinach.
39.Ascorbic acid(VitC) found in Amla, Citrus fruits.
40.Tartaric acid found in Tamarind, Grapes, unripe mangoes.
41.Calcium hydroxide found in Limewater.
42.Ammonium hydroxide found in Window cleaner.
43.Sodium and Potassium hydroxide found in Soap.
44.Magnesium hydroxide found in Milk of Magnesia.
45.When added to an acidic solution, it turns red and when added to a
basic solution, it turns blue.
46.The solutions which do not change the colour of either red or blue
litmus are known as neutral.
47.China rose indicator turns acidic solutions to dark pink (magenta) and
basic solutions to green.
48.The rain becomes acidic because carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide and
nitrogen dioxide (which are released into the air as pollutants) dissolve in
rain drops to form carbonic acid, sulphuric acid and nitric acid.
49.Phenolphthalein is often used as an indicator in acid-base titrations. It
turns colorless in acidic solutions and red in basic solutions.
50.Phenolphthalein gives a pink colour.
51.In neutralisation reaction a new substance is formed is called salt.
52.The reaction between an acid and a base is known as neutralisation.
53.Stomach contains hydrochloric acid.
54.The effect of formic acid can be neutralised by rubbing moist baking
soda (sodium hydrogen carbonate) or calamine solution, which contains
zinc carbonate.
55.When the soil is too acidic, it is treated with bases like quicklime
(calcium oxide) or slaked lime (calcium hydroxide).
56.Sodium hydroxide and Hydrochloric acid neutralise each other and
form salt and water.
57.A change in which a substance undergoes a change in its physical
properties is called a physical change.
58.Rust is an iron oxide, a usually red oxide formed by the redox reaction
of iron and oxygen in the presence of water or air moisture and process is
called rusting.
59.Magnesium hydroxide is a base, Magnesium oxide is a new substance
formed on burning of magnesium.
60.The change of colour of the solution from blue to green is due to the
formation of copper to iron sulphate.
61.Ash was the new substance formed when magnesium was burnt in air.
62.Copper was deposited on the shaving blade of iron.
63.A change in which one or more new substances are formed is called a
chemical change.
64.Digestion of food in our body, ripening of fruits, fermentation of grapes,
due to a series of chemical changes.
65.Burning of magnesium ribbon is a chemical change.
66.Burning of coal, wood or leaves is also a chemical change.
67.Explosion of a firework is a chemical change.
68.For rusting the presence of both oxygen and water (or water vapour) is
essential.
69.The process of depositing a layer of zinc on iron is called galvanisation.
70.Stainless steel is made by mixing iron with carbon and metals like
chromium, nickel and manganese. It does not rust.
71.Large crystals of pure substances can be formed from their solutions is
called crystallisation. It is an example of a physical change.
72.Photosynthesis is chemical change.
73.Dissolve sugar in water is Physical change.
74.Melting wax is physical change.
75.Aluminium foil is Physical change.
76.Cutting of wood is Physical change.
77.Iron pipes coated with zinc do not get rusted easily.
78.Iron and rust are chemical substances.
79.When carbon dioxide is passed through lime water it turns milky due to
formation of calcium carbonate.
80.Chemical name of baking soda is sodium hydrogen carbonate.
81.Rusting of iron can be prevented are painting or greasing and
galvanisation.
82.Examples of metals are aluminium, copper, iron, tin, gold, lead, silver,
titanium, uranium, and zinc.
83.Example of non metals are Hydrogen, Helium, Chlorine, Fluorine,
Carbon, Nitrogen,Oxygen, Phosphorous, Selenium.
84.Silver foil used for decorating sweets.
85.Aluminium foil used for wrapping food.
86.The property of metals by which they can be beaten into thin sheets is
called malleability.
87.Iron rod, nail and copper wire are good conductors.
88.Rolled sulphur piece and coal piece are poor conductors.
89.The property of metal by which it can be drawn into wires is called
ductility.
90.Metals produce ringing sounds are said to be sonorous.
91.Metals are hard, lustrous, malleable, ductile, sonorous and good
conductors of heat and electricity.
92.Coal and sulphur are soft and dull in appearance.
93.Metals like sodium and potassium are soft.
94.Mercury which is found in liquid state at room temperature.
95.When a copper vessel is exposed to moist air for a long time, it acquires
a dull green coating.
96.The green material is a mixture of copper hydroxide (Cu(OH)2 ) and
copper carbonate (CuCO3 ).
97.Magnesium oxide is basic in nature.
98.Metallic oxides are basic in nature.
99.The sulphurous acid turns blue litmus paper red.
100.Sodium metal is very reactive. It is stored in kerosene.
101.Iron reacts with water slowly.
102.Non metals do not react with water but stored in water.
103.Phosphorus is a very reactive non-metal. It catches fire if exposed to
air. It is stored in water.
104.Non metals generally do not react with acids but metals react with
acids and produce hydrogen gas that burns with a ‘pop’ sound.
105.Copper does not react with dilute hydrochloric acid even on heating
but it reacts with sulphuric acid.
106.Pop’ sound indicates the presence of hydrogen gas.
107.Zinc can be beaten into thin sheets.
108.Metals are ductile.
109.Metals are good conductor of heat and electricity.
110.Inexhaustible Natural Resources are present in unlimited quantity in
nature and are not likely to be exhausted by human activities. Examples
are: sunlight, air.
111.Exhaustible Natural Resources: These resources in nature is limited.
They can be exhausted by human activities. Examples of these resources
are forests, wildlife, minerals, coal, petroleum, natural gas.
112.Resources are formed dead remains of living organisms called fossil
fuels.
113.Coal is also used in thermal power plants to produce electricity.
114.Coal contains mainly carbon the slow process of conversion of dead
vegetation into coal is called carbonisation.
115.Coke is a tough, porous and black substance.
116.Coke is used in the manufacture of steel.
117.Coal tar is a black, thick liquid with an unpleasant smell.
118.Coal tar are synthetic dyes, drugs, explosives, perfumes, plastics,
paints, photographic materials, roofing materials.
119.Naphthalene balls used to repel moths and other insects are also
obtained from coal tar.
120.Bitumen a petroleum product is used in place of coal-tar for metalling
the roads.
121.Coal gas is obtained during the processing of coal to coke.
Coal gas was used for street lighting for the first time in London in 1810
and in New York around 1820.
122.The world’s first oil well was drilled in Pennsylvania, USA, in 1859.
Eight years later, in 1867, oil was struck at Makum in Assam.
123.In India, oil is found in Assam, Gujarat, Mumbai High and in the river
basins of Godavari and Krishna.
124.Petroleum is a dark oily liquid. It has an unpleasant odour. It is a
mixture of various constituents such as petroleum gas, petrol, diesel,
lubricating oil, paraffin wax, etc.
125.Petroleum and natural gas are termed as ‘Petrochemicals’. These are
used in the manufacture of detergents, fibres (polyester, nylon, acrylic
etc.), polythene and other man made plastics.
126.Hydrogen gas obtained from natural gas, is used in the production of
fertilisers (urea).
127.Petroleum is also called ‘black gold’.
128.Natural gas is stored under high pressure as compressed natural gas.
129.CNG is used for power generation.
130.Natural gas has been found in Tripura, Rajasthan, Maharashtra and
in the Krishna Godavari delta.
131.Paraffin wax is used in Ointments, candles, vaseline.
132.Bitumen is used in Paints, road surfacing.
133.A chemical process in which a substance reacts with oxygen to give off
heat is called combustion.
134.The substance that undergoes combustion is said to be combustible is
also called a fuel.
135.Magnesium and charcoal are combustible substances.
136.Sun, heat and light are produced by nuclear reactions.
137.The lowest temperature at which a substance catches fire is called its
ignition temperature.
138.When struck against a rough surface, white phosphorus got ignited
due to the heat of friction.
139.When the match is struck against the rubbing surface, some red
phosphorus gets converted into white phosphorus.
140.The substances which have very low ignition temperature and can
easily catch fire with a flame are called inflammable substances.
141.Examples of inflammable substances are petrol, alcohol, Liquified
Petroleum Gas.
142.Water cools the combustible material so that its temperature is
brought below its ignition temperature.
143.Heat to raise the temperature of the fuel beyond the ignition
temperature.
144.Carbon dioxide is the best extinguisher.
145.Carbon dioxide is to release a lot of dry powders of chemicals like
sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) or potassium bicarbonate.
146.Gas burns rapidly and produces heat and light is known as rapid
combustion.
147.Phosphorus which burn in air at room temperature.
148.Combustion in which a material suddenly bursts into flames, without
the application of any apparent cause is called spontaneous combustion.
149.When a cracker is ignited, a sudden reaction takes place with the
evolution of heat, light and sound.
150.Large amount of gas formed in the reaction is liberated is called
explosion.
151.Explosion can also take place if pressure is applied on the cracker.
152.Kerosene oil and molten wax rise through the wick and are vaporized
during burning and form flames.
153. A blackish ring is formed on the glass plate/slide. It indicates the
deposition of unburnt carbon particles present in the luminous zone of the
flame.
154.A thin long copper wire just inside the non luminous zone of flame.
155.Outer zone of complete combustion (blue).
156.Middle zone of partial combustion (yellow).
157.Innermost zone of unburnt wax vapours (black).
158.Goldsmiths blow the outermost zone of a flame with a metallic blow
pipe for melting gold and silver.
159.The amount of heat energy produced on complete combustion of 1 kg of
a fuel is called its calorific value.
160.The calorific value of a fuel is expressed in a unit called kilojoule/ kg.
161.Incomplete combustion of these fuels gives carbon monoxide gas.
162.Increased concentration of carbon dioxide in the air is believed to
cause global warming.
163.Burning of coal and diesel releases sulphur dioxide. It is an extremely
suffocating and corrosive gas.
164.Oxides of sulphur and nitrogen dissolve in rain water and form acids.
Such rain is called acid rain.
165.The SI unit of mass is kilogram.
166.The SI unit of volume is the cubic metre.
167. The common unit of measuring volume is litre.
168.Intermixing of particles of two different types of matter on their own
is called diffusion.
169.Solids may break under force but it is difficult to change their shape,
so they are rigid.
170.A rubber band changes shape under force and regains the same shape
when the force is removed. If excessive force is applied.
171.The shape of each individual sugar or salt crystal remains fixed,
whether we take it in our hand, put it on a plate or in a jar.
172.A sponge has minute holes, in which air is trapped, when we press it,
the air is expelled out and we are able to compress it.
173.Liquids have no fixed shape but have a fixed volume.
174.Liquids flow and change shape, so they are not rigid but can be called
fluid.
175.The aquatic animals can breathe under water due to the presence of
dissolved oxygen in water.
176.The rate of diffusion of liquids is higher than that of solids.
177.The pressure exerted by the gas is because of this force exerted by gas
particles per unit area on the walls of the container.
178.On increasing the temperature of solids, the kinetic energy of the
particles increases.
179.The minimum temperature at which a solid melts to become a liquid at
atmospheric pressure is called its melting point.
180.The melting point of a solid is an indication of the strength of the force
of attraction between its particles.
181.The melting point of ice is 273.15 K.
182.The process of melting, that is, change of solid state into liquid state is
also known as fusion.
183.The amount of heat energy that is required to change a solid into a
liquid at atmospheric pressure at its melting point is known as the latent
heat.
184.The temperature at which a liquid starts boiling at the atmospheric
pressure is known as its boiling point.
185.Kelvin is the SI unit of temperature.
186.A change of state directly from solid to gas without changing into
liquid state is called sublimation.
187.Direct change of gas to solid without changing into liquid is called
deposition.
188.Dry ice is the solid form of carbon dioxide (CO2), a molecule consisting
of a single carbon atom bonded to two oxygen atoms.
189.Dry ice is colorless, non-flammable, with a sour zesty odor, and can
lower the pH of a solution when dissolved in water, forming carbonic acid
(H2CO3).
190.Atmosphere is a unit of measuring pressure exerted by a gas.
191.The unit of pressure is Pascal.
192.Change of a liquid into vapour at any temperature below its boiling
point is called evaporation.
193.If the surface area is increased, the rate of evaporation increases.
194.With the increase of temperature, more number of particles get
enough kinetic energy to go into the vapour state.
195.Humidity is the amount of water vapour present in air.
196.If the amount of water in the air is high, the rate of evaporation
decreases.
197.With the increase in wind speed, the particles of water vapour move
away with the wind, decreasing the amount of water vapour.
198.The particles gain energy from your palm or surroundings and
evaporate causing the palm to feel cool.
199.Cotton a good absorber of water helps in absorbing the sweat and
exposing it to the atmosphere for easy evaporation.
200.The water vapour present in air, on coming in contact with the cold
glass of water, loses energy and gets converted into liquid state, which we
see as water droplets.
201.Plasma consists of super energetic and super excited particles.
202.The fluorescent tube and neon sign bulbs consist of plasma.
203.A fluorescent tube there is helium gas.
204.The Sun and the stars glow because of the presence of plasma.
205.Wieman of USA received the Nobel prize in physics for achieving “Bose
Einstein condensation.
206.The BEC is formed by cooling a gas of extremely low density, about one
hundred thousandth the density of normal air, to super low temperatures.
207.Sodium chloride can be separated from water by the physical process
of evaporation.
208.Sodium chloride is a pure substance and cannot be separated by
physical process.
209.A mixture contains more than one pure substance.
210.A homogeneous mixture is a solid, liquid, or gaseous mixture that has
the same proportions of its components throughout any given sample.
211.Homogeneous mixture examples are pure water, white vinegar, sugar
water, corn oil, and blood plasma.
212.A heterogeneous mixture is simply any mixture that is not uniform in
composition it's a non-uniform mixture of smaller constituent parts.
213.Heterogeneous mixture examples are Sugar and sand, Ice cubes in
cola, Salt and pepper, Chocolate chip cookies, Soda, Sodium chloride and
iron filings, Sulphur, and oil and water.
214.A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.
215.Alloys are mixtures of two or more metals or a metal and a non metal
and cannot be separated into their components.
216.Brass is a mixture of zinc and copper.
217.Steel is a mixture of iron and carbon.
218.Bronze a mixture of copper and tin.
219.The component of the solution that dissolves the other component in it
is called the solvent.
220.The component of the solution that is dissolved in the solvent is called
the solute.
221.A solution of sugar in water is a solid in liquid solution. In this solution,
sugar is the solute and water is the solvent.
222.A solution of iodine in alcohol known as ‘tincture of iodine’, has iodine
(solid) as the solute and alcohol (liquid) as the solvent.
223.Aerated drinks like soda water etc. are gas in liquid solutions. These
contain carbon dioxide (gas) as solute and water (liquid) as solvent.
224.Air is a mixture of gas in gas. Air is a homogeneous mixture of a
number of gases. Its two main constituents are: oxygen (21%) and nitrogen
(78%).
225.A solution is a homogeneous mixture.
226.Solution do not scatter a beam of light passing through the solution.
227.The solute particles cannot be separated from the mixture by the
process of filtration.
228.Depending upon the amount of solute present in a solution, it can be
called a dilute, concentrated or a saturated solution.
229.A solution that has dissolved as much solute as it is capable of
dissolving is said to be a saturated solution.
230.When no more solute can be dissolved in a solution at a given
temperature is called a saturated solution.
231.The amount of solute present in the saturated solution at this
temperature is called its solubility.
232.If the amount of solute contained in a solution is less than the
saturation level, it is called an unsaturated solution.
233.Non homogeneous systems in which solids are dispersed in liquids, are
called suspensions.
234. A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in which the solute particles
do not dissolve but remain suspended throughout the bulk of the medium.
235.Particles of a suspension are visible to the naked eye.
236.Suspension is a heterogeneous mixture.
237.The particles of a suspension scatter a beam of light passing through it
and make its path visible.
238.A colloidal solution is a solution in which a material is evenly
suspended in a liquid.
239.A colloidal solution is a heterogeneous mixture, for example, milk.
240.Scattering of a beam of light is called the Tyndall effect.
241.Tyndall effect can also be observed when a fine beam of light enters a
room through a small hole. This happens due to the scattering of light by
the particles of dust and smoke in the air.
242.Tyndall effect can be observed when sunlight passes through the
canopy of a dense forest. In the forest, mist contains tiny droplets of water,
which act as particles of colloid dispersed in air.
243.A colloid is a heterogeneous mixture.
244.The size of particles of a colloid is too small to be seen by naked eye.
245.Colloid cannot be separated from the mixture by the process of
filtration.
246.The solute like component or the dispersed particles in a colloid form
the dispersed phase, and the component in which the dispersed phase is
suspended is known as the dispersing medium.
247.Colloids are classified according to the state (solid, liquid or gas) of the
dispersing medium and the dispersed phase.
248.Example of colloids are whipped or shaving cream, mayonnaise, milk,
butter, gelatin, jelly, muddy water, plaster, colored glass, and paper, Fog,
clouds, mist, Smoke, automobile exhaust, Milk of magnesia, Foam, rubber,
sponge, pumice, cheese, Coloured gemstone.
249.Sublimation is the transition of a substance directly from the solid to
the gas phase without passing through the intermediate liquid phase.
250.Some examples of solids which sublime are ammonium chloride,
naphthalene and anthracene.
251.Chromatography is the separation of a mixture.
252.Chromatography is used for separation of those solutes that dissolve
in the same solvent.
253.Distillation is the process of separating the components or substances
from a liquid mixture by using selective boiling and condensation.
254.Distillation is used for the separation of components of a mixture
containing two miscible liquids that boil without decomposition.
255.A mixture of two or more miscible liquids for which the difference in
boiling points is less than fractional distillation process is used.
256.A fractionating column is a tube packed with glass beads provide
surface for the vapours to cool and condense.
257.Air is a homogeneous mixture and can be separated into its
components by fractional distillation.
258.Crystallisation is a process that separates a pure solid in the form of
its crystals from a solution.
259.To remove these impurities, the process of crystallisation is used.
260.Robert Boyle use the term element.
261.Antoine Laurent Lavoisier was the first to establish definition of an
element.
262.Lavoisier define an element as a basic form of matter that cannot be
broken down into simpler substances.
263.Metals have a lustre (shine).
264.Metals have silvery-grey or golden-yellow colour.
265.Metals conduct heat and electricity.
266.Metals are ductile (can be drawn into wires).
267.Metals are malleable (can be hammered into thin sheets).
268.Metals are sonorous (make a ringing sound when hit).
269.Mercury is the only metal that is liquid at room temperature.
270.Non metals display a variety of colours.
271.Non metals are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
272.Non metals are not lustrous, sonorous or malleable.
273.A metalloid is an element that has properties that are intermediate
between those of metals and nonmetals
274.Metalloids can also be called semimetals.
275.Arsenic is a metalloid that has the visual appearance of a metal, but is
a poor conductor of electricity.
276.Metalloids are generally semiconductors.
277.The elements classified as metalloids are boron, silicon, germanium,
arsenic, antimony, tellurium, and polonium.
278.Ninety two elements are naturally occurring and the rest are man
made.
279.Eleven elements are in gaseous state at room temperature.
280.Two elements are liquid at room temperature mercury and bromine.
281.Gallium and cesium become liquid at a temperature.
282.A compound is a substance composed of two or more elements,
chemically combined with one another in a fixed proportion.
283.Compounds have fixed composition can be broken down into elements
by chemical or electrochemical reactions.
284.Homogeneous is a uniform composition.
285.Heterogeneous is non uniform composition.
286.Ammonium chloride from a mixture containing sodium and
ammonium chloride is sublimation.
287.Small pieces of metal in the engine oil in a car is Filtration.
288.Different pigments from an extract flower petals is Chromatography.
289.Butter from curd is Centrifugation.
290.Tea leaves from tea is Filtration.
291.Iron pins from sand is Magnetic separation.
292.Fine mud particles suspended in water is Decantation and Filtration.
293.Pure substance is Ice, Iron, Hdrochloric acid, Calcium oxide and
Mercury.
294.Sea, Soda water and Air are mixtures.
295.Tyndall effect show milk and starch solution.
296.Elements are Sodium, Silicon, Silver and Tin.
297.Compounds are sodium carbonate, Methane, Carbon dioxide and Soap.
298.Mixture is Sugar, Soil, Blood, Air and Coal.
299.Laws of chemical combination were established by Lavoisier and
Joseph L. Proust.
300.Law of conservation of mass states that mass can neither be created
nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.
301.Ratio of the mass of hydrogen to the mass of oxygen is 1:8.
302.Ammonia, nitrogen and hydrogen are always present in the ratio 14:3
by mass.
303.Law of constant proportions, which is also known as the law of
definite proportions.
304.Law of constant proportions was stated by Proust as “In a chemical
substance the elements are always present in definite proportions by
mass”.
305.According to Dalton’s atomic theory all matter whether an element a
compound or a mixture is composed of small particles called atoms.
306.An atom is the smallest unit of matter that has the properties of an
element. It is composed of a dense core called the nucleus and a series of
outer shells occupied by orbiting electrons. The nucleus, composed of
protons and neutrons, is at the center of an atom.
307.Atomic radius is measured in nanometres.
308.Name copper was taken from Cyprus.
309.Gold was taken from yellow.
310.(International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) is an
international scientific organisation which approves names of elements,
symbols and units.
311.Dalton's Atomic Theory.
1)All matter is made of atoms. Atoms are indivisible and indestructible.
2)All atoms of a given element are identical in mass and properties.
3)Compounds are formed by a combination of two or more different kinds
of atoms.
312.Hydrogen, Carbon, Oxygen, Phosphorus, Sulphur, Iron, Copper, Lead,
Silver, Gold, Platina and Mercury are proposed by Dalton.
313.Atomic mass of hydrogen is 1.
314.Atomic mass of carbon is 12.
315.Atmoic mass of nitrogen is 14.
316.Atomic mass of oxygen is 16.
317.Atomic mass of sodium is 23.
318.Atomic mass of magnesium is 24.
319.Atomic mass of sulphur is 32.
320.Atomic mass of chlorine is 35.5
321.Atomic mass of calcium is 40.
322.A molecule is in general a group of two or more atoms that are
chemically bonded together.
323.A molecule can be defined as the smallest particle of an element or a
compound that is capable of an independent existence and shows all the
properties of that substance.
324.Argon and Helium are made up of only one atom.
325.A molecule of oxygen consists of two atoms of oxygen and hence it is
known as a diatomic molecule.
326.The number of atoms constituting a molecule is known as its
atomicity.
327.Water containing hydrogen and oxygen.
328.Ammonia containing nitrogen and hydrogen.
329.Carbon dioxide containing carbon and oxygen.
330.Ratio of water is 1:8.
331.Ratio of Ammonia is 14:3.
332.Ratio of carbon dioxide is 3:8.
333.Compounds composed of metals and nonmetals contain ions.
334.Ions may consist of a single charged atom or a group of atoms that
have a net charge on them.
335.A negatively charged ion is called an ‘anion’ and the positively
charged ion,a ‘cation’.
336.Sodium chloride (NaCl). Its constituent particles are positively
charged sodium ions.
337.Negetively charged Calcium Ions.
338.A group of atoms carrying a charge is known as a polyatomic ion.
339.Ratio of calcium oxide is 5:2.
340.Ratio of Magnesium Sulphide is 3:4.
341.Ratio of Sodium Chloride is 23:35.5.
342.The combining power (or capacity) of an element is known as its
valency.
343.Binary compound is a substance composed of exactly two different
elements, which are substances that cannot be simplified.
344.The molecular mass of a substance is the sum of the atomic masses of
all the atoms in a molecule of the substance.
345.The formula unit mass of a substance is the sum of the atomic masses
of all atoms in a formula unit of a compound.
346.The word “mole” was introduced by Wilhelm Ostwald.
347.Mass of 1 mole of a substance is called its molar mass.
348.The Avogadro constant 6.022 × 1023 is defined as the number of atoms
in exactly 12 g of carbon-12.
349.J.J. Thomson discovered electron.
350.E.Goldstein discovered anode rays.
351.Thomson proposed that
1.An atom consists of a positively charged sphere and the electrons are
embedded in it.
2.The negative and positive charges are equal in magnitude. So, the atom
as a whole is electrically neutral.
352.J.J Thomson was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1906.
353.E.Rutherford was known as the ‘Father’ of nuclear physics. He is
famous for his work on radioactivity and the discovery of the nucleus. He
got the Nobel prize in chemistry in 1908.
354.There is a positively charged centre of an atom called the nucleus.
355.Rutherford well known gold foil experiment in which he demonstrated
that the atom has a tiny and heavy nucleus.
356.Rutherford designed an experiment to use the alpha particles emitted
by a radioactive element as probes to the unseen world of atomic
structure.
357.Bohr proposed his quantized shell model of the atom to explain how
electrons can have stable orbits around the nucleus. The energy of an
electron depends on the size of the orbit and is lower for smaller orbits.
Radiation can occur only when the electron jumps from one orbit to
another.
358.J.Chadwick discovered neutrons.
359.Neutrons are present in the nucleus of all atoms, except hydrogen.
360.Sum of the masses of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus.
361.The electrons present in the outermost shell of an atom are known as
the valence electrons.
362.An outermost-shell which had eight electrons was said to possess an
octet.
363.An atom of each element has a definite combining capacity, called its
valency.
364.Atomic number is defined as the total number of protons present in
the nucleus of an atom.
365.Protons are present in the nucleus of an atom.
366.A nucleon is either a proton or a neutron, considered in its role as a
component of an atomic nucleus.
367.The number of nucleons in a nucleus defines an isotope's mass number
(nucleon number).
368.The mass number is defined as the sum of the total number of protons
and neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom.
369.Isotopes are variants of a particular chemical element which differ in
neutron number, and consequently in nucleon number.
370.All isotopes of a given element have the same number of protons but
different numbers of neutrons in each atom.
371.Three isotopes of hydrogen atom, namely protium, deuterium and
tritium.
372.Chlorine occurs in nature in two isotopic forms, with masses 35 u and
37 u in the ratio of 3:1.
373.An isotope of uranium is used as a fuel in nuclear reactors.
374.An isotope of cobalt is used in the treatment of cancer.
375.An isotope of iodine is used in the treatment of goitre.
376.Atoms of different elements with different atomic numbers, which
have the same mass number are known as isobars.
377.Mass of electron is about 1/2000 times that of proton.
378.A combination reaction also known as a synthesis reaction where two
or more elements or compounds (reactants) combine to form a single
compound.
379.Examples of combination reaction are burning of coal and formation
of water.
380.Calcium carbonate is formed after two to three days of whitewashing
and gives a shiny finish to the walls.
381.An exothermic reaction is a chemical reaction that releases energy
through light or heat.
382.Examples of exothermic reaction are burning of natural gas,
decomposition of vegetable matter into compost.
383.Carbohydrates include breads, fruits and vegetables, as well as milk
products. Carbohydrates are the sugars, starches and fibers found in
fruits, grains, vegetables and milk products.
384.Carbohydrates are broken down to form glucose.
385.A decomposition reaction is a type of chemical reaction in which one
reactant yields two or more products.
386.Decomposition reactions are also known as analysis reactions or
chemical breakdowns.
387.Decomposition reaction is a synthesis, in which simpler reactants
combine to form a more complex product.
388.Examples of decomposition reactions include the breakdown of
hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen, and the breakdown of water to
hydrogen and oxygen.
389.Calcium oxide is called lime or quicklime.
390.Calcium oxide use in the manufacture of cement.
391.Calcium oxide is a white, caustic, alkaline, crystalline solid at room
temperature.
392.Quicklime is one of the oldest chemicals known to the human race. It
can also be referred to as burnt lime.
393.Calcium oxide a colorless, cubic crystalline or white amorphous
substance.
394.Calcium oxide contains impurities, e.g., silica, iron, alumina, and
magnesia.
395.Calcium oxide is prepared by heating calcium carbonate (e.g.,
limestone) in a special lime kiln to about 500°C to 600°C, decomposing it
into the oxide and carbon dioxide.
396.Calcium oxide is used in making porcelain and glass, in purifying
sugar; in preparing bleaching powder, calcium carbide, and calcium
cyanamide in water softeners, and in mortars and cements.
397.Calcium oxide is used for treating acidic soils (liming).
398.Calcium oxide is incandescent when heated to high temperatures, the
Drummond light, or limelight, provides a brilliant white light by heating a
cylinder of lime with the flame of an oxyhydrogen torch.
399.Calcium oxide is a basic anhydride, reacting with water to form
calcium hydroxide; during the reaction (slacking) much heat is given off
and the solid nearly doubles its volume.
400.Thermal decomposition, or thermolysis, is a chemical decomposition
caused by heat.
401.The reaction is usually endothermic as heat is required to break
chemical bonds in the compound undergoing decomposition.
402.Reactions in which energy is absorbed are known as endothermic
reactions.
403.The process of cooking food is endothermic reactions.
404.In endothermic reaction energy is absorbed from the sun, in order to
take carbon dioxide and water and using solar energy, convert it to
glucose and oxygen to be used as food for the plant.
405.Displacement reaction is a chemical reaction in which a more reactive
element displaces a less reactive element from its compound. Both metals
and nonmetals take part in displacement reactions.
406.Example of displacement reaction are reaction of iron nails with
copper sulphate solution.
407.Zinc and lead are more reactive than copper.
408.Some other examples of displacement reactions which can occur are:
1.Zinc displacing iron ions from iron(II) sulfate solution.
2.Nickel displacing copper from copper(II) nitrate solution.
3.Copper displacing silver from silver(I) nitrate solution.
409.Double displacement reaction, also known as double replacement
reaction or metathesis, is a type of chemical reaction where two
compounds react, and the positive ions (cations) and negative ions
(anions) of the two reactants switch places, forming two new compounds
or products.
410.The reaction between silver nitrate and sodium chloride is double
displacement reaction.
411.In double displacement reaction, the silver trades its nitrite ion for the
sodium's chloride ion, causing the sodium to pick up the nitrate anion.
412.A precipitation reaction refers to the formation of an insoluble salt
when two solutions containing soluble salts are combined.
413.The insoluble salt that falls out of solution is known as the precipitate.
414.Precipitation reactions can help determine the presence of various
ions in solution.
415.Precipitation reaction can be used in wastewater treatment.
416.Source of hydroxide that is soluble (NaOH Or Na2S) that will result in
precipitation reaction.
417.A white substance, which is insoluble in water, is formed.
418.A white precipitate called as silver chloride is formed which is in a
solid state.
419.Silver chloride is insoluble in water.
420.Precipitation reaction are used for the extraction of magnesium from
seawater.
421.An oxidation reduction (redox) reaction is a type of chemical reaction
that involves a transfer of electrons between two species.
422.An oxidation reduction reaction is any chemical reaction in which the
oxidation number of a molecule, atom, or ion changes by gaining or losing
an electron.
423.In an oxidation reduction, or redox, reaction, one atom or compound
will steal electrons from another atom or compound.
424.A classic example of a redox reaction is rusting. When rusting
happens, oxygen steals electrons from iron. Oxygen gets reduced while
iron gets oxidized.
425.The formation of hydrogen fluoride is an example of a redox reaction.
426.Reduction is a chemical reaction that involves the gaining of electrons
by one of the atoms involved in the reaction between two elements.
427.An example of a reduction reaction is when iron reacts with oxygen,
forming a chemical called rust.
428.Iron is oxidized and the oxygen is reduced is called redox.
429.An oxidation reduction (redox) reaction is a type of chemical reaction
that involves a transfer of electrons between two species.
430.An oxidation reduction reaction is any chemical reaction in which the
oxidation number of a molecule, atom, or ion changes by gaining or losing
an electron.
431.Rusting, the formation of iron oxides, is a well-known example of
electrochemical corrosion.
432.Iron and steel rusting is an example of corrosion.
433.Copper pitting or the green patina one sees on copper roofs are also
examples of corrosion.
434.Stress Cracking is also considered an example of corrosion.
435.The black coating on silver and the green coating on copper are other
examples of corrosion.
436.Rusting of iron refers to the formation of rust, a mixture of iron
oxides, on the surface of iron objects or structures.
437.Rusting of iron is usually red oxide formed by the redox reaction of
iron and oxygen in the presence of water or air moisture.
438.Rancidity generally is the complete or incomplete oxidation or
hydrolysis of fats and oils when exposed to air, light, or moisture or by
bacterial action, resulting in an unpleasant taste and odor.
439.Acids are sour in taste and change the colour of blue litmus red.
440.Bases are bitter and change the colour of the red litmus blue.
441.Litmus is a natural indicator, turmeric is another such indicator.
442.A stain of curry on a white cloth becomes reddish brown when soap,
which is basic in nature.
443.Synthetic indicators such as methyl orange and phenolphthalein to
test for acids and bases.
444.Litmus solution is a purple dye, which is extracted from lichen.
445.A plant belonging to the division Thallophyta, and is commonly used
as an indicator.
446.When the litmus solution is neither acidic nor basic, its colour is
purple.
447.Hydrangea, Petunia and Geranium, which indicate the presence of
acid or base in a solution. These are called acid-base indicators.
448.Acid Base Indicators and Titrations. Acid Base indicators (also known
as pH indicators) are substances which change colour with pH. They are
usually weak acids or bases, which when dissolved in water dissociate
slightly and form ions.
449.Indicator is a weak acid.
450.pH indicator is litmus. Thymol Blue, Phenol Red and Methyl Orange
are all common acid base indicators.
451.Red cabbage can also be used as an acid-base indicator.
452.An Olfactory indicator is a substance whose smell varies depending on
whether it is mixed with an acidic or basic solution.
453.Olfactory indicators can be used in the laboratory to test whether a
solution is a base or an acid, a process called olfactory titration.
454.Onion, clove oil and vanilla extract are examples of Olfactory
indicator.
455.Salt is a mineral composed primarily of sodium chloride, a chemical
compound belonging to the larger class of salts; salt in its natural form as
a crystalline mineral is known as rock salt or halite.
456.Limestone, chalk and marble are different forms of calcium carbonate.
457.A neutralization reaction is when an acid and a base react to form
water and a salt and involves the combination of H+ ions and OH- ions to
generate water.
458.The neutralization of a strong acid and strong base has a pH equal to 7.
459.Farmers use lime (calcium oxide) to neutralise acid soils.
460.Antacid contain bases such as magnesium hydroxide and magnesium
carbonate to neutralise the extra acid.
461.Metallic oxides are metals bonded with oxygen.They initially have a
positive charge and end up with no charge.
462.Examples include the oxides of most metals, such as Na2O, CaO, BaO.
These are basic in nature.
463.Non metals react with oxygen in the air to produce non metal oxides.
464.Two examples for the non metals carbon and sulphur.
465.Non metal oxides such as sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide are
responsible for acid rain.
467.Glucose and alcohol solutions do not conduct electricity.
468.Glowing of the bulb indicates that there is a flow of electric current
through the solution.
469.The electric current is carried through the acidic solution by ions.
470.An alkali is a basic hydroxide or ionic salt of an alkali metal or
alkaline earth metal element, which is soluble in water.
471.Examples of alkalis are Sodium hydroxide, Potassium hydroxide,
Calcium hydroxide, Calcium carbonate and Magnesium hydroxide.
472.All bases do not dissolve in water. An alkali is a base that dissolves in
water. They are soapy to touch, bitter and corrosive.
473.If water is added to a concentrated acid, the heat generated may cause
the mixture to splash out and cause burns.
474.Mixing an acid or base with water results in a decrease in the
concentration of ions per unit volume. Such a process is called dilution and
the acid or the base is said to be diluted.
475.Vinegar (Acetic acid) is an example of dilute acid.
476.An example of a dilute solution is tap water, which is mostly water
(solvent), with a small amount of dissolved minerals and gasses (solutes).
477.A scale for measuring hydrogen ion concentration in a solution, called
pH scale.
478.A pH of 0 is totally acidic, while a pH of 14 is completely alkaline.
479.The pH of a neutral solution is 7.
480.Values less than 7 on the pH scale represents an acidic solution. As the
pH value increases from 7 to 14.
481.pH of Battery acid is 1.0.
482.pH of Gastric acid is 1.5 to 3.5.
483.pH of Lemon juice is 2 to 3.
484.pH of Vengar is 2 to 2.4.
485.pH of Cola is 2.5.
486.pH of Orange juice is 3.3 to 4.2.
487.pH of Apple juice is 3.3 to 4.
488.pH of Tomato juice is 4.1 to 4.6.
489.pH of Coffee is 5.0.
490.pH of Milk is 6.5 to 6.7.
491.pH of Urine is 4.5 to 8.0.
492.pH of Saliva is 6.2 to 7.6.
493.pH of Pure water is 7.
494.pH of Blood is 7.35 to 7.45.
495.pH of Seawater is 8.1.
496.pH of Baking soda is 9.
497.pH of Caustic soda is 13.
498.pH of Ammonia is 11.5.
499.pH of Bleach is 12.6.
500.pH of Oven cleaner is 13.
501.pH of Lye is 13.
502.pH of Hair dye is 8 to 9.
503.pH of liquid drain cleaner is 14.
504.pH of Sodium hydroxide is 13.
505.Acids that give less positive ions are said to be weak acids.
506.Examples of weak acids include acetic acid , phosphoric acid,
hydrofluoric acid and oxalic acid.
507.Acids that give rise to more positive ions are said to be strong acids.
508.The strong acids are hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, sulfuric acid,
hydrobromic acid, hydroiodic acid, perchloric acid, and chloric acid.
509.A weak base is a chemical base that does not ionize fully in an aqueous
solution.
510.Weak bases are Ammonia, Methylamine and Pyridine.
511.A strong base is a base that is completely dissociated in an aqueous
solution.
512.Strong bases are Potassium hydroxide, Sodium hydroxide, Barium
hydroxide, Caesium hydroxide, Strontium hydroxide, Calcium hydroxide,
Lithium hydroxide, Rubidium hydroxide.
513.Our body works within the pH range of 7.0 to 7.8.
514.pH of rainwater is 5.6.
515.Venus is made up of thick white and yellowish clouds of sulphuric acid.
516.pH of soil is 9.2.
517.Antacids Bases that neutralize acids, generally used to counteract
excessive gastric acidity and to treat indigestion.
518.Examples of antacids are Alka Seltzer, Milk of Magnesia, Alternagel,
Amphojel, Gaviscon, Gelusil, Maalox, Mylanta, Rolaids, Pepto Bismol,
Tums.
519.pH of the mouth is lower than 5.5.
520.Tooth enamel, made up of calcium hydroxyapatite (a crystalline form
of calcium phosphate).
521.Enamel is the hardest substance in the human body and contains the
highest percentage of minerals,with water.
522.Bee-sting leaves an acid which causes pain and irritation.
523.Stinging hair of nettle leaves inject methanoic acid causing burning
pain.
524.Nettle is an herbaceous plant which grows in the wild. Its leaves have
stinging hair, which cause painful stings. This is due to the methanoic acid
secreted by them.
525.Urtica dioica, often known as common nettle, stinging nettle or nettle
leaf, or just a nettle or stinger, is an herbaceous perennial flowering plant.
526.Rumex obtusifolius, commonly known as bitter dock, broad leaved
dock, bluntleaf dock, dock leaf or butter dock, is a perennial weed in the
family Polygonaceae.
527.Some important naturally organic acids are:
1.Acetic acid - Vinegar.
2.Citric acid - lemons, limes, oranges, clementines, tangerines and
grapefruit.
3.Tartaric acid - grapes, bananas, and tamarinds.
4.Oxalic acid - Tomato, Spinach, Rhubarb.
5.Lactic acid - Sour milk(Curd), Yogurt, kefir, cheese. Silage (most common
is fermented corn plants), haylage (fermented alfalfa fodder).
6.Methanoic/Formic acid - Ant and nettle sting, Ant venom.
7.Butyric acid/Butanoic acid - Milk, Butter.
8.Lauric acid - Coconut oil.
9.Malic acid - Watermelon, Apples, Grapes, Apricots, bananas,
blackberries, cherries, kiwi, lychees, mangoes, nectarines, oranges,
peaches, pears and strawberries.
10.Erucic acid - Rapeseed and Mustard oil.
11.Hydrochloric acid - Gastric juice.
12.Oleic acid - olive, palm, peanut, and sunflower.
13.Stearic acid - fatty acid.
528.Salt is a mineral composed primarily of sodium chloride (NaCl).
529.Salt in its natural form as a crystalline mineral is known as rock salt
or halite.
530.Salts containing halides and an alkaline metal.
531.Salts that are from strong bases and weak acids do hydrolyze, which
gives it a pH greater than 7.
532.Salt formed by the combination of hydrochloric acid and sodium
hydroxide solution is called sodium chloride.
533.A neutral salt is a salt which doesn't display acidic or alkaline
character.
534.The common salt such as sodium hydroxide, baking soda, washing
soda, bleaching powder.
535.When electricity is passed through an aqueous solution of sodium
chloride (called brine), it decomposes to form sodium hydroxide.
536.Chlorine gas is given off at the anode, and hydrogen gas at the
cathode.
537.Sodium hydroxide is an alkali metal hydroxide.
538.At room temperature, sodium hydroxide is a white crystalline odorless
solid that absorbs moisture from the air.
540.Sodium hydroxide is very corrosive. It is generally used as a solid or a
50% solution.
541.Sodium hydroxide is used to manufacture soaps, rayon, paper,
explosives, dyestuffs, and petroleum products.
542.Sodium hydroxide is also used in processing cotton fabric, laundering
and bleaching, metal cleaning and processing, oxide coating,
electroplating, and electrolytic extracting.
543.Sodium hydroxide is commonly present in commercial drain and oven
cleaners.
544.Sodium hydroxide is a colorless liquid. It is more dense than water.
Contact may severely irritate skin, eyes, and mucous membranes. Toxic by
ingestion.
545.Chlorine bleach is produced by combining chlorine and sodium
hydroxide.
546.sodium hydroxide convert fats and grease that can clog pipes into
soap.
547.Sodium hydroxide can help to prevent blood clots, cholesterol-
reducing medications.
548.sodium hydroxide is used in fuel cell production.
549.Epoxy resins, manufactured with sodium hydroxide, are used in wind
turbines.
550.Sodium hydroxide is also used to produce sodium hypochlorite, a
water disinfectant.
551.Sodium hydroxide is used to remove skins from tomatoes, potatoes and
other fruits and vegetables. An ingredient in food preservatives that help
prevent mold and bacteria from growing in food.
552.In many paper making processes, wood is treated with a solution
containing sodium sulfide and sodium hydroxide.
553.In the paper recycling process, sodium hydroxide is used to separate
the ink from the paper fibers.
554.Sodium hydroxide is used to extract alumina.
555.Sodium hydroxide It is used to manufacture rayon, spandex,
explosives, epoxy resins, paints, glass and ceramics.
556.Bleaching powder a white powder consisting chiefly of calcium
hydroxide, calcium chloride, and calcium hypochlorite used as a bleach,
disinfectant, or deodorant called also chloride of lime, chlorinated lime.
557.Bleaching powder is used for bleaching dirty clothes in the laundry, as
a bleaching agent for cotton and linen in the textile industry.
558.Bleaching powder is a strong oxidizing agent hence used as an oxidizer
in many industries.
559.Bleaching powder is used as a disinfectant which is used for
disinfecting water to make potable water.
560.Baking soda, also known as sodium bicarbonate.
561.Sodium hydrogencarbonate has got various uses in the household.
562.Baking soda is for making baking powder, which is a mixture of
baking soda (sodium hydrogen carbonate) and a mild edible acid such as
tartaric acid.
563.Sodium hydrogencarbonate is also an ingredient in antacids. Being
alkaline, it neutralises excess acid in the stomach and provides relief.
564.Sodium hydrogen carbonate is also used in soda-acid fire
extinguishers.
565.Baking soda can help treat heartburn by neutralizing stomach acid.
567.Many use baking soda as a replacement for mouthwash.
568.Baking soda mouthwash is great for soothing pain caused by canker
sores.
569.Baking soda is a popular home remedy for whitening teeth.
570.Baking soda has a high pH, which may help delay fatigue.
571.Baking soda, also known as sodium bicarbonate, is a popular
supplement among athletes.
572.Baking soda may help soothe itching from sunburns.
573.Calluses are hard, rough patches of skin that are caused by longtime
friction or pressure.
574.Baking soda can help freshen a smelly fridge by neutralizing bad
odors.
575.Baking soda is an excellent and safe alternative to commercial air
fresheners.
576.Baking soda is an inexpensive way to whiten and clean your laundry.
577.Baking soda is an alkali, a soluble salt that can help remove dirt and
stains.
578.Baking soda wash is the most effective way to remove pesticides
without peeling them.
579.Baking soda is a handy alternative to commercial silver polishes.
580.Sodium chloride is (washing soda).
581.Sodium carbonate (washing soda) is used in glass, soap and paper
industries.
582.Sodium carbonate is used in the manufacture of sodium compounds
such as borax.
583.Sodium carbonate can be used as a cleaning agent for domestic
purposes.
584.Sodium carbonate is used for removing permanent hardness of water.
585.The main uses of sodium carbonate are as water softener, food
processing aid, pH modifier, swimming pool chemical and electrolyte.
586.Chemical formula for hydrated copper sulphate is Cu SO4. 5H2O.
587.One other salt, which possesses water of crystallisation is gypsum.
588.Copper Sulphate is an odorless crystalline substance, electric blue in
color, highly toxic, and not safe to work with.
589.On heating gypsum, it loses water molecules and becomes calcium
sulphate hemihydrate is called Plaster of paris.
590.Plaster of Paris is a white powder and on mixing with water, it
changes to gypsum once again giving a hard solid mass.
591.Plaster of Paris is used for making toys, materials for decoration and
for making surfaces smooth.
592.Calcium Sulphate is used in tofu as a coagulant.
593.Calcium Sulphate is used as a moisture indicator.
594.Calcium sulphate is used in building industries, for the construction of
false ceilings, as plasters, etc. In art, it is used for making statues and
burial sites. In medicine, it is used in dentures.
595.A solution turn red litmus blue , pH is 10.
596.A solution reacts with crushed egg shells to give a gas that turns
limewater milky, solution containing HCL.
597.Metals, in their pure state, have a shining surface. This property is
called metallic lustre.
598.Metals can be beaten into thin sheets. This property is called
malleability.
599.Examples of malleable metals are gold, zinc, iron, aluminum, copper,
silver, and lead.
600.Gold and silver are highly malleable.
601.The ability of metals to be drawn into thin wires is called ductility.
602.Gold is the most ductile metal.
603.Metals are good conductors of heat and have high melting points.
604.The best conductors of heat are silver and copper.
605.Lead and mercury are comparatively poor conductors of heat.
606.The metals that produce a sound on striking a hard surface are said to
be sonorous.
607.The non metals are either solids or gases except bromine which is a
liquid.
608.Mercury exist as solids at room temperature.
609.Gallium and caesium have very low melting points.
610.Iodine is a non-metal but it is lustrous.
611.Carbon is a non-metal that can exist in different forms.
612.Diamond, an allotrope of carbon, is the hardest natural substance
known and has a very high melting and boiling point.
613.Graphite, another allotrope of carbon, is a conductor of electricity.
614.Alkali metals (lithium, sodium, potassium) are so soft that they can be
cut with a knife. They have low densities and low melting points.
615.Each of two or more different physical forms in which an element can
exist is called allotrope.
616.Graphite, charcoal, and diamond are allotropes of carbon.
617.An amphoteric compound is a molecule or ion that can react both as an
acid and as a base.
618.Many metals (such as copper, zinc, tin, lead, aluminium, and
beryllium) form amphoteric oxides.
619.Aluminium oxide is an example of an amphoteric oxide.
620.Metals such as potassium and sodium react so vigorously that they
catch fire if kept in the open.
621.Iron does not burn on heating but iron filings burn vigorously when
sprinkled in the flame of the burner.
622.Copper does not burn, but the hot metal is coated with a black coloured
layer of copper(II) oxide.
623.Silver and gold do not react with oxygen even at high temperatures.
624.Anodising is a process of forming a thick oxide layer of aluminium.
625.Aluminium develops a thin oxide layer when exposed to air.
626.Sodium is the most reactive of the samples of metals.
627.Metal oxides that are soluble in water.
628.Magnesium does not react with cold water. It reacts with hot water.
629.Metals like aluminium, iron and zinc do not react either with cold or
hot water.
630.Metals such as lead, copper, silver and gold do not react with water.
631.Metals react with acids to give a salt and hydrogen gas.
632.Nitric acid is a strong oxidising agent.
633.Aqua regia is a prepared mixture of concentrated hydrochloric acid
and concentrated nitric acid in the ratio of 3:1.
634.Aqua regia is a highly corrosive, fuming liquid. It is one of the few
reagents that is able to dissolve gold and platinum.
635.Metals react with water are Potassium, Sodium, Lithium, Barium,
Strontium, Calcium.
636.Metals react with acids are Magnesium, Aluminium, Manganese, Zinc,
Chromium, Iron, Cadmium, Cobalt, Nickel, Tin, Lead.
637.Metals react with highly unreactive are Antimony, Bismuth, Copper,
Mercury, Silver, Gold, Platinum.
638.Sodium and chloride ions oppositely charged, attract each other and
are held by strong electrostatic forces of attraction.
639.Sodium chloride does not exist as molecules.
640.The compounds formed in this manner by the transfer of electrons
from a metal to a non metal are known as ionic compounds or
electrovalent compounds.
641.Ionic compounds are solids and hard because of the strong force of
attraction between the positive and negative ions.
642.Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points.
643.Electrovalent compounds are generally soluble in water and insoluble
in solvents such as kerosene, petrol, etc.
644. Ionic compounds in the solid state do not conduct electricity.
645.A solution of an ionic compound in water contains ions, which move to
the opposite electrodes when electricity is passed through the solution.
646.Ionic compounds conduct electricity in the molten state.
647.Seawater also contains some soluble salts such as sodium chloride,
magnesium chloride.
648.An ore is a naturally occurring solid material from which a metal or
valuable mineral can be extracted profitably.
649.Examples of ores are Cinnabar an ore of mercury. Sphalerite an ore of
zinc, or Cassiterite an ore of tin (Mineral).
650.Gold, silver, platinum and copper are found in the free state.
651.Copper and silver are also found in the combined state as their
sulphide or oxide ores.
652.Ores mined from the earth are usually contaminated with large
amounts of impurities such as soil, sand, etc.called gangue.
653.The sulphide ores are converted into oxides by heating strongly in the
presence of excess air. This process is known as roasting.
654.The carbonate ores are changed into oxides by heating strongly in
limited air. This process is known as calcination.
655.Obtaining metals from their compounds is also a reduction process.
656.Carbon (coke) to reduce metal oxides to metals.
657.A thermite reaction is basically iron oxide (rust) reacting with
aluminum to produce molten iron.
658.The reaction is initiated by the heat from burning magnesium ribbon
which is placed in the iron oxide/aluminum mixture, this is the fuse.
659.Carbon cannot reduce the oxides of sodium, magnesium, calcium,
aluminium. These metals are obtained by electrolysis reduction.
660.Sodium, magnesium and calcium are obtained by the electrolysis of
their molten chlorides. The metals are deposited at the cathode (the
negatively charged electrode), whereas, chlorine is liberated at the anode
(the positively charged electrode).
661.Aluminium is obtained by the electrolytic reduction of aluminium
oxide.
662.The electrolyte is a solution of acidified copper sulphate.
663.The anode is impure copper, whereas the cathode is a strip of pure
copper. On passing electric current, pure copper is deposited on the
cathode.
664.Copper, zinc, tin, nickel, silver, gold, etc.are refined electrolytically.
665.The soluble impurities go into the solution, whereas the insoluble
impurities settle down at the bottom of the anode and are known as anode
mud.
666.Silver become black after some time when exposed to air.
667.Iron when exposed to moist air for a long time acquires a coating of a
brown flaky substance called rust.
668.Corrosion is a natural process that converts a refined metal to a more
chemically-stable form, such as its oxide, hydroxide, or sulfide.
669.The rusting of iron can be prevented by painting, oiling, greasing,
galvanising, chrome plating, anodising or making alloys.
670.Galvanisation is a method of protecting steel and iron from rusting by
coating them with a thin layer of zinc.
671.Alloying is a process in which two or more metal elements are melted
together in a precise combination to form a specific material, or alloy.
672.When iron is mixed with nickel and chromium, we get stainless steel,
which is hard and does not rust.
673.If iron is mixed with some other substance, its properties change.
674.An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or more metals.
675.An alloy is prepared by first melting the primary metal, and then,
dissolving the other elements in it in definite proportions. It is then cooled
to room temperature.
676.An amalgam is an alloy of mercury.
677.Silver mercury amalgams are important in dentistry.
678.Gold mercury amalgam is used in the extraction of gold from ore.
679.Brass, Bronze and Steel are not good conductors of electricity.
680.An alloy of lead and tin (Pb and Sn), has a low melting point and is
used for welding electrical wires.
681.Methane is widely used as a fuel and is a major component of biogas
and Compressed Natural Gas.
682.In diamond, each carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon atoms
forming a rigid three dimensional structure.
683.In graphite, each carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atoms
in the same plane giving a hexagonal array.
684.Graphite structure is formed by the hexagonal array.
685.Diamond is the hardest substance known while graphite is smooth
and slippery.
686.Graphite is also a very good conductor of electricity.
687.Diamonds can be synthesised by subjecting pure carbon to very high
pressure and temperature.
688.Fullerenes form carbon allotropes.
689.Fullerences a form of carbon having a large spheroidal molecule
consisting of an empty cage of sixty or more atoms, of which
buckminsterfullerene was the first known example.
690.Fullerenes are produced chiefly by the action of an arc discharge
between carbon electrodes in an inert atmosphere.
691.Catenation is the bonding of atoms of the same element into a series
called a chain.
692.Carbon has the unique ability to form bonds with other atoms of
carbon, giving rise to large molecules. This property is called catenation.
693.A saturated compound is a chemical compound that has a chain of
carbon atoms linked together by single bonds.
694.An unsaturated compound is a chemical compound that contains
carbon carbon double bonds or triple bonds, such as those found in
alkenes or alkynes.
695.Silicon forms compounds with hydrogen which have chains of up to
seven or eight atoms.
696.Friedrich Wöhler prepared urea from ammonium cyanate.
697.Saturated hydrocarbons are called alkanes.
698.Those containing one or more triple bonds are called alkynes.
699.Carbon also forms bonds with other elements such as halogens,
oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur.
700.Heteroatom an atom other than carbon or hydrogen.
701.Acetamide has two heteroatoms: one oxygen atom and one nitrogen
atom.
702.A series of compounds in which the same functional group substitutes
for hydrogen in a carbon chain is called a homologous series.
703.A compound having three carbon atoms would have the name
propane.
704.A three carbon chain with a double bond called propene and if it has a
triple bond, called propyne.
705.Saturated hydrocarbons will generally give a clean flame while
unsaturated carbon compounds will give a yellow flame.
706.Fuels such as coal and petroleum have some amount of nitrogen and
sulphur in them.
707.Sulphur and nitrogen oxides which are major pollutants.
708.When wood or charcoal is ignited, the volatile substances present
evaporate and burn with a flame in the beginning.
709.A luminous flame is when the atoms of the gaseous substance are
heated and start to glow.
710.Coal and petroleum formed from biomass.
711.Silt is granular material of a size between sand and clay whose
mineral origin is quartz and feldspar.
712.Silt may occur as a soil (often mixed with sand or clay) or as sediment
mixed in suspension with water (also known as a suspended load) and soil
in a body of water such as a river.
713.An oxidizing agent, or oxidant, gains electrons and is reduced in a
chemical reaction,also known as the electron acceptor.
714.Examples of oxidizing agents include halogens, potassium nitrate, and
nitric acid.
715.A reducing agent, or reductant, loses electrons and is oxidized in a
chemical reaction.
716.A reducing agent is typically in one of its lower possible oxidation
states, and is known as the electron donor.
717.A reducing agent is oxidized because it loses electrons in the redox
reaction.
718.Examples of reducing agents include the earth metals, formic acid, and
sulfite compounds.
719.A reducing agent reduces other substances and loses electrons;
therefore, its oxidation state increases.
720.An oxidizing agent oxidizes other substances and gains electrons;
therefore, its oxidation state decreases.
721.A catalyst is a substance that can be added to a reaction to increase
the reaction rate without getting consumed in the process.
722.Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts.
723.Vegetable oils generally have long unsaturated carbon chains while
animal fats have saturated carbon chains.
724.Animal fats generally contain saturated fatty acids.
725.Oils containing unsaturated fatty acids.
726.Saturated hydrocarbons are fairly unreactive and are inert in the
presence of most reagents.
727.Substitution reaction (also known as single displacement reaction or
single substitution reaction) is a chemical reaction during which one
functional group in a chemical compound is replaced by another
functional group.
728.Substitution reaction replaces the chlorine atom in the original
molecule with the hydroxyl ions.
729.Ethanol is a liquid at room temperature (melting and boiling points of
ethanol).
730.Ethanol is commonly called alcohol and is the active ingredient of all
alcoholic drinks.
731.Ethanol good solvent, it is also used in medicines such as tincture
iodine, cough syrups, and many tonics.
732.Ethanol is also soluble in water in all proportions.
733.Pure ethanol (called absolute alcohol) can be lethal.
734.The concentrated sulphuric acid can be regarded as a dehydrating
agent which removes water from ethanol.
735.Ethanol is an important industrial solvent.
736.Ethanol is It is a colourless, volatile liquid with characteristic pleasant
odour.
737.Ethanol is lighter than water.
738.Ethanol, also known as ethyl alcohol or grain alcohol.
739.Ethanol is commonly used as a disinfectant; it kills organisms by
denaturing their proteins and dissolving their lipids.
740.Ethanol is also increasingly being used as a fuel (usually replacing or
complementing gasoline).
741.Sugarcane plants are one of the most efficient convertors of sunlight
into chemical energy.
742.Sugarcane juice can be used to prepare molasses which is fermented to
give alcohol (ethanol).
743.Ethanoic acid is commonly called acetic acid and belongs to a group of
acids called carboxylic acids.
744.Ethanoic acid often freezes during winter in cold climates. This gave
rise to its name glacial acetic acid.
745.Carboxylic acids are weak acids.
746.Mineral acids like HCl, which are completely ionised.
747.Esters are most commonly formed by reaction of an acid and an
alcohol.
748.Esters are sweet smelling substances. These are used in making
perfumes and as flavouring agents.
749.Ester is converted back to alcohol and sodium salt of carboxylic acid.
This reaction is known as saponification.
750.Eater is used in the preparation of soap.
751.Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of long chain carboxylic acid.
752.Ethanoic acid is called acetic acid.
753.Ethanoic acid are Odour, Solubility in water, Effect on litmus.
754.Acetic acid is an organic acid. Acetic acid is a monocarboxylic acid
because it contains only one carboxylic group.
755.Ethanoic acid is the main component of vinegar.
756.Water free acetic acid is known as glacial acetic acid.
757.Acetic acid is used as coagulant in the manufacture of rubber.
758.Acetic acid is used in the manufacture of rayon fibre.
759.Ethanoic acid is weak and turns blue litmus red.
760.Acetic acid used as an agent to lyse red blood cells before white blood
cells are examined.
761.Acetic acid used as a solvent in the production of camphor, ascent and
cooking ingredient.
763.Soaps are water soluble sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids.
764.Soaps are made from fats and oils, or their fatty acids, by treating
them chemically with a strong alkali.
765.Fatty acids are weak acids.
766.Alkalis used in soap-making were obtained from the ashes of plants.
767.Alkalis used in soap-making are sodium hydroxide, also called caustic
soda; and potassium hydroxide, also called caustic potash.
768.Saponification of fats and oils is the most widely used soap making
process.
769.Soap making process is the neutralization of fatty acids with an alkali.
770.Fats and oils are hydrolyzed (split) with a high pressure steam to yield
crude fatty acids and glycerine.
771.Potassium soaps are softer and are found in some liquid hand soaps
and shaving cream.
772.The carboxylate end of the soap molecule is attracted to water. It is
called the hydrophilic (water-loving) end.
773.The hydrocarbon chain is attracted to oil and grease and repelled by
water. It is known as the hydrophobic (water-hating) end.
774.Soap is a good cleaning agent, its effectiveness is reduced when used in
hard water.
775.Hardness in water is caused by the presence of mineral salts like
calcium and magnesium and occasionally iron and manganese.
776.The mineral salts react with soap to form an insoluble precipitate
known as soap film or scum.
777.A detergent is an effective cleaning product because it contains one or
more surfactants.
778.Detergent surfactants are made from a variety of petrochemicals
(derived from petroleum) and/or oleochemicals (derived from fats and
oils).
779.Petroleum and fats and oils contain hydrocarbon chains that are
repelled by water.
780.Oil and grease attached in soils.
781.Chemicals, such as sulphur trioxide, sulphuric acid and ethylene oxide,
are used to produce the water loving end of the surfactant molecule.
782.Sodium and potassium hydroxide are the most common alkalis.
783.An alkali is used to make detergent surfactants.
784.Warm or hot water helps dissolve grease and oil in soil.
785.Micelles an aggregate of molecules in a colloidal solution, such as
those formed by detergents.
786. The soap micelle thus helps in pulling out the dirt in water and we can
wash our clothes clean.
787.Soaps are molecules in which the two ends have differing properties,
one is hydrophilic, that is, it interacts with water, while the other end is
hydrophobic, that is, it interacts with hydrocarbons.
788.Clusters of molecules in which the hydrophobic tails are in the interior
of the cluster and the ionic ends are on the surface of the cluster. This
formation is called a micelle.
789.Foam is formed with difficulty and an insoluble substance (scum)
remains after washing with water. This is caused by the reaction of soap
with the calcium and magnesium salts, which cause the hardness of
water.
790.Detergents are generally sodium salts of sulfonic acids or ammonium
salts with chlorides or bromides ions, etc.
791.Detergents are usually used to make shampoos and products for
cleaning clothes.
792.Ethane, with the molecular formula C2H6 has 7 covalent bonds.
793.Butanone is four carbon compound with functional group is Ketone.
794.While cooking if bottom of vessel is getting blackened on outside it
means fuel is not burning completely.
795.Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeléev discovered periodic table.
796.Mendeléev’s Periodic Table was published in a German journal in 1872.
797.Noble gases like helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, radon, and
oganesson. They are very inert and present in extremely low
concentrations in our atmosphere.
798.Frederick Soddy introduced the concept of isotopes while explaining
the aspects of radioactivity.
799.J.J. Thomson discovered the first stable isotope in neon.
800.Henry Moseley discovered the atomic number of each element using x
rays, which led to more accurate organization of the periodic table.
801.The term atomic size refers to the radius of an atom.
802.Silicon, which is classified as a semimetal or metalloid because it
exhibits some properties of both metals and nonmetals.
803.Metals are electropositive in nature. They form bonds by losing
electrons.
804.Non Metals are electronegative in nature. They form bonds by gaining
electrons.
805.The branch of science that studies the preparation, properties,
structure and reactions of material substances is called chemistry.
806.Philosopher’s stone (Paras) which would convert all baser metals e.g.,
iron and copper into gold.
807.Gypsum is a soft sulfate mineral composed of calcium sulfate
dihydrate. It is widely mined and is used as a fertilizer, and as the main
constituent in many forms of plaster, blackboard chalk and wallboard,
Lime and sand.
808.Glass and glazes were coloured by the addition of colouring agents like
metal oxides.
809.Hardness of copper for making artefacts by using tin and arsenic.
810.Preparation of fireworks using sulphur, charcoal, saltpetre (i.e.,
potassium nitrate), mercury, camphor, etc.
811.Oil of Eranda and seeds of Mahua plant and calcium carbonate were
used for making soap.
812.Chakrapani discovered mercury sulphide.
813.Recipes for hair dying were made from plants, like indigo and
minerals like iron power, black iron or steel and acidic extracts of sour rice
gruel.
814.Colours of ink were made from chalk, red lead and minimum.
815.Kashyap, was the first proponents of the ‘atomic theory.
816.Nanotechnology the branch of technology that deals with dimensions
and tolerances of less than 100 nanometres, especially the manipulation of
individual atoms and molecules.
817.Cisplatin and taxol, which are effective in cancer therapy. The drug
AZT (Azidothymidine) is used for helping AIDS patients.
818.CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons), responsible for ozone depletion in the
stratosphere.
819.Green House gases, like methane, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, water
vapour, CFCs and HFCs.
820.Particles are held very close to each other in solids.
821.Liquids, the particles are close to each other but they can move
around.
822.Gases, the particles are far apart as compared to those present in solid
or liquid states and their movement is easy and fast.
823.Solids have definite volume and definite shape.
824.Liquids have definite volume but do not have a definite shape.
825.Gases have neither definite volume nor definite shape.
826.A mixture contains particles of two or more pure substances which
may be present in it in any ratio.
827.In a homogeneous mixture, the components completely mix with each
other. This means particles of components of the mixture are uniformly
distributed throughout the bulk of the mixture and its composition is
uniform throughout.
828.Sugar solution and air are examples of homogeneous mixtures.
829.In a heterogeneous mixture, the composition is not uniform
throughout and sometimes different components are visible.
830.Mixtures of salt and sugar, grains and pulses along with some dirt
(often stone pieces), are heterogeneous mixtures.
831.Copper, silver, gold, water and glucose are some examples of pure
substances.
832.Glucose contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
833.Sodium, copper, silver, hydrogen, oxygen, are some examples of
elements.
834.Sodium or copper, contain atoms as their constituent particles.
835.Constituent particles are molecules which are formed by two or more
atoms.
836.Hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen gases consist of molecules.
837.When two or more atoms of different elements combine together in a
definite ratio, the molecule of a compound is obtained.
838.A compound cannot be separated into simpler substances by physical
methods. They can be separated by chemical methods. Examples of some
compounds are water, ammonia, carbon dioxide, sugar, etc.
839.Water is used as a fire extinguisher.
840.Physical properties, such as colour, odour, melting point, boiling point,
density, etc., and chemical properties, like composition, combustibility,
reactivity with acids and bases, etc.
841.Physical properties can be measured or observed without changing
the identity or the composition of the substance.
842.Chemical properties requires a chemical change to occur.
843.The SI was established in 1960 by the 11th General Conference on
Weights and Measures.
844.The CGPM (General conference of weights and measures) is an
intergovernmental treaty organisation created by a diplomatic treaty
known as Metre Convention, which was signed in Paris in 1875.
845.SI unit of Length is the metre.
846.SI unit of Mass is Kilogram.
847.SI unit of Electric current is Ampere.
848.SI unit of Thermodynamic temperature is Kelvin.
849.SI unit of Amount of substance is Mole.
850.SI unit of Time is second.
851.SI unit of Luminous intensity is Candela.
852.Mass of a substance is the amount of matter present in it, while weight
is the force exerted by gravity on an object.
853.The mass of a substance is constant, whereas, its weight may vary
from one place to another due to changes in gravity.
854.SI unit of volume is metre cube.
855.A volumetric flask is used to prepare a known volume of a solution.
856.Volume of liquids or solutions can be measured by graduated cylinder,
burette, pipette.
857.Density of a substance is the amount of mass per unit volume.
858.Unit of density is kg/m3.
859.Planck’s constant, the speed of light, charges on particles, etc., involve
numbers of the above magnitude.
860.Precision refers to the closeness of various measurements for the
same quantity.
861.Accuracy is the agreement of a particular value to the true value of
the result.
862.Law of Conservation of Mass was put forth by Antoine Lavoisier.
863.Matter can neither be created nor destroyed. This is called ‘Law of
Conservation of Mass’.
864.Law of Definite Proportions was given by Joseph Proust.
865.Joseph Proust stated that a given compound always contains exactly
the same proportion of elements by weight.
866.Proust worked with two samples of cupric carbonate, one of which
was of natural origin and the other was synthetic. It is sometimes also
referred to as Law of Definite Composition.
867.Law of Multiple Proportions was proposed by Dalton.
868.Dalton states if two elements can combine to form more than one
compound, the masses of one element that combine with a fixed mass of
the other element, are in the ratio of small whole numbers.
869.Law of Gaseous Volumes was given by Gay Lussac.
870.Gay Lussac states when gases combine or are produced in a chemical
reaction they do so in a simple ratio by volume, provided all gases are at
the same temperature and pressure.
871.Gay Lussac’s discovery of integer ratio in volume relationship is
actually the law of definite proportions by volume.
872.The Gay Lussac’s law was explained properly by the work of Avogadro.
873.Avogadro proposed that equal volumes of all gases at the same
temperature and pressure should contain an equal number of molecules.
874.Avogadro made a distinction between atoms and molecules.
875.Avogadro could explain the above result by considering the molecules
to be polyatomic. If hydrogen and oxygen were considered as diatomic.
876.Avogadro’s proposal was published in the French Journal de Physique.
877.Dalton published ‘A New System of Chemical Philosophy’, in which he
proposed
1.Matter consists of indivisible atoms.
2.All atoms of a given element have identical properties, including
identical mass. Atoms of different elements differ in mass.
3.Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine in a
fixed ratio.
4.Chemical reactions involve reorganisation of atoms. These are neither
created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.
878.Carbon 12 is one of the isotopes of carbon.
879.Molecular mass of methane, which contains one carbon atom and four
hydrogen atoms.
880.Molecular mass is the sum of the atomic masses of the elements
present in a molecule.
881.Sodium chloride, do not contain discrete molecules as their constituent
units.
882.In SI system, mole was introduced as seventh base quantity for the
amount of a substance.
883.The mass of one mole of a substance in grams is called its molar mass.
884.An empirical formula represents the simplest whole number ratio of
atoms present in a compound.
885.Molecular formula shows the exact number of different types of atoms
present in a molecule of a compound.
886.If the mass percent of various elements present in a compound is
known, its empirical formula can be determined.
887.Molecular formula can further be obtained if the molar mass is known.
888.Stoichiometry is a section of chemistry that involves using
relationships between reactants and/or products in a chemical reaction.
889.Methane and oxygen are called reactants and carbon dioxide and
water are called products.
890.The limiting reagent in a chemical reaction is the substance which is
totally consumed when the chemical reaction is complete.
891.Mole fraction is the ratio of the number of moles of a particular
component to the total number of moles of the solution.
892.Molarity is number of moles of solute in 1 litre of the solution.
893.Molality is number of moles of solute present in 1 kg of solvent.
894.A cathode ray tube is made of glass containing two thin pieces of
metal, called electrode.
895.When sufficiently high voltage is applied across the electrodes,
current starts flowing through a stream of particles moving in the tube
from the negative electrode (cathode) to the positive electrode (anode).
These were called cathode rays or cathode ray particles.
896.Cathode rays consist of negatively charged particles, called electrons.
897.R.A. Millikan devised a method known as oil drop experiment to
determine the charge on the electrons.
898.Canal rays carrying positively charged particles.
899.The smallest and lightest positive ion was obtained from hydrogen
and was called proton.
900.Presence of electrically neutral particle as one of the constituents of
atoms. These particles were discovered by Chadwick.
901.When electrically neutral particles having a mass slightly greater
than that of protons were emitted. He named these particles as neutrons.
902.J. J. Thomson proposed that an atom possesses a spherical shape in
which the positive charge is uniformly distributed. Many different names
are given to this model, for example, plum pudding, raisin pudding or
watermelon.
903.Thomson was awarded the Nobel Prize for physics in 1906.
904.Wilhalm Röentgen showed that when electrons strike a material in the
cathode ray tubes, produce rays which can cause fluorescence in the
fluorescent materials placed outside the cathode ray tubes.
905.Henri Becqueral observed that there are certain elements which emit
radiation on their own and named this phenomenon as radioactivity and
the elements known as radioactive elements.
906.Rutherford found that alpha rays consists of high energy particles
carrying two units of positive charge and four units of atomic mass.
907.Rutherford’s famous alpha particle scattering experiment.
908.The thin gold foil had a circular fluorescent zinc sulphide.
909.Small portion of the atom was called nucleus by Rutherford.
910.The nucleus is surrounded by electrons that move around the nucleus
with a very high speed in circular paths called orbits.
911.Rutherford’s model of an atom resembles the solar system in which the
nucleus plays the role of sun and the electrons that of revolving planets.
912.Electrons and the nucleus are held together by electrostatic forces of
attraction.
913.The presence of positive charge on the nucleus is due to protons in the
nucleus.
914.Protons and neutrons present in the nucleus are known as nucleons.
915.Isobars are the atoms with the same mass number but different
atomic number.
916.Atoms with identical atomic number but different atomic mass
number are known as Isotopes.
917.Hydrogen atoms contain only one proton. This isotope is called
protium.
918.Hydrogen atom contains two other isotopes 1 proton and 1 neutron is
called deuterium.
919.1 proton and 2 neutrons is called tritium.
920.Isotopes is that chemical properties of atoms are controlled by the
number of electrons, which are determined by the number of protons in
the nucleus.
921.According to the electromagnetic theory of Maxwell, charged particles
when accelerated should emit electromagnetic radiation.
922.Absorption and emission of radiation by heated objects. These are
called thermal radiation.
923.Study of thermal radiation, theory of electromagnetic waves was
developed by James Clerk Maxwell, which was experimentally confirmed
later by Heinrich Hertz.
924.Maxwell was the first to reveal that light waves are associated with
oscillating electric and magnetic character.
925.Sound waves or waves produced in water, electromagnetic waves do
not require a medium and can move in a vacuum.
926.Electromagnetic radiations, which differ from one another in
wavelength is called the electromagnetic spectrum.
927.Electromagnetic radiation in this range of wavelengths is called
visible light.
928.Visible light is only this part which our eyes can see (detect).
929.SI unit for frequency is hertz, after Heinrich Hertz.
930.Wavenumber is defined as the number of wavelengths per unit length.
931.Nature of emission of radiation from hot bodies (black -body
radiation).
932.Ejection of electrons from metal surface when radiation strikes it
(photoelectric effect).
933.Diffraction is the bending of waves around an obstacle.
934.Interference is the combination of two waves of the same or different
frequencies to give a wave whose distribution at each point in space is the
algebraic.
935.Black body radiation was given by Max Planck.
936.When an iron rod is heated in a furnace, it first turns to dull red and
then progressively becomes more and more red as the temperature
increases.
937.An ideal body, which emits and absorbs radiation of all frequencies
uniformly, is called a black body and the radiation emitted by such a body
is called black body radiation.
938.A black body is also a perfect radiator of radiant energy. Furthermore,
a black body is in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings.
939.Planck assumed that radiation could be subdivided into discrete
chunks of energy.
940.Plank gave the name quantum to the smallest quantity of energy that
can be emitted or absorbed in the form of electromagnetic radiation.
941.Planck was able to explain the distribution of intensity in the
radiation from black body as a function of frequency or wavelength at
different temperatures.
942.Planck was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1918 for his
quantum theory.
943. H. Hertz experiment in which electrons (or electric current) were
ejected when certain metals (for example potassium, rubidium, caesium,
etc.) were exposed to a beam of light is called the Photoelectric effect.
944.Threshold frequency is defined as the minimum frequency of light
which causes electrons to be emitted from a metal surface. If no electrons
are ejected, this means that the frequency of the light is less than the
threshold frequency.
945.Albert Einstein received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 for his
explanation of the photoelectric effect.
946.Kinetic energy of the ejected electron is proportional to the frequency
of the electromagnetic radiation.
947.More intense beam of light consists of a larger number of photons.
948.When a ray of white light is passed through a prism, the waves with
shorter wavelength bends more than the one with a longer wavelength.
949.A ray of white light is spread out into a series of coloured bands called
spectrum.
950.The light of red colour which has the longest wavelength is deviated
the least while the violet light, which has the shortest wavelength.
951.An emission spectrum that consists of a continuum of wavelengths is
called continuous spectrum.
952.A similar spectrum is produced when a rainbow forms in the sky.
953.Visible light is a small portion of the electromagnetic radiation.
954.The spectrum of radiation emitted by a substance that has absorbed
energy is called an emission spectrum.
955.Atoms, molecules or ions that have absorbed radiation are said to be
“excited”.
956.The study of emission or absorption spectra is referred to as
spectroscopy.
957.Wavelengths (red to violet) of the visible light are represented in the
spectra.
958.The emitted light can be observed as a series of colored lines with dark
spaces in between; this series of colored lines is called a line or atomic
spectra.
959.Robert Bunsen was one of the first investigators to use line spectra.
960.Elements like rubidium, caesium, thallium, indium, gallium and
scandium were discovered when their minerals were analysed by
spectroscopic methods. Helium was discovered in the sun by spectroscopic
method.
961.Balmer shows spectral lines are expressed in terms of wavenumber.
962.The series of lines described by this formula are called the Balmer
series
963.Johannes Rydberg, noted that all series of lines in the hydrogen
spectrum.
964.An emission spectrum, which is a photographic recording of the
separated wavelengths is called line spectrum.
965.The light emitted as these atoms fall to lower energy states is
responsible for the spectrum.
966.Atomic absorption. When white light is passed through unexcited
atomic hydrogen and then through a slit and prism.
967.Neils Bohr was the first to explain the hydrogen atom and its
spectrum.
968.The electron in the hydrogen atom can move around the nucleus in a
circular path of fixed radius and energy. These paths are called orbits.
969.Linear momentum is the product of mass and linear velocity.
970.Angular momentum is the product of moment of inertia and angular
velocity.
971.Radius of the first stationary state, called the Bohr orbit.
972.Bohr received the first Atoms for Peace award in 1957. Bohr was
awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922.
973.De Broglie proposed that just as light has both wave-like and particle-
like properties, electrons also have wave-like properties.
974.Louis de Broglie received his Dr. Sc. from the University of Paris in
1924. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1929.
975.Werner Heisenberg states that it is impossible to determine
simultaneously, the exact position and exact momentum (or velocity) of an
electron.
976.Werner Heisenberg received his Ph.D. in physics from the University of
Munich in 1923. He was named director of the Max Planck Institute for
Physics in Gottingen. He was also accomplished mountain climber.
Heisenberg was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1932.
977.Erwin Schrödinger received his Ph.D. in theoretical physics from the
University of Vienna in 1910. Schrödinger shared the Nobel Prize for
Physics with P.A.M. Dirac in 1933.
978.The branch of science that takes into account this dual behaviour of
matter is called quantum mechanics.
979.Quantum mechanics was developed in 1926 by Werner Heisenberg and
Erwin Schrödinger.
980.Hydrogen like species with one electron are called atomic orbitals.
981.George Uhlenbeck and Samuel Goudsmit proposed the presence of the
fourth quantum number known as the electron spin quantum number.
982.An orbit, as proposed by Bohr, is a circular path around the nucleus in
which an electron moves.
983.The region where this probability density function reduces to zero is
called nodal surfaces or simply nodes.
984.The orbitals having the same energy are called degenerate.
985.Ground state and an electron residing in this orbital is most strongly
held by the nucleus.
986.An electrons higher orbitals in a hydrogen atom is in an excited state.
987.Aufbau Principle states, In the ground state of the atoms, the orbitals
are filled in order of their increasing energies.
988.Wolfgang Paul Principle, No two electrons in an atom can have the
same set of four quantum numbers.
989.Pauli exclusion principle can also be stated as : “Only two electrons
may exist in the same orbital and these electrons must have opposite spin.
990.Hund’s Rule, pairing of electrons in the orbitals belonging to the same
subshell does not take place until each orbital belonging to that subshell
has got one electron each.
991.The distribution of electrons into orbitals of an atom is called its
electronic configuration.
992.The electrons in the completely filled shells are known as core
electrons.
993.Electrons that are added to the electronic shell with the highest
principal quantum number are called valence electrons.
994.Helium and argon are not reactive but elements like the Halogens are
reactive.
995. Dobereiner’s relationship, referred to as the Law of Triads.
996.John Alexander Newlands propounded the Law of Octaves.
997.De Chancourtois arranged the known elements in order of increasing
atomic weights.
998.Newlands was later awarded Davy Medal in 1887 by the Royal Society,
London.
999.Lothar Meyer developed a table of the elements that closely resembles
the Modern Periodic Table.
1000.Properties of the elements are periodic functions of their atomic
numbers also called Mendeleev's law.
1001.Gap under aluminium and a gap under silicon, and called these
elements EkaAluminium and EkaSilicon.
1002.Henry Moseley observed regularities in the characteristic X ray
spectra of the elements.
1003.Modern Periodic Law/Mendeleev’s Periodic Law stated, The physical
and chemical properties of the elements are periodic functions of their
atomic numbers.
1004.Neptunium and plutonium like actinium and protactinium are also
found in pitchblende-an ore of uranium.
1005.International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC).
1006.Glenn T. Seaborg discovered plutonium in 1940.
1007.In 1951, Seaborg was awarded the Nobel Prize.
1008.Non-metals are usually solids or gases at room temperature with low
melting and boiling points (boron and carbon are exceptions).
1009.Atomic Radius to refer to both covalent or metallic radius depending
on whether the element is a non-metal or a metal.
1010.Metallic Radius” which is taken as half the internuclear distance
separating the metal cores in the metallic crystal.
1011.The removal of an electron from an atom results in the formation of a
cation, whereas gain of an electron leads to an anion.
1012.Some atoms and ions which contain the same number of electrons, we
call them isoelectronic species.
1013.A quantitative measure of the tendency of an element to lose electron
is given by its Ionization Enthalpy.
1014.Shielding or screening of the valence electron from the nucleus by the
intervening core electrons.
1015.A qualitative measure of the ability of an atom in a chemical
compound to attract shared electrons to itself is called electronegativity.
1016.Electronegativity of elements viz., Pauling scale, Mulliken Jaffe scale,
Allred Rochow scale have been developed.
1017.Chemical reactivity is highest at the two extremes of a period and is
lowest in the centre.
1018.The attractive force which holds various constituents (atoms, ions,
etc.) together in different chemical species is called a chemical bond.
1019.Kössel-Lewis approach, Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR)
Theory, Valence Bond (VB) Theory and Molecular Orbital (MO) Theory.
1020.Formation of chemical bonding was only Kössel and Lewis.
1021.Lewis postulated that atoms achieve a stable octet when they are
linked by chemical bonds.
1022.In the formation of a molecule, only the outer shell electrons take
part in chemical combination and they are known as valence electrons.
1023.The bond formed, as a result of the electrostatic attraction between
the positive and negative ions was termed as the electrovalent bond. The
electrovalence is thus equal to the number of unit charge on the ion.
1024.Calcium is a positive electrovalence of two, while chlorine a negative
electrovalence.
1025.Kössel and Lewis developed electronic theory of chemical bonding.
1026.Atoms can combine either by transfer of valence electrons from one
atom to another (gaining or losing) or by sharing of valence electrons in
order to have an octet in their valence shells is known as the octet rule.
1027.Langmuir introducing the term covalent bond.
1028.When two atoms share one electron pair they are said to be joined by
a single covalent bond.
1029.If two atoms share two pairs of electrons, the covalent bond between
them is called a double bond.
1030.The ionization is always endothermic.
1031.Bond length is defined as the equilibrium distance between the nuclei
of two bonded atoms in a molecule.
1032.Bond angle is the angle between the orbitals containing bonding
electron pairs around the central atom in a molecule/complex ion.
1033.Bond therapy is defined as the amount of energy required to break
one mole of bonds of a particular type between two atoms in a gaseous
state.
1034.Valence bond theory was introduced by Heitler and London (1927)
and developed further by Pauling and others.
1035.Hybridisation which can be defined as the process of intermixing of
the orbitals of slightly different energies so as to redistribute their
energies, resulting in the formation of new set of orbitals of equivalent
energies and shape.
1036.Molecular orbital theory was developed by F. Hund and R.S. Mulliken.
1037.Linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO).
1038.Nitrogen, oxygen and fluorine are the highly electronegative
elements.
1039.Hydrogen bond can be defined as the attractive force which binds
hydrogen atom of one molecule with the electronegative atom of another
molecule.
1040.Intermolecular forces are the forces of attraction and repulsion
between interacting particles (atoms and molecules).
1041.Attractive intermolecular forces are known as van der Waals forces.
1042.Dispersion forces or London forces was first proposed by Fritz
London.
1043.Force of attraction between two temporary dipoles is known as
London force. Another name for this force is dispersion force.
1044.Molecules also exert repulsive forces on one another.
1045.Thermal energy is the energy of a body arising from motion of its
atoms or molecules.
1046.Thermal energy is the measure of the average kinetic energy of the
particles of the matter and is thus responsible for movement of particles.
This movement of particles is called thermal motion.
1047.Lowermost layer of the atmosphere called the troposphere, which is
held to the surface of the earth by gravitational force.
1048.Gases are highly compressible.
1049.Gases exert pressure equally in all directions.
1050.Gases have much lower density than solids and liquids.
1051.The volume and the shape of gases are not fixed.
1052.These assume volume and shape of the container.
1053.Gases mix evenly and completely in all proportions without any
mechanical aid.
1054.At constant temperature, the pressure of a fixed amount of gas varies
inversely with its volume is known as Boyle’s law.
1055.Each curve corresponds to a different constant temperature and is
known as an isotherm.
1056.Charles’ law, which states that pressure remaining constant, the
volume of a fixed mass of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature.
1057.Each line of the volume vs temperature graph is called isobar.
1058.The lowest hypothetical or imaginary temperature at which gases
are supposed to occupy zero volume is called Absolute zero.
1059.Gay Lussac’s law. It states that at constant volume, the pressure of a
fixed amount of a gas varies directly with the temperature.
1060.Isochore is a line or surface of constant volume on a graphic
representation of a physical system.
1061.Avogadro law states that equal volumes of all gases under the same
conditions of temperature and pressure contain equal number of
molecules.
1062.Standard ambient temperature and pressure (SATP).
1063.A gas that follows Boyle’s law, Charles’ law and Avogadro law strictly
is called an ideal gas.
1064.John Dalton states that the total pressure exerted by a mixture of
non reactive gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of
individual gases.
1065.Pressure exerted by the individual gas is called partial pressure.
1066.Pressure exerted by saturated water vapour is called aqueous
tension.
1067.Pressure is exerted by the gas as a result of collision of the particles
with the walls of the container.
1068.Pressure exerted by the gas is lower than the pressure exerted by the
ideal gas.
1069.The temperature at which a real gas obeys ideal gas law over an
appreciable range of pressure is called Boyle temperature or Boyle point.
1070.Gaseous and liquid state was obtained by Thomas Andrews on
Carbon dioxide.
1071.Critical temperature is the temperature of a gas in its critical state,
above which it cannot be liquefied by pressure alone.
1072.Volume of one mole of the gas at the critical temperature is called
critical volume and pressure at this temperature is called critical
pressure.
1073.Ammonia will liquify first because its critical temperature will be
reached first. Liquefaction of CO2 will require more cooling.
1074.Intermolecular forces are stronger in liquid state than in gaseous
state.
1075.Liquids have definite volume because molecules do not separate from
each other.
1076.Initially the liquid evaporates and pressure exerted by vapours on
the walls of the container (vapour pressure) increases.
1077.Vapour pressure at this stage is known as equilibrium vapour
pressure or saturated vapour pressure.
1078.Vapourisation can occur throughout the bulk of the liquid and
vapours expand freely into the surroundings.
1079.The temperature at which vapour pressure of liquid is equal to the
external pressure is called boiling temperature.
1080.Standard boiling point of the liquid is slightly lower than the normal
boiling point because 1 bar pressure is slightly less than 1 atm pressure.
1081.The normal boiling point of water is 100 °C (373 K), its standard
boiling point is 99.6 °C (372.6 K).
1082.As the temperature increases more and more molecules go to vapour
phase and density of vapours rises.
1083.Surface tension is a physical property equal to the amount of force
per unit area.
1084.Surface tension forces are due to intermolecular forces between the
liquid's molecules at the liquid's outer boundaries.
1085.If surface of the liquid is increased by pulling a molecule from the
bulk, attractive forces will have to be overcome.
1086.The energy required to increase the surface area of the liquid by one
unit is defined as surface energy.
1087.Surface tension is defined as the force acting per unit length
perpendicular to the line drawn on the surface of liquid.
1088.SI unit of surface tension is Nm-1.
1089.On heating, the glass melts and the surface of the liquid tends to take
the rounded shape at the edges, which makes the edges smooth. This is
called fire polishing of glass.
1090.Liquid tends to rise (or fall) in the capillary because of surface
tension.
1091.Moist soil grains are pulled together because surface area of thin film
of water is reduced.
1092.The magnitude of surface tension of a liquid depends on the
attractive forces between the molecules.
1093.When the attractive forces are large, the surface tension is large.
1094.Increase in temperature increases the kinetic energy of the molecules
and effectiveness of intermolecular attraction decreases, so surface
tension decreases as the temperature is raised.
1095.Viscosity is a measure of resistance to flow which arises due to the
internal friction between layers of fluid as they slip past one another
while liquid flows.
1096.This type of flow in which there is a regular gradation of velocity in
passing from one layer to the next is called laminar flow.
1097.Viscosity coefficient is the force when velocity gradient is unity and
the area of contact is unit area.
1098.SI unit of coefficient of viscosity of liquid is kg m-1 s-1
1099.Glass is an extremely viscous liquid.
1100.For coefficient of viscosity named after great scientist Jean Louis
Poiseuille.
1101.Electrical energy provide through a galvanic cell like dry cell.
1102.The First Law of Thermodynamics states that heat is a form of
energy, and thermodynamic processes are therefore subject to the
principle of conservation of energy. This means that heat energy cannot
be created or destroyed.
1103.The third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a system
approaches a constant value as the temperature approaches absolute
zero.
1104.A system in thermodynamics refers to that part of the universe in
which observations are made and remaining universe constitutes the
surroundings.
1105.The presence of reactants in an open beaker is an example of an open
system.
1106.The presence of reactants in a closed vessel made of conducting
material e.g., copper or steel is an example of a closed system.
1107.The presence of reactants in a thermos flask or any other closed
insulated vessel is an example of an isolated system.
1108.Pressure, volume, temperature, amount are called state variables or
state functions.
1109.Adiabatic process is a process in which there is no transfer of heat
between the system and surroundings.
1110.Wall separating the system and the surroundings is called the
adiabatic wall.
1111.First law of thermodynamics, which states that The energy of an
isolated system is constant.
1112.Work done on an ideal gas in a cylinder when it is compressed by a
constant external pressure.
1113.An extensive property is a property whose value depends on the
quantity or size of matter present in the system. For example, mass,
volume, internal energy, enthalpy, heat capacity, etc. are extensive
properties.
1114.Those properties which do not depend on the quantity or size of
matter present are known as intensive properties. For example
temperature, density, pressure etc. are intensive properties.
1115.Specific heat, also called specific heat capacity is the quantity of heat
required to raise the temperature of one unit mass of a substance by one
degree celsius.
1116.Calorimetry is the process of measuring the amount of heat released
or absorbed during a chemical reaction.
1117.Calorimetry can be determined whether or not a reaction is
exothermic (releases heat) or endothermic (absorbs heat).
1118.Process is carried out in a vessel called calorimeter, which is
immersed in a known volume of a liquid.
1119.A steel vessel (the bomb) is immersed in a water bath. The whole
device is called calorimeter.
1120.Measurement of heat change at constant pressure (generally under
atmospheric pressure) can be done in a calorimeter.
1121.Melting heat takes place at constant pressure (atmospheric pressure).
1122.Melting of a solid is endothermic.
1123.Sublimation is direct conversion of a solid into its vapour.
1124.Hess's Law of Constant Heat Summation states that regardless of the
multiple stages or steps of a reaction, the total enthalpy change for the
reaction is the sum of all changes. This law is a manifestation that
enthalpy is a state function.
1125.Combustion reactions are exothermic in nature.
1126.Cooking gas in cylinders contains mostly butane.
1127.The lattice enthalpy of an ionic compound is the enthalpy change that
occurs when one mole of an ionic compound dissociates into its ions in
gaseous state.
1128.Ionization energy and electron affinity are defined at absolute zero.
1129.Enthalpy of solution of a substance is the enthalpy change when one
mole of it dissolves in a specified amount of solvent.
1130.Enthalpy of solution is the enthalpy change associated with the
addition of a specified amount of solute to the specified amount of solvent
at a constant temperature and pressure.
1131.Spontaneous reaction is one which occurs immediately when contact
is made between the reactants.
1132.Reaction is taking place between them, it is at an extremely slow rate
is still called spontaneous reaction.
1133.A spontaneous process is an irreversible process and may only be
reversed by some external agency.
1134.Entropy is a thermodynamic function that describes the randomness
and disorder of molecules based on the number of different arrangements
available to them in a given system or reaction.
1135.Crystalline solid state is the state of lowest entropy (most ordered).
1136.The gaseous state is the state of highest entropy.
1137.Temperature is the measure of average chaotic motion of particles in
the system.
1138.The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that the state of entropy
of the entire universe, as an isolated system, will always increase over
time.
1139.The second law also states that the changes in the entropy in the
universe can never be negative.
1140.Translational motion is the motion by which a body shifts from one
point in space to another. One example of translational motion is the
motion of a bullet fired from a gun. An object has a rectilinear motion
when it moves along a straight line.
1141.Molecules can move from one place to another. There is also
rotational movement.
1142.A molecular vibration occurs when atoms in a molecule are in
periodic motion.
1143.Chemical reactions are generally carried at constant pressure, so we
define another state function Gibbs energy.
1144.The temperature at which the solid and liquid phases are at
equilibrium is called the normal melting point or normal freezing point of
the substance.
1145.A Manometer is a device to measure pressures. A common simple
manometer consists of a U shaped tube of glass filled with some liquid.
Typically the liquid is mercury because of its high density.
1146.Drying agent like anhydrous calcium chloride (or phosphorus
pentoxide.
1147.At equilibrium the pressure exerted by the water molecules at a given
temperature remains constant and is called the equilibrium vapour
pressure of water.
1148.As a consequence the rate of condensation from vapour to liquid state
is much less than the rate of evaporation.
1149.Boiling point of the liquid depends on the atmospheric pressure. It
depends on the altitude of the place; at high altitude the boiling point
decreases.
1150.Henry’s law, which states that the mass of a gas dissolved in a given
mass of a solvent at any temperature is proportional to the pressure of the
gas above the solvent.
1151.If there is no exchange of heat with the surroundings, the mass of the
two phases remains constant.
1152.The vapour pressure is constant at a given temperature.
1153.For dissolution of solids in liquids, the solubility is constant at a given
temperature.
1154.For dissolution of gases in liquids, the concentration of a gas in a
liquid is proportional to the pressure (concentration) of the gas over the
liquid.
1155.An industrial process for producing ammonia from nitrogen and
hydrogen, using an iron catalyst at high temperature and pressure is
haber process.
1156.Equilibrium whether in a physical or a chemical system, is always of
dynamic nature. This can be demonstrated by the use of radioactive
isotopes.
1157.When this mixture is analysed by a mass spectrometer, it is found
that ammonia and all deuterium containing forms of ammonia and
dihydrogen and its deuterated forms are present.
1158.Use of isotope (deuterium) in the formation of ammonia.
1159.Dinitrogen and dihydrogen which is highly exothermic reaction.
1160.Aqueous solution of sugar does not conduct electricity.
1161.When common salt (sodium chloride) is added to water it conducts
electricity.
1162.Michael Faraday classified, substances conduct electricity in their
aqueous solutions and are called electrolytes while the others do not and
are thus, referred to as nonelectrolytes.
1163.Faraday classified electrolytes into strong and weak electrolytes.
1164.Strong electrolytes on dissolution in water are ionized almost
completely, while the weak electrolytes are only partially dissociated.
1165.Hydrochloric acid present in the gastric juice is secreted by the lining
of our stomach amount of 1.2-1.5 L/day.
1166.Lemon and orange juices contain citric and ascorbic acid.
1167.Acids are known to turn blue litmus paper red.
1168.Bases are known to turn red litmus paper blue, taste bitter and feel
soapy.
1169.Examples of salts are sodium chloride, barium sulphate, sodium
nitrate.
1170.The electrostatic forces between two charges are inversely
proportional to the dielectric constant of the medium.
1171.Water, a universal solvent, possesses a very high dielectric constant.
1172.When sodium chloride is dissolved in water, the electrostatic
interactions are reduced.
1173.Faraday also became the first Fullerian Professor of Chemistry.
1174.Faraday discovered his two laws of electrolysis in 1834.
1175.Faraday he founded at the Royal Institution.
1176.Faraday has been very famous for his Christmas lecture on the
‘Chemical History of a Candle’.
1177.The Arrhenius acid base concept classifies a substance as an acid if it
produces hydrogen ions or hydronium ions in water. A substance is
classified as a base if it produces hydroxide ions in water.
1178.Arrhenius received Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1903 for his theory of
electrolytic dissociation.
1179.G.N. Lewis in 1923 defined an acid as a species which accepts an
electron pair and base which donates an electron pair.
1180.Strong acids like perchloric acid, hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic
acid, hydroiodic acid, nitric acid and sulphuric acid.
1181.Strong bases like lithium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, potassium
hydroxide, caesium hydroxide and barium hydroxide.
1182.Lowry concept of acids and bases, wherein a strong acid means a
good proton donor and a strong base implies a good proton acceptor.
1183.Strong acids have very weak conjugate bases.
1184.Weak acids are nitrous acid, hydrofluoric acid and acetic acid.
1185.Weak acids have very strong conjugate bases.
1186.Water soluble organic compounds like phenolphthalein and
bromothymol blue behave as weak acids.
1187.Hydronium ion concentration in molarity is more conveniently
expressed on a logarithmic scale known as the pH scale.
1188.pH of Lime water is 12.5.
1189.pH of Milk of magnesia is 10.5.
1190.pH of White egg is 7.8.
1191.pH of Human blood is 7.4.
1192.pH of Human saliva is 6.4.
1193.pH of Soft drink is 3.0
1194.Amines are weak bases.
1195.Methylamine, codeine, quinine and nicotine are very weak bases.
1196.A strong acid will have a weak conjugate base and vice-versa.
1197.Acids like oxalic acid, sulphuric acid and phosphoric acids have more
than one ionizable proton per molecule of the acid are known as polybasic
or polyprotic acids.
1198.Process of interaction between water and cations/anions or both of
salts is called hydrolysis.
1199.Salts of weak acid and strong base are Sodium acetate.
1200.Salts of strong acid and weak base are Ammonium chloride.
1201.Salts of weak acid and weak base are Ammonium Acetate.
1202.Ammonium hydroxide is a weak base.
1203.The solutions which resist change in pH on dilution or with the
addition of small amounts of acid or alkali are called Buffer Solution.
1204.Calcium chloride are soluble and hygroscopic in nature.
1205.Lithium fluoride are insoluble.
1206.Salt does not dissolve in nonpolar solvent.
1207.Methane, Magnesium and sulphur are oxidised.
1208.Oxidation is defined as the addition of oxygen/electronegative
element to a substance or removal of hydrogen/ electropositive element
from a substance.
1209.Reduction was removal of oxygen from a compound.
1210.Reduction is defined as removal of oxygen/electronegative element
from a substance or addition of hydrogen/ electropositive element to a
substance.
1211.Sodium oxide and sodium sulphide are ionic compounds.
1212.Half reactions that involve loss of electrons are called oxidation
reactions.
1213.Half reactions that involve gain of electrons are called reduction
reactions.
1214.Sodium, which is oxidised, acts as a reducing agent because it donates
electrons to each of the elements interacting with it and thus helps in
reducing them.
1215.Chlorine, oxygen and sulphur are reduced and act as oxidising agents
because these accept electrons from sodium.
1216.Oxidation- Loss of electron by any species.
1217.Reduction- Gain of electrons by any species.
1218.Oxidising agent- Acceptor of electron.
1219.Reducing agent- Donor of electron.
1220.If zinc is oxidised, releasing electrons, must be reduced, accepting the
electrons lost by zinc. Copper ion is reduced by gaining electrons from the
zinc.
1221.Cupric sulphide has such a low solubility.
1222.Galvanic cells in which the chemical reactions become the source of
electrical energy.
1223.Oxidation: An increase in the oxidation number of the element in the
given substance.
1224.Reduction: A decrease in the oxidation number of the element in the
given substance.
1225.Oxidising agent: A reagent which can increase the oxidation number
of an element in a given substance. These reagents are called as oxidants
also.
1226.Reducing agent: A reagent which lowers the oxidation number of an
element in a given substance. These reagents are also called as reductants.
1227.Redox reactions: Reactions which involve change in oxidation
number of the interacting species.
1228.Calcium, Strontium and barium are very good reductants.
1229.Chlorine, bromine and iodine using fluorine are not generally carried
out in aqueous solution.
1230.Chlorine can displace bromide and iodide ions in an aqueous solution.
1231.Disproportionation reactions are a special type of redox reactions.
1232.In a disproportionation reaction an element in one oxidation state is
simultaneously oxidised and reduced.
1233.The decomposition of hydrogen peroxide is an example of the
reaction.
1234.Iodine itself gives an intense blue colour with starch.
1235.Zinc is oxidised to zinc ions and copper ions are reduced to metallic
copper due to direct transfer of electrons from zinc to copper ion.
1236.A redox couple is defined as having together the oxidised and reduced
forms of a substance taking part in an oxidation or reduction half
reaction.
1237.If there is a potential difference between the copper and zinc rods
known as electrodes.
1238.The potential associated with each electrode is known as electrode
potential.
1239.Hydrogen consists of only one proton and one electron.
1240.Hydrogen is the first element in the periodic table.
1241.Hydrogen forms oxides, halides and sulphides.
1242.Halogens forms a diatomic molecule.
1243.Dihydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe (70% of the
total mass of the universe.
1244.Jupiter and Saturn consist of hydrogen.
1245.Carbohydrates, proteins, hydrides including hydrocarbons.
1246.Hydrogen has three isotopes: protium, deuterium and tritium.
1247.Hydrogen, protium, has no neutrons.
1248.Deuterium (also known as heavy hydrogen) has one and tritium has
two neutrons in the nucleus.
1249.In the year 1934, Harold C. Urey, got Nobel Prize for separating
hydrogen isotope of mass number.
1250.Isotopes have the same electronic configuration, they have almost
the same chemical properties.
1251.Dihydrogen is obtained by electrolysing warm aqueous barium
hydroxide solution between nickel electrodes.
1252.Dihydrogen is obtained as a byproduct in the manufacture of sodium
hydroxide and chlorine by the electrolysis of brine solution.
1253.The mixture of CO and H2 is called water gas.
1254.As this mixture of CO and H2 is used for the synthesis of methanol
and a number of hydrocarbons, it is also called synthesis gas or 'syngas.
1255.Syngas' is produced from sewage, saw-dust, scrap wood, newspapers
etc. The process of producing 'syngas' from coal is called 'coal gasification'.
1256.Carbon dioxide is removed by scrubbing with sodium arsenite
solution.
1257.77% of the industrial hydrogen is produced from petrochemicals, 18%
from coal, 4% from electrolysis of aqueous solutions and 1% from other
sources.
1258.Dihydrogen is a colourless, odourless, tasteless, combustible gas. It is
lighter than air and insoluble in water.
1259.Atomic hydrogen is produced at a high temperature in an electric arc
or under ultraviolet radiation.
1260.Hydrogenation of vegetable oils using nickel as catalyst gives edible
fats (margarine and vanaspati ghee).
1261.Hydroformylation of olefins yields aldehydes which further undergo
reduction to give alcohols.
1262.Dihydrogen is in the synthesis of ammonia which is used in the
manufacture of nitric acid and nitrogenous fertilizers.
1263.Dihydrogen is used in the manufacture of vanaspati fat by the
hydrogenation of polyunsaturated vegetable oils like soyabean, cotton
seeds etc.
1264.Dihydrogen is used in the manufacture of bulk organic chemicals,
particularly methanol.
1265.Dihydrogen is widely used for the manufacture of metal hydrides.
1266.Dihydrogen is used for the preparation of hydrogen chloride.
1267.Dihydrogen is used to reduce heavy metal oxides to metals.
1268.Atomic hydrogen and oxy-hydrogen torches find use for cutting and
welding purposes.
1269.Atomic hydrogen atoms (produced by dissociation of dihydrogen
with the help of an electric arc) are allowed to recombine on the surface to
be welded to generate the temperature.
1270.Dihydrogen is used as a rocket fuel in space research.
1271.Dihydrogen is used in fuel cells for generating electrical energy. It has
many advantages over the conventional fossil fuels and electric power.
1272.Dihydrogen does not produce any pollution and releases greater
energy per unit mass of fuel in comparison to gasoline and other fuels.
1273.Hydrides are classified into three categories : (i) Ionic or saline or salt
like hydrides (ii) Covalent or molecular hydrides (iii) Metallic or non-
stoichiometric hydrides.
1274.Magnesium hydride are polymeric in structure.
1275.The ionic hydrides are crystalline, non-volatile and non conducting in
solid state.
1276.Covalent are volatile compounds.
1277.Saline hydrides (also known as ionic hydrides or pseudohalides) are
compounds formed between hydrogen and the most active metals.
1278.Ionic hydrides are usually binary compounds (only two elements in
the compound) and are also insoluble in solutions. Examples are Sodium
Hydride, Lithium hydride, Potassium hydride.
1279.Covalent hydrides are primarily compounds of hydrogen and
nonmetals, in which the bonds are evidently electron pairs shared by
atoms of comparable electronegativities. Boron and aluminum are used as
hydride.
1280.Diborane is an example of electron deficient.
1281.Interstitial hydrides have a metallic bond. These compounds are non-
stoichiometric.
1282.Water leads to high freezing point, high boiling point, high heat of
evaporation and high heat of fusion.
1283.Water has a higher specific heat, thermal conductivity, surface
tension, dipole moment and dielectric constant.
1284.Alcohol and carbohydrates dissolve in water.
1285.The crystalline form of water is ice.
1286.At atmospheric pressure ice crystallises in hexagonal form, but at
very low temperatures it condenses to cubic form.
1287.Density of ice is less than that of water. Therefore, an ice cube floats
on water.
1288.Amphoteric Nature has the ability to act as an acid as well as a base.
1289.Water can be easily reduced to dihydrogen by highly electropositive
metals.
1290.Water is oxidised to O2 during photosynthesis.
1291.Covalent and some ionic compounds are hydrolysed in water.
1292.Aqueous solutions many salts can be crystallised as hydrated salts.
1293.Rain water is almost pure (may contain some dissolved gases from
the atmosphere).
1294.Presence of calcium and magnesium salts in the form of hydrogen
carbonate, chloride and sulphate in water makes water ‘hard. Hard water
does not lather with soap.
1295.Water free from soluble salts of calcium and magnesium is called Soft
water. It gives lather with soap easily.
1296.Hard water forms scum/precipitate with soap. Soap containing
sodium stearate.
1297.Temporary hardness is due to the presence of magnesium and
calcium hydrogen carbonates. It can be removed by boiling and clark’s
method.
1298.Parmanent hardness is due to the presence of soluble salts of
magnesium and calcium in the form of chlorides and sulphates in water.
Permanent hardness is not removed by boiling. It can be removed by
Treatment with washing soda (sodium carbonate), Sodium
hexametaphosphate, zeolite/permutit process, Synthetic resins method.
1299.Sodium hexametaphosphate called ‘calgon.
1300.Hydrated sodium aluminium silicate is zeolite/permutit.
1301.Permutit/zeolite is said to be exhausted when all the sodium in it is
used up.
1302.The exhausted cation and anion exchange resin beds are regenerated
by treatment with dilute acid and alkali solutions.
1303.Hydrogen peroxide is an important chemical used in pollution control
treatment of domestic and industrial effluents.
1304.Hydrogen peroxide is colourless (very pale blue) liquid.
1305.Hydrogen peroxide has a non-planar structure.
1306.Hydrogen peroxide acts as an oxidising as well as reducing agent in
both acidic and alkaline media.
1307.Hydrogen peroxide decomposes slowly on exposure to light.
1308.In the presence of metal surfaces or traces of alkali (present in glass
containers),reaction is catalysed.
1309.Hydrogen peroxide is stored in wax lined glass or plastic vessels in
the dark.
1310.Hydrogen peroxide led to increase in the industrial production.
1311.Hydrogen peroxide is used as a hair bleach and as a mild disinfectant.
As an antiseptic it is sold in the market as perhydrol.
1312.Hydrogen peroxide is used to manufacture chemicals like sodium
perborate and per-carbonate, which are used in high quality detergents.
1313.Hydrogen peroxide is used in the synthesis of hydroquinone, tartaric
acid and certain food products and pharmaceuticals (cephalosporin) etc.
1314.Hydrogen peroxide is employed in the industry as a bleaching agent
for textiles, paper pulp, leather, oils, fats, etc.
1315.Hydrogen peroxide is also used in Environmental (Green) Chemistry.
For example, in pollution control treatment of domestic and industrial
effluents, oxidation of cyanides, restoration of aerobic conditions to
sewage wastes, etc.
1316.Heavy water is extensively used as a moderator in nuclear reactors.
1317.Heavy water can be prepared by exhaustive electrolysis of water or
as a by product in some fertilizer industries.
1318.Heavy water is used for the preparation of other deuterium
Compounds.
1319.Tanks of metal alloy like NaNi5, Ti–TiH2, Mg–MgH2 etc. are in use for
storage of dihydrogen.
1320.Hydrogen economy is the transportation and storage of energy in the
form of liquid or gaseous dihydrogen.
1321.Dihydrogen is also used in fuel cells for generation of electric power.
1322.Lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium and francium. They
are collectively known as the alkali metals. These are so called because
they form hydroxides on reaction with water which are strongly alkaline
in nature.
1323.Beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium and radium.
These elements with the exception of beryllium are commonly known as
the alkaline earth metals. These are so called because their oxides and
hydroxides are alkaline in nature and these metal oxides are found in the
earth’s crust.
1324.Sodium and potassium are abundant and lithium, rubidium and
caesium have much lower abundances.
1325.Francium is highly radioactive.
1326.Strontium and barium have much lower abundances.
1327.Beryllium is rare and radium is the rarest of all comprising only 10
percent of igneous rocks.
1328.Rock formed from magma (molten rock) that has cooled and
hardened.
1329.The thin, rocky outer layer of the Earth's crust.
1330.Lithium salts are mostly hydrated.
1331.All the alkali metals are silvery white, soft and light metals.
1332.Potassium is lighter than sodium.
1333.The melting and boiling points of the alkali metals are low indicating
weak metallic bonding due to the presence of only a single valence
electron.
1334.Caesium and potassium useful as electrodes in photoelectric cells.
1335.Alkali metals are highly reactive due to their large size and low
ionization enthalpy.
1336.The alkali metals tarnish in dry air due to the formation of their
oxides which in turn react with moisture to form hydroxides.
1337.Lithium forms monoxide, sodium forms peroxide, the other metals
form superoxides.
1338.Alkali metals are normally kept in kerosene oil.
1339.All the alkali metal hydrides are ionic solids with high melting points.
1340.The distortion of electron cloud of the anion by the cation is called
polarisation.
1341.Since anion with large size can be easily distorted, among halides,
lithium iodide is the most covalent in nature.
1342.The alkali metals are strong reducing agents, lithium being the most
and sodium the least powerful.
1343.The alkali metals dissolve in liquid ammonia giving deep blue
solutions which are conducting in nature.
1344.The blue colour of the solution is due to the ammoniated electron
which absorbs energy in the visible region of light.
1345.The blue colour changes to bronze colour and becomes diamagnetic.
1346.Lithium metal is used to make useful alloys, for example with lead to
make ‘white metal’ bearings for motor engines, with aluminium to make
aircraft parts, and with magnesium to make armour plates.
1347.Lithium is used in thermonuclear reactions. Lithium is also used to
make electrochemical cells.
1348.Liquid sodium metal is used as a coolant in fast breeder nuclear
reactors.
1349. Potassium chloride is used as a fertilizer. Potassium hydroxide is
used in the manufacture of soft soap.
1350.Caesium is used in devising photoelectric cells.
1351.Alkali metals are generally ionic in nature.
1352.Lithium forms mainly the oxide, Lithium oxide (Lithium peroxide),
sodium forms the peroxide, Sodium peroxide(Sodium superoxide).
1353.Potassium, rubidium and caesium form the superoxides, MO2.
1354.The oxides and peroxides are colourless when pure, but the
superoxides are yellow or orange in colour.
1355.The superoxides are also paramagnetic. Sodium peroxide is widely
used as an oxidising agent.
1356.The hydroxides which are obtained by the reaction of the oxides with
water are all white crystalline solid.
1357.The alkali metal hydroxides are the strongest of all bases and
dissolve freely in water with evolution of much heat on account of intense
hydration.
1358.Alkali metal Halides, fluoride, chloride, bromide, iodide and astatide
are all high melting, colourless crystalline solids.
1359.Halides have high negative enthalpies of formation.
1360.The melting and boiling points always follow the trend: fluoride >
chloride > bromide > iodide. All these halides are soluble in water.
1361.The low solubility of Lithium fluoride in water is due to its high lattice
enthalpy.
1362.Low solubility of Caesium iodide is due to smaller hydration enthalpy
of its two ions.
1363.Lithium are soluble in ethanol, acetone and ethyl acetate.
1364.Lithium chloride is soluble in pyridine.
1365.Oxoacids are Carbonic acid, Sulphuric acid, Nitric acid and
Phosphoric acid. They are generally soluble in water and thermally stable.
1366.Carbonates (M2CO3) and in most cases the hydrogen carbonates
(MHCO3) also are highly stable to heat.
1367.Lithium carbonate is not so stable to heat.
1368.Lithium is much harder. Its melting and boiling points are higher
than the other alkali metals.
1369.Lithium is least reactive but the strongest reducing agent.
1370.Lithium chloride is deliquescent and crystallises as a hydrate.
1371.Alkali metal Chlorides do not form hydrates.
1372.Lithium hydrogen carbonate is not obtained in the solid form while
all other elements form solid hydrogen carbonates.
1373.Lithium Fluoride and Lithium oxide are comparatively much less
soluble in water.
1374.Lithium and magnesium are harder and lighter than other elements.
1375.Lithium and magnesium react slowly with water.
1376.Solid hydrogen carbonates are not formed by lithium and
magnesium.
1377.Lithium chloride and Magnesium chloride are soluble in ethanol.
1378.Sodium Carbonate (Washing Soda). Sodium carbonate is generally
prepared by Solvay Process.
1379.Sodium carbonate is a white crystalline solid which exists as a
decahydrate. This is also called washing soda.
1380.Sodium carbonate is soluble in water.
1381.Anhydrous and changes to a white powder called soda ash.
1382.Sodium carbonate is used in water softening, laundering and
cleaning.
1383.Sodium carbonate is used in the manufacture of glass, soap, borax
and caustic soda.
1384.Sodium carbonate is used in paper, paints and textile industries.
1385.Sodium carbonate is an important laboratory reagent both in
qualitative and quantitative analysis.
1386.Sodium Chloride is the most abundant source of sodium chloride is
sea water which contains 2.7 to 2.9% by mass of the salt.
1387.Common salt is obtained by evaporation of seawater.
1388.Approximately 50 lakh tons of salt are produced annually in India by
solar evaporation.
1389.Crude sodium chloride, generally obtained by crystallisation of brine
solution, contains sodium sulphate, calcium sulphate, calcium chloride
and magnesium chloride as impurities.
1390.Calcium chloride, CaCl2, and magnesium chloride, MgCl2 are
impurities because they are deliquescent (absorb moisture easily from the
atmosphere.
1391.Calcium and magnesium chloride, being more soluble than sodium
chloride, remain in solution.
1392.Sodium chloride is used as a common salt or table salt for domestic
purpose.
1393.Sodium chloride is used for the preparation of Sodium peroxide,
Sodium hydroxide and Sodium Carbonate.
1394.Sodium Hydroxide (Caustic Soda),is generally prepared commercially
by the electrolysis of sodium chloride in Castner-Kellner cell.
1395.A brine solution is electrolysed using a mercury cathode and a
carbon anode.
1396.Chlorine gas is evolved at the anode.
1397.Sodium hydroxide is a white, translucent solid. It is soluble in water
to give a strong alkaline solution.
1398.Crystals of sodium hydroxide are deliquescent.
1399.Sodium hydroxide is used in the manufacture of soap, paper,
artificial silk and a number of chemicals, in petroleum refining, in the
purification of bauxite, in the textile industries for mercerising cotton
fabrics, for the preparation of pure fats and oils, and as a laboratory
reagent.
1400.Sodium Hydrogen carbonate (Baking Soda), is made by saturating a
solution of sodium carbonate with carbon dioxide.
1401.The white crystalline powder of sodium hydrogen carbonate, being
less soluble, gets separated out.
1402.Sodium hydrogencarbonate is a mild antiseptic for skin infections. It
is used in fire extinguishers.
1403.Sodium ions are found primarily on the outside of cells, being located
in blood plasma and in the interstitial fluid which surrounds the cells.
1404.Sodium ions participate in the transmission of nerve signals.
1405.Sodium ions transport of sugars and amino acids into cells.
1406.Potassium ions are the most abundant cations within cell fluids.
1407.Potassium ions participate in the oxidation of glucose to produce ATP
and, with sodium, are responsible for the transmission of nerve signals.
1408.Concentration of sodium and potassium ions found on the opposite
sides of cell membranes.
1409.Beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium and radium. They
are alkali metals. These (except beryllium) are known as alkaline earth
metals.
1410.The alkaline earth metals have low ionization enthalpies due to fairly
large size of the atoms.
1411.The hydration enthalpies of alkaline earth metal ions are larger than
those of alkali metal ions.
1412.Sodium chloride and Potassium chloride do not form such hydrates.
1413.The alkaline earth metals are silvery white, lustrous and relatively
soft but harder than the alkali metals.
1414.Beryllium and magnesium appear to greyish.
1415.Because of low ionisation enthalpies, they are strongly
electropositive in nature.
1416.Calcium, strontium and barium impart characteristic brick red,
crimson and apple green colours respectively to the flame.
1417.Beryllium and magnesium are too strongly bound to get excited by
flame.
1418.The alkaline earth metals like those of alkali metals have high
electrical and thermal conductivity.
1419.The alkaline earth metals are less reactive than the alkali metals.
1420.Beryllium and magnesium are kinetically inert to oxygen and water
because of the formation of an oxide film on their surface.
1421.Alkaline earth metals are strong reducing agents.
1422.Beryllium has less negative value compared to other alkaline earth
metals.
1423.Beryllium is used in the manufacture of alloys. Copper-beryllium
alloys are used in the preparation of high strength springs.
1424.Metallic beryllium is used for making windows of X-ray tubes.
1425.Magnesium forms alloys with aluminium, zinc, manganese and tin.
1426.Magnesium-aluminium alloys being light in mass are used in air-
craft construction.
1427.Magnesium (powder and ribbon) is used in flash powders and bulbs,
incendiary bombs and signals.
1428.A suspension of magnesium hydroxide in water (called milk of
magnesia) is used as an antacid in medicine.
1429.Magnesium carbonate is an ingredient of toothpaste.
1430.Calcium is used in the extraction of metals from oxides which are
difficult to reduce with carbon.
1431.Calcium and barium metals, owing to their reactivity with oxygen
and nitrogen at elevated temperatures, have often been used to remove air
from vacuum tubes.
1432.Radium salts are used in radiotherapy, for example, in the treatment
of cancer.
1433.Molybdenum which, except for Beryllium, have rock-salt structure.
1434.Beryllium oxide is essentially covalent in nature.
1435.Beryllium oxide is amphoteric in nature.
1436.The alkaline earth metal hydroxides are less basic and less stable
than alkali metal hydroxides.
1437.Beryllium hydroxide is amphoteric in nature.
1438.All other halides of alkaline earth metals are ionic in nature.
1439.Beryllium halides are essentially covalent and soluble in organic
solvents.
1440.The fluorides are relatively less soluble than the chlorides owing to
their high lattice energies.
1441.The alkaline earth metals also form salts of oxoacids are Carbonates,
Sulphates and Nitrates.
1442.Carbonates of alkaline earth metals are insoluble in water.
1443.The solubility of carbonates in water decreases as the atomic number
of the metal ion increases.
1444.Beryllium carbonate can be kept only in an atmosphere of Carbon
dioxide.
1445.The sulphates of the alkaline earth metals are all white solids and
stable to heat.
1446.Beryllium Sulphate and Magnesium Sulphate are soluble in water.
1447.The nitrates are made by dissolution of the carbonates in dilute nitric
acid.
1448.Magnesium nitrate crystallises with six molecules of water, whereas
barium nitrate crystallises as the anhydrous salt.
1449.Beryllium forms compounds which are largely covalent and get
easily hydrolysed.
1450.Beryllium does not exhibit coordination number more than four as in
its valence shell there are only four orbitals.
1451.The oxide and hydroxide of beryllium are amphoteric in nature.
1452.Aluminium, beryllium is not attacked by acids because of the
presence of an oxide film on the surface of the metal.
1453.Beryllium and Aluminium chloride are soluble in organic solvents
and are strong Lewis acids. They are used as Friedel Craft catalysts.
1454.Calcium Oxide or QuickLime, It is prepared on a commercial scale by
limestone.
1455.Calcium oxide is a white amorphous solid. On exposure to the
atmosphere, it absorbs moisture and carbon dioxide.
1456.Quicklime slaked with soda gives solid soda lime.
1457.Calcium oxide is an important primary material for manufacturing
cement and is the cheapest form of alkali.
1458.Calcium oxide is used in the manufacture of sodium carbonate from
caustic soda.
1459.Calcium oxide is employed in the purification of sugar and in the
manufacture of dye stuff.
1460.Calcium Hydroxide (Slaked lime) is a white amorphous powder. It is
sparingly soluble in water. The aqueous solution is known as lime water
and a suspension of slaked lime in water is known as milk of lime.
1461.Calcium hydroxide is used in the preparation of mortar, a building
material.
1462.Calcium hydroxide is used in white wash due to its disinfectant
nature.
1463.Calcium hydroxide is used in glass making, in tanning industry, for
the preparation of bleaching powder and for purification of sugar.
1464.Calcium Carbonate occurs in nature in several forms like limestone,
chalk, marble etc. It can be prepared by passing carbon dioxide through
slaked lime.
1465.Calcium carbonate is a white fluffy powder. It is almost insoluble in
water.
1466.Calcium carbonate is used as a building material in the form of
marble and in the manufacture of quicklime.
1467.Calcium carbonate along with magnesium carbonate is used as a flux
in the extraction of metals such as iron.
1468.Calcium carbonate is extensively used in the manufacture of high
quality paper.
1469.Calcium carbonate is also used as an antacid, mild abrasive in
toothpaste, a constituent of chewing gum, and a filler in cosmetics.
1470.Calcium Sulphate (Plaster of Paris) is a hemihydrate of calcium
sulphate. It is obtained from gypsum.
1471.No water of crystallisation is left and anhydrous calcium sulphate is
formed. This is known as ‘dead burnt plaster’.
1472.The largest use of Plaster of Paris is in the building industry as well as
plasters.
1473.Plaster of Paris is used for immobilizing the affected part of organ
where there is a bone fracture or sprain.
1474.Plaster of Paris is also employed in dentistry, in ornamental work
and for making casts of statues and busts.
1475.Cement was first introduced in England in 1824 by Joseph Aspdin. It is
also called Portland cement because it resembles with the natural
limestone quarried in the Isle of Portland, England.
1476.Cement is a product obtained by combining a material rich in lime,
Calcium oxide with other material such as clay which contains silica,
Silicon dioxide along with the oxides of aluminium, iron and magnesium.
1477.Manufacture of cement are limestone and clay.
1478.When clay and lime are strongly heated together they fuse and react
to form ‘cement clinker.
1479.Ingredients present in Portland cement are dicalcium silicate 26%,
tricalcium silicate 51% and tricalcium aluminate 11%.
1480.Cement has become iron and steel. It is used in concrete and
reinforced concrete, in plastering and in the construction of bridges, dams
and buildings.
1481.The main pigment for the absorption of light in plants is chlorophyll
which contains magnesium.
1482.About 99 % of body calcium is present in bones and teeth.
1483.Calcium is maintained by two hormones: calcitonin and parathyroid
hormone.
1484.All this calcium passes through the plasma.
1485.Non metals have higher ionisation enthalpies and higher
electronegativities than metals.
1486.The compounds formed by highly reactive nonmetals with highly
reactive metals are generally ionic because of large differences in their
electronegativities.
1487.Compounds formed between nonmetals themselves are largely
covalent in character because of small differences in their
electronegativities.
1488.The nonmetal oxides are acidic or neutral whereas metal oxides are
basic in nature.
1489.Boron is a typical nonmetal, Aluminium is a metal.
1490.Boron, and gallium, indium, thallium and nihonium are almost
exclusively metallic.
1491.Boron is occurs as orthoboric acid, borax, and kernite.
1492.Borax occurs in Puga Valley (Ladakh) and Sambhar Lake (Rajasthan).
1493.The abundance of boron in earth's crust is less than 0.0001% by mass.
1494.Aluminium is the most abundant metal and the third most abundant
element in the earth’s crust after oxygen and Tin.
1495.Bauxite and cryolite are the important minerals of aluminium.
1496.Mica in Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Orissa and Jammu.
1497.Gallium, indium and thallium are less abundant elements in nature.
1498.Nihonium is a synthetically prepared radioactive element.
1499.Boron and aluminium have noble gas core.
1500.Gallium and indium have noble gas, and thallium has noble gas cores.
1501.Atomic radius of gallium is less than that of aluminium.
1502.Boron is non-metallic in nature. It is extremely hard and black
coloured solid. It exists in many allotropic forms.
1503.Due to very strong crystalline lattice, boron has unusually high
melting point.
1504.Gallium with low melting point could exist in a liquid state during
summer. Its high boiling point makes it a useful material for measuring
high temperatures.
1505.Boron is unreactive in crystalline form. Aluminium forms a very thin
oxide layer on the surface which protects the metal from further attack.
1506.Boron trioxide is acidic.
1507.Aluminium and gallium oxides are amphoteric and those of indium
and thallium are basic.
1508.Boron does not react with acids and alkalis even at moderate
temperature.
1509.Aluminium dissolves in mineral acids and aqueous alkalis.
1510.The trichlorides, bromides and iodides of all these elements being
covalent in nature are hydrolysed in water.
1511.Species like tetrahedral and octahedral, except in boron, exist in
aqueous medium.
1512.The monomeric trihalides, being electron deficient, are strong Lewis
acids.
1513.Borax is the most important compound of boron. It is a white
crystalline solid.
1514.Borax dissolves in water to give an alkaline solution.
1515.Borax turns into a transparent liquid, which solidifies into a glass like
material known as borax bead.
1516.Orthoboric acid is a white crystalline solid, with soapy touch. It is
sparingly soluble in water but highly soluble in hot water.
1517.Boric acid is a weak monobasic acid. It is not a protonic acid but acts
as a Lewis acid.
1518.Boron hydride known, is diborane.
1519.Diborane is a colourless, highly toxic gas. Diborane catches fire
spontaneously upon exposure to air.
1520.Higher boranes are also spontaneously flammable in air. Boranes are
readily hydrolysed by water to give boric acid.
1521.Lithium and sodium tetrahydridoborate, also known as
borohydrides.
1522.Lithium borohydride and Sodium borohydride are used as reducing
agents in organic synthesis.
1523.Boron being hard refractory solid of high melting point, low density
and very low electrical conductivity.
1524.Boron fibres are used in making bullet-proof vest and light composite
material for aircraft.
1526.Metal borides are used in the nuclear industry as protective shields
and control rods.
1527.Borax and boric acid is in the manufacture of heat resistant glasses
(Pyrex), glass-wool and fibreglass.
1528.Borax is also used as a flux for soldering metals, for heat, scratch and
stain resistant glazed coating to earthenware and as a constituent of
medicinal soaps.
1529.Orthoboric acid is used as a mild antiseptic.
1530.Aluminium is a bright silvery-white metal, with high tensile strength.
It has a high electrical and thermal conductivity.
1531.Aluminium forms alloys with Copper, Manganese, Magnesium, Tin
and Zinc.
1532.Aluninium uses in packing, utensil making, construction, aeroplane
and transportation industry.
1533.Carbon is the seventeenth most abundant element by mass in the
earth’s crust.
1534.Coal, graphite and diamond in combined state it is present as metal
carbonates, hydrocarbons and carbon dioxide gas (0.03%) in air.
1535.Silicon is the second most abundant element on the earth’s crust and
is present in nature in the form of silica and silicates.
1536.Silicon is a very important component of ceramics, glass and cement.
1537.Tin occurs mainly as cassiterite, Tin oxide and lead as galena, Lead
sulfide.
1538.Flerovium is synthetically prepared radioactive element.
1539.Ultrapure form of germanium and silicon are used to make
transistors and semiconductor devices.
1540.Carbon and silicon are non-metals, germanium is a metalloid,
whereas tin and lead are soft metals with low melting points.
1541.Carbon also exhibits negative oxidation states.
1542.Carbon dioxide, Silicon dioxide and Germanium oxide are acidic,
whereas Tin oxide and Lead oxide are amphoteric in nature.
1543.Carbon monoxide is neutral, Germanium monoxide is acidic whereas
Tin oxide and Lead oxide are amphoteric.
1544.Carbon, silicon and germanium are not affected by water.
1545.Lead is unaffected by water, probably because of a protective oxide
film formation.
1546.Carbon atoms have the tendency to link with one another through
covalent bonds to form chains and rings. This property is called
catenation.
1547.Carbon exhibits many allotropic forms; both crystalline as well as
amorphous.
1548.Diamond and graphite are two well-known crystalline forms of
carbon.
1549.Fullerenes was discovered by H.W.Kroto, E.Smalley and R.F.Curl. They
were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1996.
1550.Diamond is a hardest substance. It is used as an abrasive for
sharpening hard tools, in making dyes and in the manufacture of tungsten
filaments for electric light bulbs.
1551.Graphite has layered structure. Layers are held by van der Waals
forces.
1552.Graphite conducts electricity along the sheet. Graphite cleaves easily
between the layers and is very soft and slippery.
1553.Graphite is used as a dry lubricant in machines running at high
temperature, where oil cannot be used as a lubricant.
1554.Fullerenes are made by the heating of graphite in an electric arc in
the presence of inert gases such as helium or argon.
1555.Fullerenes are the only pure form of carbon because they have
smooth structure without having ‘dangling’ bonds.
1556.Fullerenes are cage like molecules. Molecule has a shape like a soccer
ball and called Buckminsterfullerene.
1557.Fullerences contains twenty six- membered rings and twelve five-
membered rings.
1558.Spherical fullerenes are also called buckyballs.
1559.Graphite is thermodynamically most stable allotrope of carbon.
1560.Carbon black, coke, and charcoal are all impure forms of graphite or
fullerenes.
1561.Carbon black is obtained by burning hydrocarbons in a limited
supply of air.
1562.Charcoal and coke are obtained by heating wood or coal.
1563.Graphite is used for electrodes in batteries and industrial
electrolysis. It is a good conductor.
1564.Crucibles made from graphite are inert to dilute acids and alkalis.
1565.Charcoal is used in adsorbing poisonous gases; also used in water
filters to remove organic contamination and in air conditioning system to
control odour.
1566.Carbon black is used as black pigment in black ink and as filler in
automobile tyres.
1567.Coke is used as a fuel and largely as a reducing agent in metallurgy.
1568.Diamond is a precious stone and used in jewellery. It is measured in
carats.
1569.Carbon monoxide is prepared by the passage of steam over hot coke.
The mixture of Carbon monoxide and hydrogen is known as water gas or
synthesis gas.
1570.A mixture of Carbon monoxide and Nitrogen is produced is called
producer gas.
1571.Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odourless and almost water
insoluble gas. It is a powerful reducing agent and reduces almost all metal
oxides other than those of the alkali and alkaline earth metals, aluminium.
1572.Carbon monoxide is used in the extraction of many metals from their
oxide ores.
1573.Carbon monoxide molecule acts as a donor and reacts with certain
metals when heated to form metal carbonyls.
1574.The highly poisonous nature of Carbon monoxide arises because of its
ability to form a complex with haemoglobin.
1575.Carbon dioxide is obtained by heating limestone.
1576.Carbon dioxide is a colourless and odourless gas. Its low solubility in
water makes it of immense biochemical and geo-chemical importance.
1577.Carbon dioxide forms carbonic acid, Carbonic acid which is a weak
dibasic acid.
1578.Carbonic acid is acidic in nature.
1579.Green plants convert atmospheric carbon dioxide into carbohydrates
such as glucose.
1580.Greenhouse effect raise the temperature of the atmosphere.
1581.Carbon dioxide can be obtained as a solid in the form of dry ice.
1582.Dry ice is used as a refrigerant for ice-cream and frozen food.
1583.95% of the earth’s crust is made up of silica and silicates.
1584.Silicon dioxide, commonly known as silica.
1585.Quartz, cristobalite and tridymite are some of the crystalline forms
of silica.
1586.Silicon dioxide is a covalent, three-dimensional network solid in
which each silicon atom is covalently bonded in a tetrahedral manner to
four oxygen atoms.
1587.Silica in its normal form is almost non reactive.
1588.Quartz is extensively used as a piezoelectric material.
1589.Silica gel is used as a drying agent.
1590.Kieselghur, an amorphous form of silica is used in filtration plants.
1591.Silicones are alkyl or aryl substituted silicon chloride.
1592.Silicones being surrounded by non-polar alkyl groups are water
repelling in nature.
1593.Silicones have in general high thermal stability, high dielectric
strength and resistance to oxidation and chemicals.
1594.Silicones are used as sealants, greases, electrical insulators and for
waterproofing of fabrics. They are also used in surgical and cosmetic
plants.
1595.Silicates minerals exist in nature. Some of the examples are feldspar,
zeolites, mica and asbestos.
1596.Man-made silicates are glass and cement.
1597.The basic structural unit of silicates is Orthosilicate.
1598.If aluminium atoms replace few silicon atoms in three-dimensional
network of silicon dioxide, overall structure known as aluminosilicate.
1599.Cations such as Sodium, Potassium and Calcium ions balance the
negative charge. Examples are feldspar and zeolites.
1600.Zeolites are widely used as a catalyst in petrochemical industries for
cracking of hydrocarbons and isomerisation.
1601.ZSM-5 (A type of zeolite) used to convert alcohols directly into
gasoline.
1602.Hydrated zeolites are used as ion exchangers in softening of “hard”
water.
1603.Carbon has the unique property called catenation.
1604.The resulting compounds are studied under a separate branch of
chemistry called organic chemistry.
1605.DNA and proteins that constitute essential compounds of our blood,
muscles and skin.
1606.Berzilius, a Swedish chemist proposed that a ‘vital force’ was
responsible for the formation of organic compounds.
1607.F. Wohler synthesize an organic compound, urea from an inorganic
compound, ammonium cyanate.
1608.Synthesis of acetic acid by Kolbe and Methane by Berthelot.
1609.A group or a series of organic compounds each containing a
characteristic functional group forms a homologous series and the
members of the series are called homologous. Some of these are alkanes,
alkenes, alkynes, haloalkanes, alkanols, alkanals, alkanones, alkanoic
acids, amines etc.
1610.IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry).
1611.Citric acid is named citrus fruit and the acid found in red ant is
named formic acid.
1612.Prefixes and suffixes, the parent name can be modified to obtain the
actual name.
1613.A hydrocarbon is termed saturated if it contains only carbon-carbon
single bond.
1614.The IUPAC name for a homologous series of such compounds is
alkane.
1615.The phenomenon of existence of two or more compounds possessing
the same molecular formula but different properties is known as
isomerism. Such compounds are called isomers.
1616.The compounds that have the same constitution and sequence of
covalent bonds but differ in relative positions of their atoms or groups in
space are called stereoisomers.
1617.Substrate is that reactant which supplies carbon to the new bond and
the other reactant is called reagent.
1618.If both the reactants supply carbon to the new bond then choice is
arbitrary and in that case the molecule on which attention is focused is
called substrate.
1619.A species having a carbon atom possessing sextext of electrons and a
positive charge is called a carbocation.
1620.Carbocations are highly unstable and reactive species.
1621.Carbocations and carbanions, free radicals are also very reactive.
1622.Organic reactions, which proceed by homolytic fission are called free
radical or homopolar or nonpolar reactions.
1623.The organic reactions which proceed through heterolytic bond
cleavage are called ionic or heteropolar or just polar reactions.
1624.A molecule whose carbon is involved in new bond formation is called
substrate and the other one is called reagent.
1625.A reagent that brings an electron pair to the reactive site is called a
nucleophile
1626.Nucleus seeking and the reaction is called nucleophilic.
1627.A reagent that takes away an electron pair from reactive site is called
electrophile.
1628.Electron seeking and the reaction is called electrophilic.
1629.Electrophiles receive electron pair from the substrate when the two
undergo bonding interaction.
1630.Some examples of nucleophiles are the negatively charged ions with
lone pair of electrons such as hydroxide, cyanide ions and carbanions.
1631. Neutral molecules can also act as nucleophiles due to the presence of
lone pair of electrons.
1632. Inductive effect and resonance effects are examples of this type of
electron displacements.
1633.Temporary electron displacement effects are seen in a molecule when
a reagent approaches to attack it. This type of electron displacement is
called electromeric effect or polarisability effect.
1634.When a covalent bond is formed between atoms of different
electronegativity, the electron density is more towards the more
electronegative atom of the bond.
1635.An organic compound is extracted from a natural source or
synthesised.
1636.On cooling the solution, pure compound crystallises out and is
removed by filtration.
1637.The filtrate (mother liquor) contains impurities and small quantity of
the compound.
1638.If the compound is highly soluble in one solvent and very little soluble
in another solvent, crystallisation can be satisfactorily carried out in a
mixture of these solvents.
1639.Crystallisation becomes necessary for the purification of compounds
containing impurities of comparable solubilities.
1640.Distillation is used to separate volatile liquids from nonvolatile
impurities and liquids having sufficient difference in their boiling points.
1641.Chloroform and aniline are easily separated by the technique of
distillation.
1642.Vapours of the liquid with higher boiling point condense before the
vapours of the liquid with lower boiling point.
1643.Each successive condensation and vaporisation unit in the
fractionating column is called a theoretical plate.
1644.Crude oil in petroleum industry.
1645.Distillation under reduced pressure is used to purify liquids having
very high boiling points and those, which decompose at or below their
boiling point.
1646.Glycerol can be separated from spent-lye in soap industry.
1647.Steam Distillation which are steam volatile and are immiscible with
water.
1648.A mixture of water and the substance is obtained which can be
separated by using a separating funnel.
1649.Aniline is separated by this technique from aniline water mixture.
1650.The organic solvent is removed by distillation or by evaporation.
1651.When an organic compound is present in an aqueous medium, it is
separated by shaking it with an organic solvent in which it is more soluble
than in water.
1652.If the organic compound is less soluble in the organic solvent, a very
large quantity of solvent would be required to extract even a very small
quantity of the compound.
1653.Solvent is used for extraction of the compound.
1654.Chromatography is a technique for the separation of a mixture.
1655.Chromatography was first used for the separation of coloured
substances found in plants.
1656.Commonly used adsorbents are silica gel and alumina.
1657.The spots of colourless compounds, which are invisible to the eye but
fluoresce in ultraviolet light.
1658.Spots of compounds, which adsorb iodine.
1659.Amino acids may be detected by spraying the plate with ninhydrin
solution.
1660.Nitrogen, sulphur, halogens and phosphorus present in an organic
compound are detected by “Lassaigne’s test”.
1661.Nitrogen and sulphur both are present in an organic compound.
1662.A white precipitate, soluble in ammonium hydroxide shows the
presence of chlorine.
1663.A yellowish precipitate, sparingly soluble in ammonium hydroxide
shows the presence of bromine.
1664.A yellow precipitate, insoluble in ammonium hydroxide shows the
presence of iodine.
1665.A yellow colouration or precipitate indicates the presence of
phosphorus.
1666.Nitrogen present in the ring (pyridine).
1667.Carbon and hydrogen present in the compound are oxidised to
carbon dioxide and water.
1668.Halogen present forms the corresponding silver halide.
1669.Sulphur present in the compound is oxidised to sulphuric acid.
1670.Oxygen in an organic compound.
1671.Petrol, diesel and kerosene oil are obtained by the fractional
distillation of petroleum found under the earth’s crust.
1672.Coal gas is obtained by the destructive distillation of coal.
1673.Natural gas is found in upper strata during drilling of oil wells.
1674.LPG is used as a domestic fuel with the least pollution.
1675.Kerosene oil is also used as a domestic fuel.
1676.Petrol and CNG operated automobiles cause less pollution.
1677.Hydrocarbons are also used for the manufacture of polymers like
polythene, polypropene, polystyrene etc.
1678.Higher hydrocarbons are used as solvents for paints. They are also
used as the starting materials for the manufacture of many dyes and
drugs.
1679.Saturated hydrocarbons contain carbon carbon and carbon
hydrogen single bonds.
1680.If different carbon atoms are joined together to form open chain of
carbon atoms with single bonds, they are termed as alkanes.
1681.If carbon atoms form a closed chain or a ring, they are termed as
cycloalkanes.
1682.Unsaturated hydrocarbons contain carbon-carbon multiple bonds –
double bonds, triple bonds or both.
1683.Aromatic hydrocarbons are a special type of cyclic compounds.
1684.Carbon is tetravalent and hydrogen is monovalent.
1685.Alkanes are saturated open chain hydrocarbons containing carbon
carbon single bonds.
1686.Methane is a gas found in coal mines and marshy places.
1687.Hydrocarbons do not react with acids, bases and other reagents.
1688.Methane has a tetrahedral structure.
1689.Methane, ethane and propane have only one structure but higher
alkanes can have more than one structure.
1690.Petroleum and natural gas are the main sources of alkanes.
1691.Dihydrogen gas adds to alkenes and alkynes in the presence of finely
divided catalysts like platinum, palladium or nickel to form alkanes. This
process is called hydrogenation.
1692.Platinum and palladium catalyse the reaction at room temperature
but relatively higher temperature and pressure are required with nickel
catalysts.
1693.Alkyl halides on treatment with sodium metal in dry ethereal (free
from moisture) solution give higher alkanes. This reaction is known as
Wurtz reaction.
1694.Wurtz reaction is used for the preparation of higher alkanes
containing an even number of carbon atoms.
1695.Process of elimination of carbon dioxide from a carboxylic acid is
known as decarboxylation.
1696.Alkanes are almost non-polar molecules. They possess weak van der
Waals forces.
1697.Petrol is a mixture of hydrocarbons and is used as a fuel for
automobiles.
1698.Petrol and lower fractions of petroleum are also used for dry
cleaning of clothes to remove grease stains.
1699.Grease (mixture of higher alkanes) is non-polar and hydrophobic in
nature.
1700.Alkanes are generally inert towards acids, bases, oxidising and
reducing agents.
1701.Halogenation takes place either at higher temperatures or in the
presence of diffused sunlight or ultraviolet light.
1702.These reactions in which hydrogen atoms of alkanes are substituted
are known as substitution reactions.
1703.Iodination is very slow and a reversible reaction. It can be carried out
in the presence of oxidizing agents like Iodic acid and Nitric acid.
1704.The reaction is initiated by homolysis of chlorine molecule in the
presence of light or heat.
1705.Chlorine free radical attacks the methane molecule.
1706.Alkanes are used as fuels.
1707.Carbon black is formed which is used in the manufacture of ink,
printer ink, black pigments and as filters.
1708.Alumina get dehydrogenated and cyclised to benzene and its
homologues is known as aromatization or reforming.
1709.A decomposition reaction into smaller fragments by the application
of heat is called pyrolysis or cracking.
1710.Preparation of oil gas or petrol gas from kerosene oil or petrol
involves the principle of pyrolysis.
1711.Dodecane, a constituent of kerosene oil.
1712.Presence of platinum, palladium or nickel gives a mixture of heptane
and pentene.
1713.Alkanes contain carbon-carbon sigma bonds.
1714.Ethane molecule contains a carbon carbon single bond.
1715.Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons containing at least one double
bond.
1716.Alkenes are also known as olefins (oil forming).
1717.Ethene and propene can have only one structure but alkenes higher
than propene have different structures.
1718.Potassium hydroxide dissolved in alcohol, ethanol.
1719.One molecule of halogen acid to form alkenes is known as
dehydrohalogenation, Removal of halogen acid.
1720.Ethene is a colourless gas with a faint sweet smell.
1721.All other alkenes are colourless and odourless, insoluble in water but
fairly soluble in nonpolar solvents like benzene, petroleum ether.
1722.Hydrochloric acid, Hydrogen bromide and hydrogen iodide are
hydrogen halides.
1723.Hydrogen halides is also an example of electrophilic addition
reaction.
1724.Markovnikov rule states that negative part of the addendum (adding
molecule) gets attached to that carbon atom which possesses lesser
number of hydrogen atoms.
1725.Polythene is obtained by the combination of large number of ethene
molecules at high temperature, high pressure and in the presence of a
catalyst.
1726.The large molecules thus obtained are called polymers. This reaction
is known as polymerisation.
1727.The simple compounds from which polymers are made are called
monomers.
1728.Polymers are used for the manufacture of plastic bags, squeeze
bottles, refrigerator dishes, toys, pipes, radio and T.V. cabinets etc.
1729.Polypropene is used for the manufacture of milk crates, plastic
buckets and other moulded articles, ropes, toys, pipes, fibres.
1730.Alkynes are also unsaturated hydrocarbons. They contain at least
one triple bond between two carbon atoms.
1731.The first stable member of alkyne series is ethyne which is popularly
known as acetylene.
1732.Acetylene is used for arc welding purposes in the form of
oxyacetylene flame obtained by mixing acetylene with oxygen gas.
1733.Alkynes are organic compounds.
1734.Ethyne is the simplest molecule of alkyne series.
1735.Ethyne is a linear molecule.
1736.Ethyne is prepared by treating calcium carbide with water.
1737.Calcium carbide is prepared by heating quick lime with coke.
1738.Quick lime can be obtained by heating limestone.
1739.All alkynes are colourless. Ethylene has characteristic odour. Other
members are odourless.
1740.Alkynes are weakly polar in nature. They are lighter than water and
immiscible with water but soluble in organic solvents like ethers, carbon
tetrachloride and benzene. Their melting point, boiling point and density
increases with increase in molar mass.
1741.Sodium metal and sodamide are strong bases.
1742.Ethyne is acidic in nature in comparison to ethene and ethane.
1743.Alkynes contain a triple bond.
1744.Reddish orange colour of the solution of bromine in carbon
tetrachloride is decolourised. This is used as a test for unsaturation.
1745.Alkynes are also immiscible and do not react with water.
1746.Polymer conducts electricity.
1747.Thin film of polyacetylene can be used as electrodes in batteries.
These films are good conductors, lighter and cheaper than the metal
conductors.
1748.Aromatic hydrocarbons are also known as ‘arenes’. Since most of
them possess pleasant odour.
1749.Benzene ring is highly unsaturated.
1750.Aromatic compounds containing benzene ring are known as
benzenoids and those not containing a benzene ring are known as non-
benzenoids.
1751.Benzene was isolated by Michael Faraday in 1825.
1752.Benzene is a hybrid of various resonating structures.
1753.Benzene was considered as parent ‘aromatic’ compound.
1754.Benzene is commercially isolated from coal tar.
1755.Phenol is reduced to benzene by passing its vapour over heated zinc
dust.
1756.Aromatic hydrocarbons are non- polar molecules and are usually
colourless liquids or solids.
1757.Naphthalene balls which are used in toilets and for preservation of
clothes.
1758.Aromatic hydrocarbons are immiscible with water but are readily
miscible with organic solvents. They burn with sooty flame.
1759.Arenes are characterised by electrophilic substitution reaction.
1760.The replacement of a hydrogen atom by sulfonic acid group in a ring
is called sulphonation.
1761.Nitrogen dioxide is produced by transfer of a proton (from sulphuric
acid) to nitric acid.
1762.Nitronium ion, sulphuric acid serves as an acid and nitric acid as a
base.
1763.Benzene and polynuclear hydrocarbons containing more than two
benzene rings fused together are toxic and said to possess cancer
producing (carcinogenic).
1764.The lowest region of the atmosphere in which the human beings
along with other organisms live is called troposphere.
1765.Above the troposphere, between 10 and 50 km above sea level lies
stratosphere.
1766.Troposphere is a turbulent, dusty zone containing air, water vapour
and clouds.
1767.Stratosphere contains dinitrogen, dioxygen, ozone and little water
vapour.
1768.The presence of ozone in the stratosphere prevents about 99.5 per
cent of the sun’s harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from reaching the
earth’s surface.
1769.Tropospheric pollution occurs due to the presence of undesirable
solid or gaseous particles in the air.
1770.Gaseous air pollutants: These are oxides of sulphur, nitrogen and
carbon, hydrogen sulphide, hydrocarbons, ozone and other oxidants.
1771.Particulate pollutants: These are dust, mists, fumes, smoke, smog, etc.
1772.Low concentration of sulphur dioxide causes respiratory diseases e.g.,
asthma, bronchitis, emphysema in humans.
1773.Sulphur dioxide causes irritation to the eyes, resulting in tears and
redness.
1774.Dinitrogen and dioxygen are the main constituents of air. These gases
do not react with each other at a normal temperature.
1775.Nitrogen dioxide is oxidised to nitrate ion.
1776.Nitrate which is washed into the soil, where it serves as a fertilizer.
1777.Nitrogen dioxide is a lung irritant that can lead to an acute
respiratory disease.
1778.Nitrogen dioxide is also harmful to various textile fibres and metals.
1779.Hydrocarbons are carcinogenic, cause cancer. They harm plants by
causing ageing, breakdown of tissues and shedding of leaves, flowers and
twigs.
1780.Carbon monoxide is one of the most serious air pollutants. It is a
colourless and odourless gas, highly poisonous.
1781.Carbon monoxide is mainly released into the air by automobile
exhaust.
1782.Carbon monoxide binds to haemoglobin to form carboxyhemoglobin.
1783.This oxygen deficiency, results in headache, weak eyesight,
nervousness and cardiovascular disorders.
1784.Carbon dioxide is also emitted during volcanic eruptions. Carbon
dioxide gas is confined to troposphere only.
1785.Excess of CO2 in the air is removed by green plants.
1786.CO2 in the air is mainly responsible for global warming.
1787.Heat is trapped by gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, ozone,
chlorofluorocarbon compounds (CFCs) and water vapour in the
atmosphere.
1788.Atmosphere traps the sun’s heat near the earth’s surface and keeps it
warm. This is called the natural greenhouse effect.
1789. In a greenhouse, solar radiation passes through the transparent
glass and heat up the soil and the plants.
1790.Glass is opaque to infrared radiation (thermal region).
1791.Carbon dioxide molecules also trap heat as they are transparent to
sunlight but not to the heat radiation.
1792.Carbon dioxide is the major contributor to global warming.
1793.Methane is produced naturally when vegetation is burned, digested
or rotted in the absence of oxygen.
1794.Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are man-made industrial chemicals used
in air conditioning etc.
1795.CFCs are also damaging the ozone layer.
1796.Increase in the global temperature increases the incidence of
infectious diseases like dengue, malaria, yellow fever, sleeping sickness.
1797.When the pH of the rain water drops below 5.6, it is called acid rain.
1798.Acid rain refers in which acid from the atmosphere is deposited on
the earth’s surface.
1799.Oxides of nitrogen and sulphur which are acidic in nature can be
blown by wind along with solid particles in the atmosphere and finally
settle down either on the ground as dry deposition or in water, fog and
snow as wet deposition.
1800.Acid rain emit oxides of sulphur and nitrogen in the atmosphere.
1801.Burning of fossil fuels (which contain sulphur and nitrogenous
matter) such as coal and oil in power stations and furnaces or petrol and
diesel in motor engines produce sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.
1802.Ammonium salts are also formed and can be seen as an atmospheric
haze (aerosol of fine particles).
1803.Aerosol particles of oxides or ammonium salts in rain drops result in
wet deposition.
1804.Sulpher dioxide is also absorbed directly on both solid and liquid
ground surfaces and deposited as dry-deposition.
1805.Catalytic converters must be used in cars to reduce the effect of
exhaust fumes on the atmosphere.
1806.The main component of the converter is a ceramic honeycomb coated
with precious metals Pd, Pt and Rh.
1807.Particulates pollutants are the minute solid particles or liquid
droplets in the air.
1808.The viable particulates e.g., bacteria, fungi, moulds, algae etc.
1809.Human beings are allergic to some of the fungi found in air.
1810.Smoke particulates consist of solid or mixture of solid and liquid
particles formed.
1811.Dust is composed of fine solid particles, produced during crushing,
grinding.
1812.Sand from sand blasting, sawdust from wood works, pulverized coal,
cement and fly ash from factories, dust storms etc.are some typical
examples of this type of particulate emission.
1813.Mists are produced by particles of spray liquids and by condensation
of vapour in air. Examples are sulphuric acid mist and herbicides and
insecticides that miss their targets and travel through air and form mists.
1814.Fumes are generally obtained by the condensation of vapours during
sublimation, distillation, boiling.
1815.Organic solvents, metals and metallic oxides form fume particles.
1816.Airborne particles such as dust, fumes, mist etc.
1817.Lead used to be a major air pollutants emitted by vehicles. Leaded
petrol used to be the primary source of air-borne lead emission.
1818.Lead interferes with the development and maturation of red blood
cells.
1819.Smog is derived from smoke and fog.
1820.Smog occurs in cool humid climate. It is a mixture of smoke, fog and
sulphur dioxide. It is a reducing mixture and so it is also called as reducing
smog.
1821.Photochemical smog occurs in warm, dry and sunny climate.
1822.The main components of the photochemical smog results from the
action of sunlight on unsaturated hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides
produced by automobiles and factories.
1823.Photochemical smog has a high concentration of oxidising agents
and is, therefore, called as oxidising smog.
1824.Pollutants are emitted into the earth’s troposphere. Two of the
pollutants that are emitted are hydrocarbons (unburned fuels) and nitric
oxide.
1825.Oxygen atoms are very reactive and combine with the O2 in air to
produce ozone.
1826.NO2 is a brown gas and at sufficiently high levels can contribute to
haze.
1827.Ozone is a toxic gas and both NO2 and O3 are strong oxidising agent.
1828.The common components of photochemical smog are ozone, nitric
oxide, acrolein, formaldehyde and peroxyacetyl nitrate.
1829.Photochemical smog causes serious health problems. Both ozone and
PAN act as powerful eye irritants.
1830.Ozone and nitric oxide irritate the nose and throat and their high
concentration causes headaches, chest pain, dryness of the throat, cough
and difficulty in breathing.
1831.Photochemical smog leads to cracking of rubber. It also causes
corrosion of metals, stones, building materials, rubber and painted
surfaces.
1832.Photochemical smog occurs where sunlight acts on vehicle
pollutants.
1833.Catalytic converters are used in automobiles, which prevents the
release of nitrogen oxide and hydrocarbons to the atmosphere.
1834.Certain plants e.g., Pinus, Juniparus, Quercus, Pyrus and Vitis can
metabolise nitrogen oxide.
1835.Stratosphere consists of considerable amount of ozone, which
protects us from the harmful ultraviolet rays. These radiations cause skin
cancer (melanoma) in humans.
1836.Ozone is thermodynamically unstable and decomposes to molecular
oxygen.
1837.The main reason of ozone layer depletion is believed to be the release
of chlorofluorocarbon compounds (CFCs), also known as freons. These
compounds are nonreactive, non flammable, non toxic organic molecules
and therefore used in refrigerators, air conditioners in the production of
plastic foam.
1838.The chlorine radicals cause the breakdown of ozone.
1839.Depletion of ozone layer commonly known as the ozone hole over the
South Pole.
1840.In summer season, nitrogen dioxide and methane react with chlorine
monoxide and chlorine atoms forming chlorine sinks, preventing much
ozone depletion.
1841.In Winter season special type of clouds called polar stratospheric
clouds are formed over Antarctica.
1842.UV radiations lead to ageing of skin, cataract, sunburn, skin cancer,
killing of many phytoplanktons, damage to fish productivity.
1843.UV radiations which leads to the harmful mutation of cells.
1844.UV radiations damage paints and fibres, causing them to fade faster.
1845.UV also increases evaporation of surface water through the stomata
of the leaves and decreases the moisture content of the soil.
1846.A source of pollution cannot be easily identified, e.g., agricultural
runoff (from farm, animals and crop-lands), acid rain, storm-water
drainage (from streets, parking lots and lawns).
1847.The most serious water pollutants are the disease causing agents
called pathogens.
1848.Pathogens include bacteria and other organisms that enter water
from domestic sewage and animal excreta.
1849.Human excreta contain bacteria such as Escherichia coli and
Streptococcus faecalis which cause gastrointestinal diseases.
1850.The other major water pollutant is organic matter such as leaves,
grass, trash etc.
1851.Excessive phytoplankton growth within water is also a cause of
water pollution.
1852.The large population of bacteria decomposes organic matter present
in water. They consume oxygen dissolved in water.
1853.The dissolved oxygen is also used by microorganisms to oxidised
organic matter.
1854.Anaerobic bacteria (which do not require oxygen) begin to break
down the organic waste.
1855.Aerobic (oxygen requiring) bacteria degrade these organic wastes
and keep the water depleted in dissolved oxygen.
1856.Amount of oxygen required by bacteria to break down the organic
matter present in a certain volume of a sample of water, is called
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD).
1857.Water soluble inorganic chemicals that include heavy metals such as
cadmium, mercury, nickel etc constitute an important pollutants.
1858.Acids (like sulphuric acid) from mine drainage and salts from many
different sources including raw salt used to melt snow and ice in the colder
climates (sodium and calcium chloride) are water soluble chemical
pollutants.
1859.Petroleum products pollute many sources of water e.g., major oil
spills in oceans.
1860.Polychlorinated biphenyls which are used as cleansing solvent,
detergents and fertilizers add to the list of water pollutants.
1861.Detergents are biodegradable.
1862.The bacteria responsible for degrading biodegradable detergent feed
on it and grow rapidly.
1863.Fertilizers contain phosphates.
1864.Phosphates in water enhances algae growth.
1865.Bloom-infested water inhibits the growth of other living organisms in
the water body.
1866.This process in which nutrient enriched water bodies support a dense
plant population, which kills animal life by depriving it of oxygen and
results in subsequent loss of biodiversity is known as Eutrophication.
1867.Fluoride causes diseases such as tooth decay etc.
1868.Drinking water gets contaminated with lead when lead pipes are
used for transportation of water.
1869.Lead can damage kidney, liver, reproductive system etc.
1870.Excessive sulphate in drinking water causes laxative effect.
1871.Excess nitrate in drinking water can cause diseases such as
methemoglobinemia (blue baby syndrome).
1872.Micro-organisms is source of Domestic sewage.
1873.Organic wastes is source of Domestic sewage, animal excreta and
waste, decaying animals and plants, discharge from food processing
factories.
1874.Plant nutrients is source of Chemical fertilizers.
1875.Toxic heavy metals is source of Industries and chemical factories.
1876.Sediments is source of Erosion of soil by agriculture and strip mining.
1877.Pesticides is source of Chemicals used for killing insects, fungi and
weeds.
1878.Radioactive substances is source of Mining of uranium containing
minerals.
1879.Heat is source of Water used for cooling in industries.
1880.The surplus production is stored by governmental and non
governmental organisations for the lean season.
1881.Insecticides, pesticides and herbicides cause soil pollution.
1882.Nicotine(by planting tobacco plants in the crop field), were used as
pest controlling substance for major crops in agricultural practices.
1883.DDT was found to be of great use in the control of malaria and other
insect-borne diseases.
1884.As insect resistance of DDT increased, other organic toxins such as
Aldrin and Dieldrin were introduced. Most of the organic toxins are water
insoluble and nonbiodegradable.
1885.A new series of less persistent or more biodegradable products called
organo-phosphates and carbamates.
1886.Herbicides such as sodium chlorate, sodium arsenite.
1887.Some herbicides cause birth defects.
1888.Biodegradable wastes are generated by cotton mills, food processing
units, paper mills, and textile factories.
1889.Non-biodegradable wastes are generated by thermal power plants
which produce fly ash; integrated iron and steel plants which produce
blast furnace slag and steel melting slag.
1890.Industries manufacturing aluminium, zinc and copper produce mud
and tailings. Fertilizer industries produce gypsum.
1891.Hazardous wastes such as inflammables, composite explosives or
highly reactive substances are produced by industries.
1892.Fly ash and slag from the steel industry are utilised by the cement
industry.
1893.Large quantities of toxic wastes are usually destroyed by controlled
incineration.
1894.Small quantities are burnt along with factory garbage in open bins.
1895.Fuel obtained from plastic waste has high octane rating. It contains
no lead and is known as green fuel.
1896.A pilot plant has been set up, where after removing ferrous metals,
plastic, glass, paper etc. from garbage, it is mixed with water.
1897.The improper disposal of wastes is one of the major causes of
environmental degradation.
1898.Non-biodegradable materials such as plastic, polythene bags, glass,
metal scraps et.
1899.Biodegradable wastes are deposited in landfills and are converted
into compost.
1900.Health problems leading to epidemics due to contamination of
groundwater.
1901.Overexploitation of soil and excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides
have resulted in the deterioration of soil, water and air.
1902.Green chemistry is a production process that would bring about
minimum pollution or deterioration to the environment.
1903.Yves Chauvin, Robert H. Grubbs, Richard R. Schrock won the 2005
Nobel Prize in chemistry for work that reduces hazardous waste in
creating new chemicals.
1904.Green chemistry reducing potentially hazardous waste through
smarter production.
1905.Metathesis is an example of how important application of basic
science is for the benefit of man, society and the environment.
1906.Organic solvents such as benzene, toluene, carbon tetrachloride are
highly toxic.
1907.Water is cost effective, non inflammable and devoid of any
carcinogenic effects.
1908.Tetrachloroethene was used as solvent for dry cleaning.
1909.The compound contaminates the ground water and is also a
suspected carcinogen.
1910.Liquefied carbon dioxide, with a suitable detergent is used.
1911.Hydrogen peroxide is used for the purpose of bleaching clothes in the
process of laundry.
1912.Chlorine gas was used for bleaching paper.
1913.Hydrogen peroxide which promotes the bleaching action.
1914.Ethanal is prepared by one step oxidation of ethene in the presence of
ionic catalyst in aqueous medium.
1915.Powder of kernel of tamarind seeds to make municipal and industrial
waste water clean. It is non-toxic, biodegradable and cost effective
material.
1916.The present practice is to use alum to treat waste water clean.
1917.Alum increases toxic ions in treated water and can cause diseases.
1918.Intermolecular forces are the forces which mediate interaction
between molecules, including forces of attraction or repulsion which act
between molecules and other types of neighboring particles, e.g., atoms or
ions.
1919.Solid state have definite mass, volume and shape. (ii) Intermolecular
distances are short. (iii) Intermolecular forces are strong. (iv) Their
constituent particles (atoms, molecules or ions) have fixed positions and
can only oscillate about their mean positions. (v) They are incompressible
and rigid.
1920.Carbon nanotubes are tougher than steel, lighter than aluminium
and have more conductive property than copper.
1921.Intermolecular forces are the forces which mediate interaction
between molecules, including forces of attraction or repulsion which act
between molecules and other types of neighboring particles, atoms or ions.
1922.Solids can be classified as crystalline or amorphous on the basis of
the nature.
1923.A crystalline solid usually consists of a large number of small
crystals.
1924.Sodium chloride and quartz are examples of crystalline solids.
1925.Glass, rubber and many plastics do not form crystals are amorphous
solids.
1926.Quartz (crystalline) and quartz glass (amorphous).
1927.Crystalline solids have a sharp melting point.
1928.Amorphous solids soften, melt and start flowing over a range of
temperature and can be moulded.
1929.Amorphous solids may become crystalline at some temperature.
1930.Amorphous solids have a tendency to flow, though very slowly are
called pseudo solids or supercooled liquids.
1931.Amorphous solids are isotropic in nature.
1932.Crystalline solids are anisotropic in nature.
1933.Crystalline solids have a geometrical/definite shape.
1934.Crystalline solids melt at a sharp and temperature.
1935.In crystalline solids when cut with a sharp edged tool, they split into
two pieces and the newly generated surfaces are plain and smooth.
1936.Crystalline solids have a definite and enthalpy of fusion.
1937.Crystalline solids are true solids and long range order.
1938.Crystalline solids cleavage (break) along particular points and
directions.
1939.In crystalline solids, Atoms are arranged in regular 3 dimension.
1940.Crystalline solids is Symmetrical.
1941.Examples of crystalline solids are Potassium nitrate, copper, benzoic
acid, sodium chloride, sugar, diamond, zinc oxide, Iron.
1942.Properties of crystalline solids are electrical conductivity, refractive
index and thermal expansion.
1943.Crystalline solids are more rigid.
1944.Physical properties of crystalline solids are different in different
directions is known as Anisotropy.
1945.Crystalline solids have high and fixed heat of fusion.
1946.Crystalline solids have covalent bonds, ionic bonds, Van der Waals
bonds and metallic bonds.
1947.Amorphous solids have irregular shape.
1948.Amorphous solids have soften over a range of temperature.
1949.In Amorphous solids when cut with a sharp edged tool, they cut into
two pieces with irregular surfaces.
1950.Amorphous solids do not have definite enthalpy of fusion.
1951.Amorphous solids are Isotropic in nature.
1952.Amorphous solids are Pseudo solids or supercooled liquids.
1953.Amorphous solids have short range order.
1954.Amorphous solids are rigid structures.
1955.Amorphous solids do not have edges like crystals.
1956.Glass,Gels, plastics, various polymers, wax, thin films are also good
examples of amorphous solids.
1957.Amorphous solids have no such arrangement.
1958.Amorphous solids cleavage into uneven parts with ragged edges.
1959.Amorphous solids have no melting point.
1960.Amorphous solids have Less rigid and Unsymmetrical.
1961.Examples of Amorphous solids are Cellophane, polyvinyl chloride,
Naphthalene, Fibre glasses, Telfon, Polyurethane, polymers, rubbers,
plastics.
1962.Some amorphous solids can have parts of orderly arranged patterns
which are called crystallites.
1963.Amorphous solids have covalently bonded networks.
1964.Metals often occur in polycrystalline.
1965.Amorphous silicon is one of the best photovoltaic materials available
for conversion of sunlight into electricity.
1966.Metallic elements like iron, copper and silver.
1967.Non-metallic elements like sulphur, phosphorus and iodine and
compounds like sodium chloride, zinc sulphide and naphthalene form
crystalline solids.
1968.Argon and helium or the molecules formed by non polar covalent
bond. For example hydrogen, chlorine.
1969.Non polar molecule solids are weak dispersion forces or London
forces. Examples are Argon, Carbon tetrachloride.
1970.Non polar solids are soft and non-conductors of electricity.
1971.Non polar solids have low melting points and are usually in liquid or
gaseous state at room temperature.
1972.Hydrochloric acid, Sulphur dioxide are formed by polar covalent
bonds.
1973.Polar molecular solids are soft and non-conductors of electricity.
1974.Polar molecule solids have melting points are low.
1975.Polar molecule solids Sulphur dioxide and Ammonia are some
examples of such solids.
1976.Strong hydrogen bonding binds molecules of such solids like Water
(ice).
1977.Hydrogen bond are non-conductors of electricity, low melting point.
1978.Hydrogen bond are volatile liquids or soft solids under room
temperature and pressure.
1979.Ions are the constituent particles of ionic solids.
1980.Ionic solids are formed by the three dimensional arrangements of
cations and anions bound by strong coulombic (electrostatic) forces.
1981.Ionic solids are hard and brittle in nature.
1982.Ionic solids have high melting and boiling points.
1983.Ionic solids are electrical insulators in the solid state, conductor in
the molten state or when dissolved in water, the ions become free to move
and conduct electricity.
1984.Metals is their lustre is also due to the presence of free electrons in
them. Metals solid as well as molten state.
1985.Metals are highly malleable and ductile. Examples are Iron, Copper,
Silver and Magnesium.
1986.Covalent bonds are strong and directional in nature such solids are
very hard and brittle.
1987.Covalent solids have extremely high melting points and may even
decompose before melting.
1988Covalent solids are insulators and do not conduct electricity.
1989.Quartz, Diamond and Graphite and silicon carbide are examples of
covalent solids.
1990.Graphite is soft and is a good conductor of electricity.
1991.Graphite a good solid lubricant.
1992.Single crystals are formed when the process of crystallisation occurs
at an extremely slow rate.
1993.Silicon and germanium are called intrinsic semiconductors.
1994.Increase in conductivity is due to the negatively charged electrons.
1995.Transistors are made by sandwiching a layer of one type of
semiconductor between two layers of the other type of semiconductors.
1996.Solar cell is an efficient photo-diode used for conversion of light
energy into electrical energy.
1997.Aluminium Phosphide and Gallium arsenide are semiconductor
devices.
1998.Titanium oxide, Chromium oxide, Rhenium trioxide are metals.
1999.Rhenium oxide is metallic copper in its conductivity and appearance.
2000.Vanadium oxide, Vanadium dioxide, metallic or insulating properties
depending on temperature.
2001.Magnitude of this magnetic moment is very small and is measured in
the unit called Bohr magneton.
2002.Phosphorus pentoxide is molecular solids.
2003.Ammonium Phosphate is Ionic.
2004.Silicon Carbide is network covalent.
2007.Brass is metallic.
2008.Rubidium is metallic.
2009.Lithium Bromide is ionic.
2010.Silicon is network covalent.
2011.Brass mixture of copper and zinc.
2012.German silver mixture of copper, zinc and nickel.
2013.Bronze mixture of copper and tin.
2014.Fluoride ions in water prevents tooth decay.
2015.Sodium fluoride is used in rat poison.
2016.Homogeneous mixtures of two or more than two components.
2017.Component that is present in the largest quantity is known as
solvent.
2018.One or more components present in the solution other than solvent
are called solutes.
2019.Binary solutions consisting of two components.
2020.Mixture of oxygen and nitrogen gases is an example of gas-gas
solutions.
2021.Chloroform mixed with nitrogen gas is an example of liquid-gas
solutions.
2022.Camphor in nitrogen gas is an example of solid-gas solutions.
2023.Oxygen dissolved in water is an example of gas-liquid solutions.
2024.Ethanol dissolve in water is an example of liquid-liquid solutions.
2025.Glucose dissolved in water is an example of solid-liquid solutions.
2026.Solution of hydrogen in palladium is an example of gas-solid
solutions.
2027.Amalgam of mercury with sodium is an example of liquid-solid
solutions.
2028.Copper dissolved in gold is an example of solid-solid solutions.
2029.Commercial bleaching solution contains 3.62 mass percentage of
sodium hypochlorite in water.
2030.Ethylene glycol, antifreeze, is used in cars for cooling the engine.
2031.Molarity is defined as the number of moles of solute dissolved in one
litre (or one cubic decimetre).
2032.Molality is defined as the number of moles of solute per kilogram of
solvent.
2033.Sodium chloride and sugar dissolve water.
2034.Naphthalene and anthracene do not dissolve in water.
2035.Sodium chloride and sugar do not dissolve in Benzene.
2036.Napthalene and anthracene dissolve in Benzene.
2037.When a solid solute is added to the solvent, some solute dissolves and
its concentration increases in solution is known as dissolution.
2038.Some solute particles in solution collide with the solid solute particles
and get separated out of solution is known as crystallisation.
2039.A solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at the same
temperature and pressure is called a saturated solution.
2040.An unsaturated solution is one in which more solute can be dissolved
at the same temperature.
2041.Hydrogen chloride is highly soluble in water.
2042.Henry was the first to give a quantitative relation between pressure
and solubility of a gas in a solvent which is known as Henry’s law.
2043.Henry law states that at a constant temperature, the solubility of a
gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas
present above the surface of the liquid or solution.
2044.Tanks used by scuba divers are filled with air diluted with helium
(11.7% helium, 56.2% nitrogen and 32.1% oxygen).
2045.Low blood oxygen causes climbers to become weak known as anoxia.
2046.Francois Marte Raoult’s law which states that for a solution of
volatile liquids, the partial vapour pressure of each component of the
solution is directly proportional to its mole fraction present in solution.
2047.Sodium chloride, glucose, urea and cane sugar in water and iodine
and sulphur dissolved in carbon disulphide.
2048.Liquids at a given temperature vapourise and under equilibrium
conditions the pressure exerted by the vapours of the liquid over the liquid
phase is called vapour pressure.
2049.Azeotropes which are binary mixtures having the same composition
in liquid.
2050.Ethanol-water mixture (obtained by fermentation of sugars).
2051.Nitric acid and water is an example of azeotrope.
2052.Azeotrope has the approximate composition, 68% nitric acid and 32%
water by mass.
2053.Raw mangoes shrivel when pickled in brine (salt water).
2054.Wilted flowers revive when placed in freshwater, blood cells collapse
when suspended in saline water.
2055.Level of solution rises in the thistle funnel due to osmosis of solvent.
2056.Pig’s bladder or parchment or can be synthetic such as cellophane.
2057.Process of flow of the solvent is called osmosis.
2058.Pressure that just stops the flow of solvent is called osmotic pressure.
2059.The flow of solvent from dilute solution to the concentrated solution
across a semipermeable membrane is due to osmosis.
2060.Osmotic pressure is proportional to the molarity of the solution at a
given temperature.
2061.Two solutions having the same osmotic pressure at a given
temperature are called isotonic solutions.
2062.Osmotic pressure associated with the fluid inside the blood cell is
equivalent to that of 0.9% (mass/ volume) sodium chloride solution, called
normal saline solution.
2063.Water will flow out of the cells and they would shrink. Such a solution
is called hypertonic.
2064.If the salt concentration is less than 0.9% (mass/volume), the solution
is said to be hypotonic.
2065.The resulting puffiness or swelling is called edema.
2066.Water movement from soil into plant roots and subsequently into the
upper portion of the plant is partly due to osmosis.
2067.Through the process of osmosis, a bacterium on salted meat or candid
fruit loses water, shrivels and dies.
2068.Pure solvent flows out of the solution through the semipermeable
membrane is called reverse osmosis.
2069.Reverse osmosis is used in desalination of seawater.
2070.Reverse osmosis occurs when a pressure larger than the osmotic
pressure is applied to the solution.
2071.The excess pressure equal to the osmotic pressure must be applied on
the solution side to prevent osmosis.
2072.A porous membrane is a film of cellulose acetate.
2073.Cellulose acetate is permeable to water but impermeable to
impurities and ions present in seawater.
2074.Ionic compounds when dissolved in water dissociate into cations and
anions.
2075.Acetic acid is a weak electrolyte.
2076.Phenol are partially soluble.
2077.Toluene is insoluble.
2078.Formic acid is highly soluble.
2079.Ethylene glycol is highly soluble.
2080.Chloroform is soluble.
2081.Pentanol is partially soluble.
2082.Batteries and fuel cells convert chemical energy into electrical
energy.
2083. The transmission of sensory signals through cells to brain and vice
versa and communication between the cells.
2084.Daniell cell converts the chemical energy liberated during the redox
reaction.
2085.A galvanic cells or voltaic cell, named after Luigi Galvani or
Alessandro Volta respectively, is an electrochemical cell that derives
electrical energy from spontaneous redox reactions taking place within
the cell.
2086.An electrolytic cell is a device for using electrical energy to carry
non-spontaneous chemical reactions.
2087.Zinc is deposited at the zinc electrode and copper dissolves at copper
electrode.
2088.Zn dissolves at anode and copper deposits at cathode.
2089.Gibbs energy of the spontaneous redox reaction is converted into
electrical work which may be used for running a motor or other electrical
gadgets like heater, fan, geyser.
2090.The reduction half reaction occurs on the copper electrode while the
oxidation half reaction occurs on the zinc electrode. These two portions of
the cell are also called half-cells or redox couples.
2091.The copper electrode may be called the reduction half cell and the
zinc electrode.
2092.Voltmeter is an instrument for measuring electric potential in volts.
2093.Half-cell in which oxidation takes place is called the anode.
2094.Half-cell in which reduction takes place is called cathode.
2095.The potential difference between the two electrodes of a galvanic cell
is called the cell potential.
2096.Silver electrode acts as a cathode and copper electrode acts as an
anode.
2097.The standard hydrogen electrode consists of a platinum electrode
coated with platinum black.
2098.Copper does not dissolve in hydrochloric acid.
2099.Metals like platinum or gold are used as inert electrodes.
2100.Fluorine is the strongest oxidising agent.
2101.Lithium has the lowest electrode.
2102.Lithium metal is the most powerful reducing agent.
2103.Electrochemical cells are extensively used for determining the pH of
solutions.
2104.The electrical resistance is represented by the symbol R and it is
measured in ohms which in terms of SI base units is equal to (kg m2).
2105.The inverse of resistance is called conductance.
2106.The SI unit of conductance is siemens.
2107.The inverse of resistivity, called conductivity (specific conductance).
2108.The SI units of conductivity are S m–1.
2109.Conductors are Sodium, Copper, Silver, Gold, Iron, graphite.
2110.Insulators are glass, telfon.
2111.Metals and their alloys have very large conductivity and are known
as conductors.
2112.Non-metals like carbon-black, graphite.
2113.Organic polymers are also electronically conducting.
2114.Glass, ceramics having very low conductivity are known as
insulators.
2115.Silicon, doped silicon and gallium arsenide having conductivity
between conductors and insulators are called semiconductors.
2116.Superconductors have zero resistivity or infinite conductivity.
2117.Metals and their alloys at very low temperatures as superconductors.
2118.Ceramic materials and mixed oxides are superconductivity at
temperatures as high.
2119.MacDiarmid, Heeger and Shirakawa discovered that acetylene gas
can be polymerised to produce a polymer, polyacetylene when exposed to
vapours of iodine acquires metallic lustre and conductivity.
2120.Polymers have been made such as polyaniline, polypyrrole and
polythiophene.
2121.Organic polymers is composed of carbon, hydrogen and occasionally
nitrogen, oxygen or sulphur, are much lighter than normal metals and can
be used for making light-weight batteries.
2122.MacDiarmid, Heeger and Shirakawa were awarded the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry for the year 2000.
2123.The conductance of electricity by ions present in the solution is called
electrolytic or ionic conductance.
2124.Conductivity cell consists of two platinum electrodes coated with
platinum black.
2125.Molar conductivity for acetic acid (weak electrolyte) and potassium
chloride (strong electrolyte) in aqueous solutions.
2126.Copper metal is deposited on the cathode.
2127.Copper is dissolved (oxidised) at anode and deposited (reduced) at the
cathode.
2128.The impure copper is made an anode that dissolves on passing
current and pure copper is deposited at the cathode.
2129.Sodium and magnesium metals are produced by the electrolysis of
their fused chlorides and aluminium is produced by electrolysis of
aluminium oxide in presence of cryolite.
2130.Michael Faraday was the first scientist who described the
quantitative aspects of electrolysis.
2131.Dry cell consists of graphite (carbon) cathode in a zinc container; the
latter acts as the anode.
2132.Dry cell known as Leclanche cell.
2133.Dry cell which is used commonly in our transistors and clocks.
2134.Dry cell consists of a zinc container that also acts as the anode and
the cathode is a carbon (graphite) rod surrounded by powdered
manganese dioxide and carbon.
2135.Electrodes is filled by a moist paste of ammonium chloride and zinc
chloride.
2136.Mercury cell is suitable for low current devices like hearing aids,
watches, etc. consists of zinc-mercury amalgam as anode and a paste of
mercuric oxide and carbon as the cathode.
2137.The reducing agent is zinc and the oxidising agent is mercury oxide.
2138.Lead storage battery is commonly used in automobiles and inverters.
2139.Lead battery consists of a lead anode and a grid of lead packed with
lead dioxide as cathode.
2140. A 38% solution of sulphuric acid is used as an electrolyte.
2141.Nickel-cadmium cell in a jelly roll arrangement and separated by a
layer soaked in moist sodium or potassium hydroxide.
2142.Secondary cell is the nickel-cadmium cell which has a longer life than
the lead storage cell but more expensive to manufacture.
2143.Production of electricity by thermal plants is a major source of
pollution.
2144.In thermal plants, the chemical energy (heat of combustion) of fossil
fuels (coal, gas or oil) is first used for converting water into high pressure.
2145.Galvanic cell directly converts chemical energy into electricity.
2146.Galvanic cells convert the energy of combustion of fuels like
hydrogen, methane, methanol directly into electrical energy are called
fuel cells.
2147. Fuel cell was used for providing electrical power in the Apollo space
programme.
2148.Fuel cells produce electricity about 70 % compared to thermal plants.
2149.Fuel cells are pollution free.
2150.The rusting of iron, tarnishing of silver, development of green coating
on copper and bronze are some of the examples of corrosion.
2151.Corrosion of iron (commonly known as rusting) occurs in the
presence of water and air.
2152.Spot of an object made of iron, oxidation takes place.
2153.Bridge collapse or failure of a key component due to corrosion.
2154.Preventing corrosion can be done by covering the surface with paint
or by some chemicals (bisphenol).
2155.Thermodynamics tells only about the feasibility of a reaction
whereas chemical kinetics tells about the rate of a reaction.
2156.Thermodynamic data indicate that diamond convert to graphite but
conversion rate is so slow.
2157.Concentration, temperature, pressure and catalyst affect the rate of
a reaction.
2158.Ionic reactions occur very fast.
2159.Rusting of iron in the presence of air and moisture.
2160.Rate of a reaction can be defined as the change in concentration of a
reactant or product in unit time.
2161.The representation of the rate of reaction in terms of concentration of
the reactants is known as rate law.
2162.Platinum metal acts as a catalyst.
2163.Hydrolysis of ethyl acetate which is a chemical reaction between
ethyl acetate and water.
2164.Rate of reaction is affected by concentration of ethyl acetate.
2165.Arrhenius equation was first proposed by Dutch chemist, J.H. van’t
Hoff.
2166.Ludwig Boltzmann and James Clerk Maxwell used statistics to
predict the behaviour of large number of molecules.
2167.A catalyst is a substance which increases the rate of a reaction
without itself undergoing any permanent chemical change.
2168.Catalyst should not be used when the added substance reduces the
rate of reaction is called inhibitor.
2169.A catalyst does not alter Gibbs energy.
2170.Collision theory which was developed by Max Trautz and William
Lewi provides a greater insight into the energetic and mechanistic aspects
of reactions.
2171.The collisions in which molecules collide with sufficient kinetic
energy called threshold energy.
2172.The accumulation of molecular species at the surface rather than in
the bulk of a solid or liquid is termed adsorption.
2173.The molecular species or substance, which concentrates or
accumulates at the surface is termed adsorbate.
2174.Material on the surface of which the adsorption takes place is called
adsorbent.
2175.Charcoal, silica gel, alumina gel, clay, colloids, metals act as good
adsorbents.
2176.Oxygen, Hydrogen, Carbon monoxide, Chlorine , Ammonia or Sulphur
dioxide is taken in a closed vessel containing powdered charcoal.
2177.The air becomes dry in the presence of silica gel because the water
molecules get adsorbed on the surface of the gel.
2178.The process of removing an adsorbed substance from a surface on
which it is adsorbed is called desorption.
2179.When a chalk stick is dipped in ink, the surface retains the colour of
the ink due to adsorption of coloured molecules.
2180.Solvent of the ink goes deeper into the stick due to absorption.
2181.Water vapours are absorbed by anhydrous calcium chloride but
adsorbed by silica gel.
2182.Adsorption is an exothermic process.
2183.If accumulation of gas on the surface of a solid occurs on account of
weak van der Waals’ forces.
2184.The chemical bonds may be covalent or ionic in nature.
2185.Chemisorption involves a high energy of activation.
2186.Dihydrogen is first adsorbed on nickel by van der Waals’ forces.
2187.Physical adsorption of a gas by a solid is generally reversible.
2188.Le Chatelier's principle, or "The Equilibrium Law", can be used to
predict the effect of a change in conditions on some chemical equilibria.
2189.Oxygen is adsorbed on metals by virtue of oxide formation and
hydrogen is adsorbed transition metals due to hydride formation.
2190.Chemisorption involves compound formation, it is usually
irreversible in nature.
2191.Chemisorption is also an exothermic process but the process is very
slow at low temperatures.
2192.Physisorption of a gas adsorbed at low temperature may change into
chemisorption at a high temperature.
2193.Physiosorption arises because of van der Waals’ forces.
2194.Physiosorption is not specific in nature.
2195.Physiosorption is reversible in nature.
2196.Physiosorption depends on the nature of gas. More easily liquefiable
gases are adsorbed readily.
2197.In Physisorption Low temperature is favourable for adsorption. It
decreases with increase of temperature.
2198.In Physisorption No appreciable activation energy is needed.
2199.Physiosorption depends on the surface area. It increases with an
increase of surface area.
2200.Physiosorption results into multimolecular layers on adsorbent
surface under high pressure.
2201.Chemisorption is caused by chemical bond formation.
2202.Chemisorption is highly specific in nature.
2203.Chemisorption is irreversible.
2204.Chemisorption also depends on the nature of gas.
2205.Chemisorption, gases which can react with the adsorbent show
chemisorption.
2206.Chemisorption, high temperature is favourable for adsorption.
2207.Chemisorption increases with the increase of temperature.
2208.Chemisorption, high activation energy is sometimes needed.
2209.Chemisorption also depends on the surface area.
2210.Chemisorption too increases with an increase of surface area.
2211.Chemisorption results into unimolecular layer.
2212.Freundlich adsorption isotherm.
2213.Freundlich gave an empirical relationship between the quantity of
gas adsorbed by unit mass of solid adsorbent and pressure at a particular
temperature.
2214.Air can be adsorbed by charcoal from a vessel evacuated by a
vacuum pump to give a very high vacuum.
2215.Gas mask (a device which consists of activated charcoal or mixture of
adsorbents) is usually used for breathing in coal mines to adsorb
poisonous gases.
2216.Silica and aluminium gels are used as adsorbents for removing
moisture and controlling humidity.
2217.Animal charcoal removes colours of solutions by adsorbing coloured
impurities.
2218.Manufacture of ammonia using iron as a catalyst.
2219.Manufacture of sulphuric acid by the contact process.
2220.Nickel in the hydrogenation of oils are excellent examples of
heterogeneous catalysis.
2221.In curing diseases a number of drugs are used to kill germs.
2222.Silver halides have the property of adsorbing some dyes like eosin,
fluorescein.
2223.Baron Jöns Jacob Berzelius, known throughout his life as Jacob
Berzelius, a Swedish chemist. Berzelius is considered, along with Robert
Boyle, John Dalton, and Antoine Lavoisier, to be one of the founders of
modern chemistry.
2224.Berzelius is known for Atomic weights; Chemical notation; catalysis;
Silicon; Selenium; Thorium; Cerium.
2225.Berzelius discovered Silicon, Thorium, Selenium, Cerium.
2226.Haber's law is a mathematical statement of the relationship between
the concentration of a poisonous gas and how long the gas must be
breathed to produce death, or other toxic effect.
2227.Haber’s process for the manufacture of ammonia, molybdenum acts
as a promoter for iron which is used as a catalyst.
2228.When the reactants products and the catalyst are in the same phase
(liquid or gas) is said to be homogeneous catalysis.
2229.The catalytic process in which the reactants and the catalyst are in
different phases is known as heterogeneous catalysis.
2230.Combination between dinitrogen and dihydrogen to form ammonia
in the presence of finely divided iron in Haber’s process.
2231.Oxidation of ammonia into nitric oxide in the presence of platinum
gauze in Ostwald’s process.
2232.Hydrogenation of vegetable oils in the presence of finely divided
nickel as catalyst.
2233.Zeolites are used as catalysts in petrochemical industries for
cracking of hydrocarbons and isomerisation.
2234.Zeolite catalyst used in the petroleum industry.
2235.Zeolite converts alcohols directly into gasoline (petrol) by
dehydrating them to give a mixture of hydrocarbons.
2236.Enzymes are complex nitrogenous organic compounds.
2237.Enzymes are actually protein molecules of high molecular mass and
form colloidal solutions in water.
2238.Numerous reactions that occur in the bodies of animals and plants to
maintain the life process are catalysed by enzymes.
2239.Enzymes obtained in pure crystalline state from living cells.
2240.First enzyme was synthesised in 1969.
2241.Invertase enzyme converts cane sugar into glucose and fructose.
2242.The zymase enzyme converts glucose into ethyl alcohol and carbon
dioxide.
2243.The diastase enzyme converts starch into maltose.
2244.The maltase enzyme converts maltose into glucose.
2245.Decomposition of urea into ammonia and carbon dioxide, the enzyme
urease catalyses this decomposition.
2246.Pepsin enzyme converts proteins into peptides.
2247.Intestine, the pancreatic trypsin converts proteins into amino acids
by hydrolysis.
2248.Lactobacilli enzyme present in curd.
2249.Invertase, Maltase and Zymase is source of yeast.
2250.Diastmase is source of Malt.
2251.Urease is source of soyabean.
2252.Pepsin is source of stomach.
2253.Sucrose is converted into glucose and fructose.
2254.Glucose is converted into Ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide.
2255.Starch is converted into Maltose.
2256.Maltose is converted into Glucose.
2257.Urea is converted into Ammonia and carbon dioxide.
2258.Proteins is converted into Amino acids.
2259.Urease catalyses the hydrolysis of urea only. It does not catalyse
hydrolysis of any other amide.
2260.The rate of an enzyme reaction becomes maximum at a definite
temperature, called the optimum temperature.
2261.The rate of an enzyme-catalysed reaction is maximum at a particular
pH called optimum pH.
2262.The enzymatic activity is increased in the presence of certain
substances, known as coenzymes.
2263.Small non-protein (vitamin) is present along with an enzyme.
2264.Amylase in presence of sodium chloride.
2265.A colloid is a heterogeneous system in which one substance is
dispersed as very fine particles in another substance called dispersion
medium.
2266.A single macromolecules such as protein or synthetic polymer.
2267.Whipped cream is a foam, which is a gas dispersed in a liquid.
2268.Firefighting foams used at emergency airplane landings are also
colloidal systems.
2269.Fluids are aqueous sols solids dispersed in water.
2270.Proteins and nucleic acids are colloidal-sized particles dispersed in
an aqueous solution.
2271.Sols (solids in liquids), Gels (liquids in solids) and Emulsions (liquids in
liquids).
2272.If the dispersion medium is water is called aquasol or hydrosol.
2273.If the dispersion medium is alcohol is called alcosol.
2274.Lyophilic (solvent attracting) and Lyophobic (solvent repelling).
2275.If water is the dispersion medium, the terms used are hydrophilic and
hydrophobic.
2276.The word ‘lyophilic’ means liquid-loving.
2277.Colloidal sols directly formed by mixing substances like gum,
gelatine, starch, rubber with a suitable liquid (the dispersion medium) are
called lyophilic sols.
2278.If the dispersion medium is separated from the dispersed phase said
by evaporation.
2279.Sol can be reconstituted by simply remixing with the dispersion
medium are also called reversible sols.
2280.The word ‘lyophobic’ means liquid-hating.
2281.Metals like sulphides when simply mixed with the dispersion medium
do not form the colloidal sol are called lyophobic sols.
2282.Lyophobic sols need stabilising agents for their preservation.
2283.Examples of macromolecules are starch, cellulose, proteins and
enzymes.
2284.Man-made macromolecules are polythene, nylon, polystyrene,
synthetic rubber.
2285.Micelles an aggregate of molecules in a colloidal solution, such as
those formed by detergents.
2286.Micelles may contain as many as 100 molecules or more.
2287.Soap is sodium or potassium salt of a higher fatty acid.
2288.The cleansing action of soap is due to the fact that soap molecules
form micelle around the oil droplet.
2289.Hydrophobic part of the stearate ions is in the oil droplet.
2290.Hydrophilic part projects out of the grease droplet like the bristles.
2291.Soap helps in emulsification and washing away of oils and fats.
2292.Bredig's arc method is a method of preparation of colloidal solution,
of metals such as gold, silver or platinum. This method consists of both
dispersion and condensation.
2293.Electric arc is struck between electrodes of the metal immersed in the
dispersion medium.
2294.Peptization may be defined as the process of converting a precipitate
into colloidal sol.
2295.Dialysis is a process of removing a dissolved substance from a
colloidal solution by means of diffusion through a suitable membrane.
2296.Electrodialysis is used to transport salt ions from one solution
through ion-exchange membranes to another solution under the influence
of an applied electric potential difference.
2297.By Tyndall effect, If a homogeneous solution placed in dark is
observed in the direction of light it appears clear.
2298.If it is observed from a direction at right angles to the direction of
light beam it appears dark.
2299.Tyndall effect was first observed by Faraday.
2300.Tyndall effect is due to the fact that colloidal particles scatter light in
all directions in space. Scattering of light illuminates the path of beam in
the colloidal dispersion.
2301.Zsigmondy used Tyndall effect.
2302.A mixture of milk and water appears blue when viewed by the
reflected light and red when viewed by transmitted light.
2303.Finest gold sol is red in colour; as the size of particles increases, it
appears purple, then blue and finally golden.
2304.Zig-zag motion was first observed by Robert Brown, and is known as
Brownian movement.
2305.The movement of colloidal particles under an applied electric
potential is called electrophoresis.
2306.When electrophoresis movement of particles is prevented that the
dispersion medium begins to move in an electric field is termed
electroosmosis.
2307.The stability of lyophobic sols is due to the presence of charge on
colloidal particles.
2308.The process of settling of colloidal particles is called coagulation or
precipitation of the sol.
2309.Hardy Schulze law can be defined as Greater is the valency of the
oppositely charged ion of the electrolyte being added, the faster is the
coagulation.
2310.Lyophilic sol can be coagulated is done by adding an electrolyte and a
suitable solvent.
2311.Lyophilic colloids have a unique property of protecting lyophobic
colloids.
2312.If a mixture of two immiscible or partially miscible liquids is shaken,
a coarse dispersion of one liquid in the other is obtained which is called
emulsion.
2313.Water acts as dispersion medium. Examples are milk and vanishing
cream.
2314.In milk, liquid fat is dispersed in water.
2315.Oil acts as dispersion medium. Examples are butter and cream.
2316.The emulsifying agent forms an interfacial film between suspended
particles and the medium.
2317.Oil with Water emulsions are proteins, gums, natural and synthetic
soaps.
2318.Water with Oil are heavy metal salts of fatty acids, long chain
alcohols, lampblack.
2319.The droplets in emulsions are negatively charged and can be
precipitated by electrolytes. They also show Brownian movement and
Tyndall effect.
2320.Emulsions can be broken into constituent liquids by heating, freezing,
centrifuging.
2321.Dust particles along with water suspended in air scatter blue light
which reaches our eyes and the sky looks blue.
2322.Fine droplets being colloidal in nature continue to float in the air in
the form of mist or fog.
2323.Clouds are aerosols having small droplets of water suspended in air.
2324.Blood is a colloidal solution of an albuminoid substance.
2325.Alum and ferric chloride solution is due to coagulation of blood
forming a clot which stops further bleeding.
2326.Fertile soils are colloidal in nature in which humus acts as a
protective colloid.
2327.River water is a colloidal solution of clay. Sea water contains a
number of electrolytes.
2328.Electrolytes present in seawater coagulate the colloidal solution of
clay resulting in its deposition with the formation of delta.
2329.Smoke is a colloidal solution of solid particles such as carbon, arsenic
compounds, dust.
2330.Water obtained from natural sources often contains suspended
impurities.
2331.Medicines are colloidal in nature.
2332.Argyrol is a silver sol used as an eye lotion.
2333.Colloidal antimony is used in curing kala azar.
2334.Colloidal gold is used for intramuscular injection.
2335.Milk of magnesia, an emulsion, is used for stomach disorders.
2336.Animal hides are colloidal in nature.
2337.Tannin which contains negatively charged colloidal particles, mutual
coagulation takes place.
2338.Chromium salts are also used in place of tannin.
2339.Photographic plates or films are prepared by coating an emulsion of
the light sensitive silver bromide in gelatin over glass plates or celluloid
films.
2340.Latex is a colloidal solution of rubber particles which are negatively
charged.
2341.Rubber is obtained by coagulation of latex.
2342.Paints, inks, synthetic plastics, rubber, graphite lubricants, cement
are all colloidal solutions.
2343.Seven metals of antiquity are gold, copper, silver, lead, tin, iron and
mercury.
2344.The ore for extraction of metal was obtained from chalcopyrite ore.
2345.When iron ore is reduced in solid state by using charcoal, porous iron
blocks are formed.
2346.Due to low boiling point, zinc tends to evaporate while its ore is
smelted.
2347.Carbon, sulphur, gold and noble gases, occur in free state while
others are found in combined forms in the earth’s crust.
2348.Aluminium is the most abundant and is the third most abundant
element in the earth's crust.
2349.Igneous minerals including mica and clays.
2350.Gemstones are impure forms of Aluminium oxide.
2351.Gems ruby and sapphire have Chromium and Carbon monoxide as
impurity.
2352.Iron is the second most abundant metal in the earth’s crust.
2353.Aluminium is an ore of Bauxite and Kaolinite(Clay).
2354.Iron is an ore of Haematite, Magnetite, Siderite, Iron Pyrites.
2355.Copper is an ore of Copper Pyrites, Malachite, Cuprite, Copper glance.
2356.Zinc is an ore of Zinc blended or Sphalerite, Calamine, Zincite.
2357.Metallurgy is defined as a process that is used for the extraction of
metals in their pure form.
2358.Gangue is the commercially worthless material that surrounds, or is
closely mixed with, a wanted mineral in an ore deposit.
2359.Removal of sand, clay from the ore is known as concentration,
dressing or good deed.
2360.Froth Floatation Method is used for removing gangue from sulphide
ores.
2361.Leaching is used if the ore is soluble in some suitable solvent.
2362.Aluminium oxide is extracted out as sodium aluminate.
2363.Calcinaton involves heating. It removes the volatile matter which
escapes leaving behind the metal oxide.
2364.In roasting, the ore is heated in a regular supply of air in a furnace at
a temperature below the melting point of the metal.
2365.The sulphide ores of copper are heated in reverberatory furnace.
2366.Copper matte which contains Copper sulfide and Ferrous sulfide.
2367.Reduction means electron gain by the metal ion.
2368.Calcination/roasting to remove water, to decompose carbonates and
to oxidise sulphides.
2369.Limestone and coke and fed into a Blast furnace.
2370.Limestone is also decomposed to calcium oxide which removes
silicate impurity of the ore as slag.
2371.The iron obtained from Blast furnace contains about 4% carbon and
many impurities in smaller amount (Sulphur, Phosphorus, Silicon,
Manganese) is known as pig iron.
2372.Cast iron is made by melting pig iron with scrap iron and coke using
hot air blast. It has slightly lower carbon content (about 3%) and is
extremely hard and brittle.
2373.Wrought iron or malleable iron is the purest form of commercial iron
and is prepared from cast iron by oxidising impurities in a reverberatory
furnace lined with haematite.
2374.Limestone is added as a flux and sulphur, silicon and phosphorus are
oxidised and passed into the slag. The metal is removed and freed from the
slag by passing through rollers.
2375.Copper is produced in the form of copper matte.
2376.Copper matte is charged into silica lined convertor.
2377.The solidified copper obtained has blistered appearance due to the
evolution of Sulphur dioxide is called blister copper.
2378.The reduction of zinc oxide is done using coke.
2379.Pyrometallurgy is the branch of science and technology concerned
with the use of high temperatures to extract and purify metals.
2380.Steel vessel with lining of carbon acts as cathode and graphite anode
is used.
2381.The Hall Heroult process is the major industrial process for smelting
aluminium.
2382.Copper is extracted by hydrometallurgy from low grade ores. It is
leached out using acid or bacteria.
2383.Chlorine is abundant in sea water as common salt.
2384.Zinc acts as a reducing agent.
2385.Distillation is useful for low boiling metals like zinc and mercury.
2386.Liquation a low melting metal like tin can be made to flow on a
sloping surface.
2387.Impure metal is act as anode.
2388. A strip of the same metal in pure form is used as cathode.
2389.Copper is refined using an electrolytic method. Anodes are impure
copper and pure copper as cathode.
2390.Impurities from the blister copper deposit as anode mud which
contains antimony, selenium, tellurium, silver, gold and platinum.
2391.Zone refining, the impurities are more soluble in the melt than in the
solid state of the metal.
2392.Zone refining is very useful for producing semiconductor and other
metals of very high purity, germanium, silicon, boron, gallium and indium.
2393.Van Arkel method is used for refining Zirconium or Titanium.
2394.The metal iodide is decomposed on a tungsten filament.
2395.Aluminium foils are used as wrappers for food materials.
2396.Aluminium, being highly reactive, is also used in the extraction of
chromium and manganese from their oxides.
2397.Aluminium wires are used as electricity conductors. Alloys
containing aluminium.
2398.Copper is used for making wires used in electrical industry and for
water and steam pipes.
2399.Copper is also used in several alloys that are rather tougher than the
metal itself, e.g., brass (with zinc), bronze (with tin) and coinage alloy
(with nickel).
2400.Zinc is used for galvanising iron.
2401.Zinc is also used in large quantities in batteries.
2402.Zinc is constituent of many alloys, e.g., brass, (Cu 60%, Zn 40%) and
german silver (Cu 25-30%, Zn 25-30%, Ni 40–50%).
2403.Zinc dust is used as a reducing agent in the manufacture of dye-stuff,
paints.
2404.Cast iron is used for casting stoves, railway sleepers, gutter pipes ,
toys.
2405.Cast iron is used in the manufacture of wrought iron and steel.
2406.Wrought iron is used in making anchors, wires, bolts, chains and
agricultural implements.
2407.Alloy steel is obtained when other metals are added to it.
2408.Nickel steel is used for making cables, automobiles and aeroplane
parts, pendulum, measuring tapes.
2409.Chrome steel is used for cutting tools and crushing machines, and
stainless steel is used for cycles, automobiles, utensils, pens.
2410.Flux is added for making the molten mass more conducting.
2411.Nitrogen and phosphorus are non-metals, arsenic and antimony
metalloids, bismuth and moscovium are typical metals.
2412.Nitrogen comprises 78% by volume of the atmosphere.
2413.Nitrogen occurs as sodium nitrate called Chile saltpetre and
potassium nitrate called Indian saltpetre.
2414.Nitrogen is found in the form of proteins in plants and animals.
2415.Phosphorus occurs in minerals of the apatite family.
2416.Fluorapatite are the main components of phosphate rocks.
2417.Phosphorus is an essential constituent of animal and plant.
2418.Phosphorus is present in bones as well as in living cells.
2419.Phosphoproteins are present in milk and eggs.
2420.Arsenic, antimony and bismuth are found mainly as sulphide
minerals.
2421.Moscovium is a synthetic radioactive element.
2422.Dinitrogen is a diatomic gas while all others are solids.
2423.Nitrogen and phosphorus are non-metals, arsenic and antimony
metalloids and bismuth is a metal.
2424.Ammonia is only a mild reducing agent.
2425.Bismuthane is the strongest reducing agent.
2426.Nitrogen and phosphorus are purely acidic.
2427.Dinitrogen is produced by liquefaction and fractional distillation of
air.
2428.Dinitrogen is a colourless, odourless, tasteless and non-toxic gas.
2429.Dinitrogen is rather inert at room temperature.
2430.Dinitrogen is used in the manufacture of ammonia containing
nitrogen,(calcium cyanamide).
2431.Dinitrogen also use where an inert atmosphere (iron and steel
industry, inert diluent for reactive chemicals).
2432.Liquid nitrogen is used as a refrigerant to preserve biological
materials, food items and in cryosurgery.
2433.Ammonia is present in small quantities in air and soil where it is
formed by the decay of nitrogenous organic matter, urea.
2434.Ammonia is manufactured by Haber’s process.
2435.Iron was used as a catalyst with molybdenum as a promoter.
2436.Ammonia is a colourless gas with a pungent odour. Its freezing and
boiling points are 198.4 and 239.7 K.
2437.Ammonia gas is highly soluble in water. Its aqueous solution is
weakly basic.
2438.Ammonia is used to produce various nitrogenous fertilisers
(ammonium nitrate, urea, ammonium phosphate and ammonium
sulphate).
2439.Ammonia is used in the manufacture of some inorganic nitrogen
compounds, the most important one being nitric acid. Liquid ammonia is
also used as a refrigerant.
2440.Dinitrogen oxide and Nitrogen monoxide is colourless and neutral.
2441.Dinitrogen trioxide is blue solid, acidic.
2442.Nitrogen dioxide is brown gas, acidic.
2443.Dinitrogen tetroxide is colourless solid/liquid, acidic.
2444.Dinitrogen pentoxide is colourless solid, acidic.
2445.Nitrogen forms oxoacids such as hyponitrous acid, Nitrous acid and
nitric acid Nitric acid is the most important.
2446.Nitric acid It is a colourless liquid.
2447.Nitric acid contains 68% by mass.
2448.Nitric acid acts as a strong acid.
2449.Concentrated nitric acid is a strong oxidising agent such as gold and
platinum.
2450.Chromium, Aluminium do not dissolve in concentrated nitric acid
because of the formation of a passive film of oxide on the surface.
2451.Nitric acid also oxidises non–metals.
2452.Iodine is oxidised to iodic acid, carbon to carbon dioxide, sulphur to
sulphuric acid ,phosphorus to phosphoric acid.
2453.Nitric acid is used in the manufacture of ammonium nitrate for
fertilisers and other nitrates for use in explosives and pyrotechnics.
2454.Nitric acid is also used for the preparation of nitroglycerin,
trinitrotoluene and other organic nitro compounds.
2455.Nitric acid are used in the pickling of stainless steel, etching of metals
and as an oxidiser in rocket fuels.
2456.White phosphorus is a translucent white waxy solid.
2457.White phosphorus is poisonous, insoluble in water but soluble in
carbon disulphide and glows in the dark (chemiluminescence).
2458.White phosphorus is less stable and more reactive than the other
solid phases.
2459.Red phosphorus is obtained by heating white phosphorus in an inert
atmosphere.
2460.Red phosphorus possesses iron grey lustre.
2461.Red phosphorus is odourless, nonpoisonous and insoluble in water as
well as in carbon disulphide.
2462.Red phosphorus is much less reactive than white phosphorus. It does
not glow in the dark.
2463.Black phosphorus has two forms a-black phosphorus and b-black
phosphorus.
2464.a-Black phosphorus is formed when red phosphorus is heated in a
sealed tube. It can be sublimed in air and has opaque monoclinic or
rhombohedral crystals. It does not oxidise in air.
2465.b-Black phosphorus is prepared by heating white phosphorus under
high pressure. It does not burn in air.
2466.Phosphine is non inflammable.
2467.Phosphine is a colourless gas with rotten fish smell and is highly
poisonous.
2468.Phosphine explodes oxidising agents like Nitric acid, Chlorine and
Bromine vapours.
2469.Phosphine is slightly soluble in water.
2470.Phosphine decomposes in the presence of light giving red phosphorus
and hydrogen.
2471.Phosphine is weakly basic.
2472.Phosphine is used in Holme’s signals.
2473.Phosphine is also used in smoke screens.
2474.Phosphorus trichloride is a colourless oily liquid and hydrolyses in
the presence of moisture.
2475.Phosphorus pentachloride is a yellowish white powder and in moist
air.
2476.Phosphorus pentachloride is used in the synthesis of some organic
compounds eg are Chloroethane or monochloroethane, ethyl chloride,
Acetyl chloride.
2477.Hypophosphorous acid is a good reducing agent.
2478.Oxygen, sulphur, selenium, tellurium, polonium and livermorium
constitute Group 16 of the periodic table known as group of chalcogens.
2479.Copper contain either oxygen or sulphur.
2480.Oxygen is the most abundant of all the elements.
2481.Oxygen forms about 46.6% by mass of earth’s crust.
2482.Dry air contains 20.946% oxygen by volume.
2483.Abundance of sulphur in the earth’s crust is only 0.03-0.1%.
2484.Combined sulphur exists as sulphates such as gypsum, epsom salt,
baryte and sulphides such as galena, zinc blende, copper pyrites.
2485.Traces of sulphur occur as hydrogen sulphide in volcanoes.
2486.Eggs, proteins, garlic, onion, mustard, hair and wool contain sulphur.
2487.Selenium and tellurium are also found as metal selenides and
tellurides in sulphide ores.
2488.Polonium occurs in nature as a decay product of thorium and
uranium minerals.
2489.Livermorium is a synthetic radioactive element.
2490.Fluorine, oxygen has the highest electronegativity elements.
2491.Oxygen and sulphur are non-metals.
2492.Selenium and tellurium metalloids, whereas polonium is a metal.
2493.Polonium is radioactive and is short lived.
2494.Oxygen exists as diatomic molecules whereas sulphur exists as
polyatomic molecule.
2495.Electronegativity of oxygen is very high.
2496.Ozone and sulphur dioxide are gases while selenium dioxide is solid.
2497.Sulphur dioxide is reducing while Tellurium dioxide is an oxidising
agent.
2498.Sulphur trioxide, Selenium trioxide and Tellurium trioxide are acidic
in nature.
2499.All hexafluorides are gaseous in nature. They have octahedral
structure.
2500.Sulphur tetrafluoride is a gas, Selenium tetrafluoride is a liquid,
Tellurium tetrafluoride is a solid.
2501.Monohalides are dimeric in nature.
2502.Dioxygen can be prepared from water or air.
2503.Electrolysis of water leads to the release of hydrogen at the cathode
and oxygen at the anode.
2504.Dioxygen is obtained from air by first removing carbon dioxide and
water vapour.
2505.Dioxygen is a colourless and odourless gas. Its solubility in water.
2506.Oxygen is used in oxyacetylene welding, in the manufacture of many
metals, particularly steel.
2507.Oxygen cylinders are widely used in hospitals, high altitude flying
and in mountaineering.
2508.Hydrazines in liquid oxygen, provides tremendous thrust in rockets.
2509.A binary compound of oxygen with another element is called oxide.
2510.Oxides can be simple (Magnesium oxide, Aluminium oxide ) or mixed
(lead oxide, Iron oxide).
2511.Acidic oxide are Sulphur dioxide, Chlorine heptoxide, carbon dioxide,
Dinitrogen pentoxide.
2512.Basic oxides are Sodium oxide, Calcium oxide, Barium Oxide.
2513.Characteristics of both acidic as well as basic oxides are known as
amphoteric oxides.
2514.Amphoteric oxides react with acids as well as alkalies.
2515.Oxides which are neither acidic nor basic are known as neutral
oxides.
2516.Examples of neutral oxides are Carbon monoxide, Nitric oxide and
Nitrogen oxide.
2517.Metallic oxides are basic.
2518.Aluminium oxide reacts with acids as well as alkalies.
2519.Ozone is an allotropic form of oxygen. It is too reactive to remain for
long in the atmosphere at sea level.
2520.At a height of about 20 kilometres, Ozone is formed from atmospheric
oxygen in the presence of sunlight.
2521.Ozone layer protects the earth’s surface from an excessive
concentration of ultraviolet radiation.
2522.Formation of ozone from oxygen is an endothermic process.
2523.Ozone use an electrical discharge in its preparation to prevent its
decomposition.
2524.Pure ozone can be condensed in a vessel surrounded by liquid oxygen.
2525.Pure ozone is a pale blue gas, dark blue liquid and violet-black solid.
2526.Ozone has smell and in small concentrations it is harmless.
2527.Ozone acts as a powerful oxidising agent.
2528.Ozone layer is use of freons which are used in aerosol sprays and as
refrigerants.
2529.Ozone is used as a germicide, disinfectant and for sterilising water.
2530.Ozone is also used for bleaching oils, ivory, flour, starch.
2531.Ozone acts as an oxidising agent in the manufacture of potassium
permanganate.
2532.Sulphur forms numerous allotropes of which the yellow rhombic and
monoclinic sulphur.
2533.The stable form at room temperature is rhombic sulphur, which
transforms into monoclinic sulphur.
2534.Allotrope sulphur is yellow in colour.
2535.Rhombic sulphur crystals are formed on evaporating the solution of
roll sulphur in Carbon disulfide.
2536.Rhombic sulphur is insoluble in water but dissolves to some extent in
benzene, alcohol and ether. It is soluble in Carbon disulfide.
2537.Monoclinic sulphur is soluble in Carbon disulfide.
2538.Monoclinic sulphur is prepared by melting rhombic sulphur in a dish
and cooling, until crust is formed.
2539.Two holes are made in the crust and the remaining liquid poured out.
On removing the crust, colourless needle shaped crystals of monoclinic
sulphur are formed.
2540.Transition temperature is the temperature at which a material
changes from one crystal state to another.
2541.Sulphur dioxide is a colourless gas with a pungent smell and is highly
soluble in water. It liquefies at room temperature under a pressure of two
atmospheres.
2542.Charcoal which acts as a catalyst.
2543.Sulphur dioxide act as a reducing agent.
2544.Sulphur dioxide is a resonance hybrid of the two canonical forms.
2545.Sulphur dioxide is used in refining petroleum and sugar, in bleaching
wool and silk, as an anti-chlor, disinfectant and preservative.
2546.Sulphuric acid, sodium hydrogen sulphite and calcium hydrogen
sulphite (industrial chemicals) are manufactured from sulphur dioxide.
2547.Liquid sulphur dioxide is used as a solvent to dissolve a number of
organic and inorganic chemicals.
2548.Sulphuric acid is manufactured by the Contact Process.
2549.Sulphuric acid involves absorption of Sulphur trioxide in sulphuric
acid to give Oleum.
2550.Sulphur dioxide is produced purified by removing dust and other
impurities such as arsenic compounds.
2551.Dilution of oleum with water gives sulphuric acid of the desired
concentration.
2552.The sulphuric acid obtained by Contact process is 96-98% pure.
2553.Sulphuric acid is a colourless, dense, oily liquid.
2554.Sulphuric acid dissolves in water with the evolution of a large
quantity of heat.
2555.Sulphuric acid low volatility can be used to manufacture more
volatile acids from their corresponding salts.
2556.Sulphuric acid is a strong dehydrating agent.
2557.Concentrated Sulphuric acid removes water from organic
compounds charring action on carbohydrates.
2558.Hot concentrated sulphuric acid is a moderately strong oxidising
agent.
2559.Sulphuric acid produces and consumes.
2560.The bulk of sulphuric acid produced is used in the manufacture of
fertilisers (ammonium sulphate, superphosphate).
Other uses are
(a) petroleum refining
(b) manufacture of pigments, paints and dyestuff intermediates
(c) detergent industry
(d) metallurgical applications (cleansing metals before enameling,
electroplating and galvanising)
(e) storage batteries
(f) in the manufacture of nitrocellulose products
(g) as a laboratory reagent
2561.Fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, astatine and tennessine are
known as halogens.
2562.Halogens are highly reactive non-metallic elements.
2563.Astatine and tennessine are radioactive elements.
2564.Fluorine and chlorine are fairly abundant while bromine and iodine
less so.
2565.Fluorine is present mainly as insoluble fluorides and small quantities
are present in soil, river water plants and bones and teeth of animals.
2566.Sea water contains chlorides, bromides and iodides of sodium,
potassium, magnesium and calcium, but is mainly sodium chloride
solution (2.5% by mass).
2567.The deposits of dried up seas contain these compounds, sodium
chloride and carnallite.
2568.Contain upto 0.5% of iodine and Chile saltpetre contains up to 0.2% of
sodium iodate.
2569.Tennessine is a synthetic radioactive element.
2570.Halogens have the smallest atomic radii.
2571.The atomic radius of fluorine is extremely small.
2572.Ionisation enthalpy have little tendency to lose electrons. Thus they
have very high ionisation enthalpy.
2573.Halogens have maximum negative electron gain enthalpy.
2574.Enthalpy of fluorine is less than that of chlorine.
2575.Fluorine is the most electronegative element in the periodic table.
2576.Fluorine and chlorine are gases, bromine is a liquid and iodine is a
solid.
2577.All halogens are coloured.
2578.Fluorine is yellow, Chlorine is a greenish yellow, Bromine is red and
Iodine is violet colour.
2589.Fluorine and chlorine react with water.
2590.Bromine and iodine are only sparingly soluble in water but are
soluble in various organic solvents such as chloroform, carbon
tetrachloride, carbon disulphide and hydrocarbons to give coloured
solutions.
2591.The higher oxidation states of chlorine, bromine and iodine are
realised mainly when the halogens are in combination with the small and
highly electronegative fluorine and oxygen atoms. e.g., in interhalogens,
oxides and oxoacids.
2592.All the halogens are highly reactive.
2593.Fluorine is the strongest oxidising halogen.
2594.Hydrogen fluoride is a liquid due to strong hydrogen bonding.
2595.Hydrogen halides which have bigger size and less electronegativity
are gases.
2596.Hydrogen halides dissolve in water to form hydrohalic acids.
2597.Oxygen difluoride and Dioxygen difluoride are strong fluorinating
agents.
2598.Chlorine oxides are highly reactive oxidising agents.
2599.Chlorine dioxide is used as a bleaching agent for paper pulp and
textiles and in water treatment.
2600.Bromine oxides are the least stable halogen oxides (middle row
anomaly) and exist only at low temperatures. They are very powerful
oxidising agents.
2601.Iodine oxides are insoluble solids and decompose on heating.
2602.Iodine pentoxide is a very good oxidising agent and is used in the
estimation of carbon monoxide.
2603.Tin chloride, Lead chloride, Antimony pentachloride, Uranium
hexafluoride are more covalent than Tin chloride, Lead chloride,
Antimony trichloride and Uranium tetrafluoride.
2604.Chlorine was discovered by Scheele.
2605.Davy established its elementary nature and suggested the name
chlorine on account of its colour (greenish yellow).
2606.Chlorine is obtained by the electrolysis of brine (concentrated NaCl
solution).
2607.Chlorine is liberated at anode.
2608.Chlorine is a greenish yellow gas with pungent and suffocating
odour.
2609.Chlorine is about 2-5 times heavier than air.
2610.Chlorine can be liquefied easily into greenish yellow liquid. It is
soluble in water.
2611.Chlorine water on standing loses its yellow colour due to the
formation of Hydrochloric acid and Hypochlorous acid.
2612.Chlorine is a powerful bleaching agent; bleaching action is due to
oxidation.
2613.Chlorine bleaches vegetables or organic matter in the presence of
moisture.
2614.Chlorine is used for bleaching wood pulp (required for the
manufacture of paper and rayon), bleaching cotton and textiles, in the
extraction of gold and platinum, in the manufacture of dyes, drugs and
organic compounds such as Carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, DDT,
refrigerants, in sterilising drinking water, preparation of poisonous gases
such as phosgene, tear gas, mustard gas.
2615.Glauber prepared hydrogen chloride by heating common salt with
concentrated sulphuric acid.
2616.Davy showed that hydrogen chloride is a compound of hydrogen and
chlorine.
2617.Hydrochloric acid can be dried by passing through concentrated
sulphuric acid.
2618.Hydrogen chloride is a colourless and pungent smelling gas.
2619.Hydrogen chloride is easily liquefied to a colourless liquid and freezes
to a white crystalline solid. It is extremely soluble in water.
2620.Hydrogen chloride aqueous solution is called hydrochloric acid It is a
strong acid in water.
2621.Aqua regia is formed which is used for dissolving noble metals, gold,
platinum.
2622.Hydrochloric acid decomposes salts of weak acids. Eg carbonates,
hydrogen carbonates, sulphites.
2623.Hydrogen chloride is used in the manufacture of chlorine, NH4Cl and
glucose (from corn starch), for extracting glue from bones and purifying
bone black, in medicine and as a laboratory reagent.
2634.Chlorine monofluoride is colourless gas.
2635.Bromine monofluoride is pale brown gas.
2636.Bromine monochloride is gas.
2637.Iodine monobromide is black solid.
2638.Chlorine trifluoride is colourless gas.
2639.Bromine trifluoride is yellow green liquid.
2640.Iodine trifluoride is yellow powder.
2641.Iodine trichloride is orange solid.
2642.Iodine pentafluoride is colourless gas.
2643.Bromine pantafluoride and Chlorine pentafluoride is colourless
liquid.
2644.Iodine heptafluoride is colourless gas.
2645.Interhalogen compounds are very useful fluorinating agents.
2646.Chlorine trifluoride and Bromine trifluoride are used for the
production of Uranium hexafluoride in the enrichment of 235U.
2647.Helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, radon and oganesson are
unreactive. They are termed as noble gases.
2648.Radon and oganesson occur in the atmosphere.
2649.Dry air is 1% by volume of which argon is the major constituent.
2650.Helium and neon are found in minerals of radioactive origin e.g,
pitchblende, monazite, cleveite.
2651.The main commercial source of helium is natural gas.
2652.Xenon and radon are the rarest elements of the group.
2653.Radon is obtained as a decay product of 226Ra.
2654.All the noble gases are monatomic. They are colourless, odourless
and tasteless. They are sparingly soluble in water. They have very low
melting and boiling point.
2655.Helium has the lowest boiling point.
2656.Noble gases are least reactive.
2657.Neil Bartlett observed the reaction of a noble gas.
2658.Xenon compounds mainly with most electronegative elements like
fluorine and oxygen.
2659.Xenon Difluoride, Xenon tetrafluoride and Xenon Hexafluoride are
colourless crystalline solids. They are powerful fluorinating agents. They
are readily hydrolysed even by traces of water.
2660.Xenon trioxide is a colourless explosive solid and has a pyramidal
molecular structure.
2661.Xenon oxytetrafluoride is a colourless volatile liquid and has a
square pyramidal molecular structure.
2662.Helium is a non-inflammable and light gas.
2663.Helium is used in filling balloons for meteorological observations.
2664.Helium is also used in gas-cooled nuclear reactors.
2665.Liquid helium use as cryogenic agent at low temperatures.
2666.Helium is used to produce and sustain powerful superconducting
magnets which form an essential part of modern NMR spectrometers and
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) systems for clinical diagnosis.
2667.Helium is used as a diluent for oxygen in modern diving apparatus
because of its very low solubility in blood.
2668.Neon is used in discharge tubes and fluorescent bulbs for
advertisement display purposes.
2669.Neon bulbs are used in botanical gardens and in green houses.
2670.Argon is used mainly to provide an inert atmosphere in high
temperature metallurgical processes (arc welding of metals or alloys) and
for filling electric bulbs.
2671.Argon is also used in the laboratory for handling substances that are
air-sensitive.
2672.Argon are used in light bulbs.
2673.Iron, copper, silver and gold are the transition elements.
2674.The inner transition elements such as Thorium, Protactinium and
Uranium are sources of nuclear energy.
2675.The two series of inner transition metals are known as lanthanoids
and actinoids.
2676.Zinc, cadmium and mercury are not transition metals.
2677.Iron, copper and titanium belongs to the transition metals series.
2678.The transition metals (Zinc, Cadmium and Mercury) are very hard.
2679.Hund's rule of maximum multiplicity is a rule based on observation
of atomic spectra, which is used to predict the ground state of an atom or
molecule with one or more open electronic shells.
2680.Chromium in the form of dichromate in acidic medium is a strong
oxidising agent.
2681.Nickel tetracarbonyl and Iron pentacarbonyl , the oxidation state of
nickel and iron is zero.
2682.Oxidising agents are nitric and sulphuric acid.
2683.Titanium and vanadium are passive to dilute non oxidising acids at
room temperature.
2684.Mangnese and Cobalt ions are the strongest oxidising agents.
2685.Titanium, Vanadium and Chromium are strong reducing agents.
2686.Substances which are attracted very strongly are said to be
ferromagnetic.
2687.Bohr magneton is a physical constant and the natural unit for
expressing the magnetic moment of an electron caused by either its orbital
or spin angular momentum.
2688.Vanadium oxide (in Contact Process), finely divided iron (in Haber’s
Process), and nickel (in Catalytic Hydrogenation) are some of the
examples.
2689.An alloy is a blend of metals prepared by mixing the components.
2690.Alloys may be homogeneous solid solutions.
2691.Alloys so formed are hard and have high melting points.
2692.Ferrous alloys are chromium, vanadium, tungsten, molybdenum and
manganese are used for the production of a variety of steels and stainless
steel.
2693.Alloys of transition metals with non transition metals such as brass
(copper-zinc) and bronze (copper-tin).
2694.Scandium form Molybdenum oxides which are ionic.
2695.Manganese, Manganese heptoxide is a covalent green oil.
2696.Chromium trioxide and Vanadium pentoxide have low melting
points.
2697.Vanadium pentoxide is amphoteric though mainly acidic.
2698.Chromium Oxide is basic but Chromium oxide powder is amphoteric.
2699.Potassium dichromate is used in leather industry and as an oxidant
for preparation of many azo compounds.
2700.Sodium dichromate is more soluble than potassium dichromate.
2701.Sodium and potassium dichromates are strong oxidising agents; the
sodium salt has a greater solubility in water and is extensively used as an
oxidising agent.
2702.Potassium dichromate is used as a primary standard in volumetric
analysis.
2703.Potassium permanganate forms dark purple (almost black) crystals.
The salt is not very soluble in water.
2704.Permanganate titrations in presence of hydrochloric acid.
Hydrochloric acid is oxidised to chlorine.
2705.Potassium permanganate is used for the bleaching of wool, cotton,
silk and other textile fibres and for the decolourisation of oils are also
dependent on its strong oxidising power.
2706.Cerium is a good analytical reagent.
2707.Europium is a strong reducing agent.
2708.All the lanthanides are silvery white soft metals and tarnish rapidly
in air.
2709.Samarium being steel hard.
2710.Lanthanoids are good conductors of heat and electricity.
2711.Lanthanoid ions are coloured both in the solid state and in aqueous
solutions.
2712.Lanthanoids is used for the production of alloy steels for plates and
pipes.
2713.Alloy is mischmetall which consists of a lanthanoid metal and iron.
2714.Mischmetall is used in Mg-based alloy to produce bullets, shell and
lighter flint.
2715.Lanthanoids are employed as catalysts in petroleum cracking.
2716.Lanthanoids oxides are used as phosphors in television screens and
similar fluorescing surfaces.
2717.Actinoids are radioactive elements.
2718.Actinoids are highly reactive metals.
2719.Titanium oxide for the pigment industry and Manganese oxide for use
in dry battery cells.
2720.Copper coins are copper-coated steel.
2721.Silver Coins are a Copper/Nickel alloy.
2722.Iron catalysts are used in the Haber process for the production of
ammonia.
2723.Ziegler catalysts used to manufacture polyethylene (polythene).
2724. Wacker process the oxidation of ethyne to ethanal is catalysed by
PdCl2.
2725.Nickel complexes are useful in the polymerisation of alkynes and
other organic compounds such as benzene.
2726.The photographic industry for Silver bromide.
2727.Pyrolusite ore is used for the preparation of potassium
permanganate.
2728.Complex compounds in which the metal atoms are bound to a number
of anions or neutral molecules by sharing of electrons.
2729.Chlorophyll, haemoglobin and vitamin B12 are coordination
compounds of magnesium, iron and cobalt.
2730.Alfred Werner was the first to formulate his ideas about the
structures of coordination compounds.
2731.Werner proposed the concept of a primary valence and a secondary
valence.
2732.Binary compounds are Chromium chloride, Phosgene or Palladium
chloride.
2733.Isomers is each of two or more compounds with the same formula
but a different arrangement of atoms in the molecule and different
properties.
2734.Werner propounded his theory of coordination compounds.
2735.The secondary valences are non ionisable.
2736.The primary valences are normally ionisable.
2737.Double salts such as carnallite, Mohr’s salt, potash alum.
2738.Warner explained the difference in properties of certain nitrogen
containing organic substances on the basis of isomerism.
2739.Werner was the first to discover optical activity in certain
coordination compounds.
2740.Werner proposed revolutionary ideas about how atoms and
molecules are linked together.
2741.Werner became the first Swiss chemist to win the Nobel Prize in 1913
for his work on the linkage of atoms and the coordination theory.
2742.A Lewis acid is a chemical species that contains an empty orbital
which is capable of accepting an electron pair from a Lewis base to form a
Lewis adduct.
2743.The oxidation number is represented by a Roman numeral.
2744.Complexes in which a metal is bound to only one kind of donor groups
are known as homoleptic.
2745.Complexes in which a metal is bound to more than one kind of donor
groups are known as heteroleptic.
2746.Nomenclature is important in Coordination Chemistry.
2747.Oxidation state of the metal in cation, anion or neutral coordination
entity is indicated by Roman numeral.
2748.Carbon monoxide in a complex cation is called cobalt and Pt is called
platinum.
2749.Carbon monoxide in a complex anion is called cobaltate.
2750.Complex anions, Ferrate for Ferrium.
2751.Complex ion is a cation.
2752.All the ligands are neutral molecules.
2753.Isomers are two or more compounds.
2754.Valence bond theory is one of two basic theories, along with
molecular orbital theory, that were developed to use the methods of
quantum mechanics to explain chemical bonding.
2755.Crystal Field Theory describes the breaking of degeneracy of electron
orbital states, usually d or f orbitals, due to a static electric field produced
by a surrounding charge distribution.
2756.Ligand field theory describes the bonding, orbital arrangement, and
other characteristics of coordination complexes. It represents an
application of molecular orbital theory to transition metal complexes.
2757.Molecular orbital theory is a method for describing the electronic
structure of molecules using quantum mechanics.
2758.Hybridisation is a mathematical manipulation of wave equation for
the atomic orbitals involved.
2759.Visible spectrum is removed from white light as it passes through the
sample, so the light that emerges is no longer white.
2760.If green light is absorbed by the complex, it appears red.
2761.Crystal Field Theory describes the breaking of orbital degeneracy in
transition metal complexes due to the presence of ligands.
2762.Complex appear which is violet in colour.
2763.Crystal field splitting does not occur and substance is colourless.
2764.Anhydrous Copper sulfate is white, but Copper sulfate pentahydrate
is blue in colour.
2765.Ruby is aluminium oxide.
2766.Ruby shift to longer wavelength, namely yellow-red and blue,
causing emerald to transmit light in the green region.
2767.Ruby gemstone was found in marble from Mogok, Myanmar
2768.Emerald gemstone was found in Muzo, Columbia.
2728.Anionic ligands exert the greatest splitting effect.
2729.Ligands especially chelating ligands.
2730.Silver and gold make use of complex formation.
2731.Gold can be separated in metallic form.
2732.The pigment responsible for photosynthesis, chlorophyll, is a
coordination compound of magnesium.
2733.Haemoglobin, the red pigment of blood which acts as oxygen carrier
is a coordination compound of iron.
2734.Vitamin B12, cyanocobalamin, the anti– pernicious anaemia factor, is
a coordination compound of cobalt.
2735.Enzymes like carboxypeptidase A and carbonic anhydrase (catalysts
of biological systems).
2736.Coordination compounds are used as catalysts for many industrial
processes. Examples include rhodium complex.
2737.Wilkinson catalyst used for the hydrogenation of alkenes.
2738.In black and white photography, the developed film is fixed by
washing with hypo solution.
2739.Excess of copper and iron are removed by the chelating ligands D–
penicillamine and desferrioxamine B via the formation of coordination
compounds.
2740.EDTA is used in the treatment of lead poisoning.
2741.Platinum inhibit the growth of tumours. Examples are: cis–platin.
2742.Halogenated compounds persist in the environment due to their
resistance to breakdown by soil bacteria.
2743.Hydrocarbon by halogen atom results in the formation of alkyl
halide (haloalkane) and aryl halide (haloarene).
2744.Haloalkanes contain halogen atoms.
2745.Haloarenes contain halogen atoms.
2746.Chlorine containing antibiotic, chloramphenicol, produced by
microorganisms is very effective for the treatment of typhoid fever.
2747.Iodine containing hormone, thyroxine, the deficiency of which causes
a disease called goiter.
2748.Chloroquine is used for the treatment of malaria.
2749.Halothane is used as an anaesthetic during surgery.
2750.Fluorine atom is the smallest and iodine atom is the largest.
2751.Alkyl halides are best prepared from alcohols.
2752.Hydrogen bromide is used for preparing alkyl bromide.
2753.Markovnikov's rule or Markownikoff's rule describes the outcome of
some addition reactions. The rule was formulated by Vladimir
Markovnikov.
2754.Finkelstein, is an SN2 reaction that involves the exchange of one
halogen atom for another.
2755.Sodium chloride or Sodium bromide is formed precipitated in dry
acetone.
2756.Le Chatelier’s Principle is named after Henry Louis Le Chatelier and
sometimes Karl Ferdinand Braun who discovered it.
2757.Frédéric Swarts who prepared the first chlorofluorocarbon.
2758.Alkyl halides are colourless when pure.
2859.Bromides and iodides develop colour when exposed to light.
2860.Methyl chloride, methyl bromide, ethyl chloride and some
chlorofluoromethanes are gases at room temperature.
2861.Molecules of organic halogen compounds are generally polar.
2862.Intermolecular forces of attraction (dipole-dipole and van der Waals)
are stronger in the halogen derivatives.
2863.Methylpropane has the lowest boiling point.
2864.Para-isomers are high melting point.
2865.Bromo, iodo and polychloro derivatives of hydrocarbons are heavier
than water.
2866.Haloalkanes are very slightly soluble in water.
2867.Solubility of haloalkanes in water is low.
2868.Haloalkanes tend to dissolve in organic solvents.
2869.Nucleophiles are electron rich species.
2870.Silver chloride is mainly covalent in nature and nitrogen is free to
donate electron pair forming isocyanide.
2871.Tertiary halides are the least reactive.
2872.Allylic and benzylic halides show high reactivity.
2873.William Nicol developed the first prism that produced plane polarised
light.
2874.The angle by which the plane polarised light is rotated is measured
by an instrument called a polarimeter.
2875.If the compound rotates the plane of plane polarised light to the right
is called dextrorotatory.
2876.Optical isomers are two compounds which contain the same number
and kinds of atoms, and bonds (connectivity between atoms is the same).
2877.The observation of Louis Pasteur that crystals of certain compounds
exist in the form of mirror images laid the foundation of modern
stereochemistry.
2878.Jacobus Hendricus Van’t Hoff received the first Nobel Prize in
Chemistry in 1901.
2829.Joseph Achille Le Bel is best known for his work in stereochemistry.
2830.The objects which are non superimposable on their mirror image
(like a pair of hands) are said to be chiral and this property is known as
chirality.
2831.Objects, which are superimposable on their mirror images are called
achiral.
2832.Chiral objects have a "handedness", for example, golf clubs, scissors,
shoes and a corkscrew. Gloves and shoes come in pairs, a right and a left.
2833.The stereoisomers related to each other as nonsuperimposable
mirror images are called enantiomers.
2834.Enantiomers possess identical physical properties melting point,
boiling point, refractive index.
2835.A mixture containing two enantiomers in equal proportions will have
zero optical rotation, as the rotation due to one isomer will be cancelled by
the rotation due to the other isomer is known as a racemic mixture.
2836.The process of conversion of enantiomer into a racemic mixture is
known as racemisation.
2837.Aleksander Mikhaylovich Zaytsev, also spelled as Saytzeff and
Saytzeff, was worked on organic compounds and proposed Zaitsev's rule,
which predicts the product composition of an elimination reaction.
2838.Organo-metallic compounds discovered by Victor Grignard.
2839.Charles Adolphe Wurtz, is a coupling reaction in organic chemistry,
organometallic chemistry and recently inorganic main group polymers.
2840.Haloarenes are less reactive than haloalkanes.
2841.Dichloromethane is widely used as a solvent as a paint remover, as a
propellant in aerosols, and as a process solvent in the manufacture of
drugs.
2842.Dichloromethane is also used as a metal cleaning and finishing
solvent.
2843.Methylene chloride harms the human central nervous system.
2844.Exposure to lower levels of methylene chloride in air can lead to
slightly impaired hearing and vision.
2845.Higher levels of methylene chloride in air cause dizziness, nausea,
tingling and numbness in the fingers and toes.
2846.In humans, direct skin contact with methylene chloride causes
intense burning and mild redness of the skin. Direct contact with the eyes
can burn the cornea.
2847.Chloroform is employed as a solvent for fats, alkaloids, iodine and
other substances.
2848.Chloroform is used in the production of the freon refrigerant.
2849.Chloroform used as a general anaesthetic in surgery.
2850.Chloroform use as an anaesthetic, inhaling chloroform vapours
depresses the central nervous system.
2851.Chloroform can cause dizziness, fatigue, and headache.
2852.Chronic chloroform exposure may cause damage to the liver (where
chloroform is metabolised to phosgene) and to the kidneys, and some
people develop sores when the skin is immersed in chloroform.
2853.Chloroform is slowly oxidised by air in the presence of light to an
extremely poisonous gas, carbonyl chloride, also known as phosgene.
2854.Chloroform is stored in closed dark coloured bottles completely filled
so that air is kept out.
2855.Idoform was used earlier as an antiseptic but the antiseptic
properties are due to the liberation of free iodine and not due to iodoform
itself. Due to its objectionable smell, it has been replaced by other
formulations containing iodine.
2856.Carbon tetrachloride is used in the manufacture of refrigerants and
propellants for aerosol cans.
2857.Carbon tetrachloride is also used as feedstock in the synthesis of
chlorofluorocarbons and other chemicals, pharmaceutical
manufacturing, and general solvent use.
2858.Carbon tetrachloride was also widely used as a cleaning fluid, both in
industry, as a degreasing agent, and in the home, as a spot remover and as
a fire extinguisher.
2859.Carbon tetrachloride causes liver cancer in humans. The most
common effects are dizziness, lightheadedness, nausea and vomiting,
which can cause permanent damage to nerve cells.
2860.Exposure to CCl4 can make the heart beat irregularly or stop. The
chemical may irritate the eyes on contact.
2861.When carbon tetrachloride is released into the air, it rises into the
atmosphere and depletes the ozone layer.
2862.Depletion of the ozone layer is to increase human exposure to
ultraviolet rays, leading to increased skin cancer, eye diseases and
disorders, and possible disruption of the immune system.
2863.The chlorofluorocarbon compounds of methane and ethane are
collectively known as freons.
2864.Freons are extremely stable, unreactive, non-toxic, noncorrosive and
easily liquefiable gases.
2865.Freon 12 is one of the most common freons in industrial use.
2866.Freon is manufactured from tetrachloromethane by Swarts reaction.
2867.Freon are usually produced for aerosol propellants, refrigeration and
air conditioning purposes.
2868. By 1974, total freon production in the world was about 2 billion
pounds annually.
2869.Freon is used in refrigeration where it diffuses unchanged into the
stratosphere.
2870.In stratosphere, freon is able to initiate radical chain reactions that
can upset the natural ozone balance.
2871.DDT, the first chlorinated organic insecticides, was originally
prepared in 1873.
2872.Paul Muller of Geigy discovered the effectiveness of DDT as an
insecticide.
2873.Paul Muller was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine and Physiology
in 1948 for DDT.
2874.The use of DDT increased enormously on a worldwide basis after
World War II.
2875.Mosquito that spreads malaria and lice that carry typhus.
2876.Many species of insects developed resistance to DDT, and it was also
discovered to have a high toxicity towards fish.
2877.The chemical stability of DDT and its fat solubility compounded the
problem.
2878.DDT is deposited and stored in the fatty tissues.
2879.The use of DDT was banned in the United States in 1973.
2880.Alcohols, phenols and ethers are the basic compounds for the
formation of detergents, antiseptics and fragrances.
2881.Alcohols and phenols are formed when a hydrogen atom in a
hydrocarbon, aliphatic and aromatic.
2882.Ordinary spirit used for polishing wooden furniture.
2883.Ethers are classified as simple or symmetrical.
2884.If the alkyl or aryl groups attached to the oxygen atom are the same,
and mixed or unsymmetrical.
2885.Methanol is methyl alcohol.
2886.Benzene is phenol.
2887.Hydroboration-oxidation was first reported by H.C. Brown in 1959.
For his studies on boron containing organic compounds, Brown shared the
1979 Nobel prize in Chemistry with G. Wittig.
2888.Alcohol is obtained in excellent yield.
2889.Aldehydes yield primary alcohols whereas ketones give secondary
alcohols.
2890.Lithium aluminium hydride is an expensive reagent.
2891.Acids are reduced to alcohols by converting them to the esters.
2892.Phenol, also known as carbolic acid, was first isolated from coal tar.
2893.Chlorobenzene is fused with sodium hydroxide atmospheric
pressure.
2894.Benzene is sulphonated with oleum and benzene sulphonic acid.
2895.Acidification of the sodium salt gives phenol.
2896.Diazonium salts are hydrolysed to phenols by warming with water
or by treating with dilute acids.
2897.Phenol is manufactured from the hydrocarbon, cumene.
2898.Cumene (isopropylbenzene) is oxidised in the presence of air to
cumene hydroperoxide.
2899.Ethanol and propane have comparable molecular masses.
2900.Hydrocarbons, ethers, haloalkanes and haloarenes of comparable
molecular masses.
2901.The high boiling points of alcohols are mainly due to the presence of
intermolecular hydrogen bonding.
2902.Solubility of alcohols and phenols in water is due to their ability to
form hydrogen bonds with water molecules.
2903.Alcohols are versatile compounds.
2904.Alcohols as nucleophiles.
2905.Protonated alcohols as electrophiles.
2906.Alcohols and phenols are acidic in nature.
2907.Alcohols and phenols are Brönsted acids.
2908.The acidic character of alcohol is due to the polar nature.
2909.Alcohols are weaker acids than water.
2910.Water is a proton donor (stronger acid) than alcohol.
2911.Alkoxide ion is a proton acceptor.
2912.Alkoxides are stronger bases (sodium ethoxide is a stronger base
than sodium hydroxide).
2913.Alcohols act as Bronsted bases.
2914.Sodium, aluminium and sodium hydroxide indicate its acidic nature.
2915.Phenols are stronger acids than alcohols and water.
2916.Cresols are less acidic than phenol.
2917.Acetyl group in alcohols or phenols is known as acetylation.
2918.Acetylation of salicylic acid produces aspirin.
2919. Alcohols are soluble in Lucas reagent while their halides are
immiscible and produce turbidity.
2920.Primary alcohols do not produce turbidity at room temperature.
2921.Dehydration is removal of a molecule of water.
2922.Secondary and tertiary alcohols are dehydrated under milder
conditions.
2923.Tertiary carbocations are more stable and easier to form than
secondary and primary carbocations; tertiary alcohols are the easiest to
dehydrate.
2924.A cleavage and formation of bonds occur in oxidation reactions are
also known as dehydrogenation.
2925.Strong oxidising agents such as potassium permanganate are used
for getting carboxylic acids from alcohols.
2926.Chromium trioxide in anhydrous medium is used as the oxidising
agent for the isolation of aldehydes.
2927.Tertiary alcohols do not undergo oxidation reaction.
2928.Potassium permanganate a strong oxidising agent.
2929.Dehydrogenation takes place and an aldehyde or a ketone is formed
while tertiary alcohols undergo dehydration.
2930.Methanol is oxidised first to methanal and then to methanoic acid,
which may cause blindness and death.
2931.The enzyme responsible for oxidation of aldehyde to acid is swamped
allowing time for kidneys to excrete methanol.
2932.The ortho and para isomers can be separated by steam distillation.
2933.Trinitrophenol is a strong acid due to the presence of three electrons.
2934.Picric acid is prepared by treating phenol with concentrated
sulphuric acid.
2935.Benzene takes place in the presence of a Lewis acid.
2936.Polarisation of bromine molecule takes place even in the absence of
Lewis acid.
2937.Oxidation of phenol with chromic acid produces a conjugated
diketone known as benzoquinone.
2938.Phenols are slowly oxidised to dark coloured mixtures containing
quinones.
2939.Methanol and ethanol are among the two commercially important
alcohols.
2940.Methnol also known as ‘wood spirit’, was produced by destructive
distillation of wood.
2941.Methanol is a colourless liquid.
2942.Methanol is highly poisonous in nature.
2943.Methanol can cause blindness and large quantities causes even
death.
2944.Methanol is used as a solvent in paints, varnishes and chiefly for
making formaldehyde.
2945.Ethanol is obtained commercially by fermentation, the oldest method
is from sugars.
2946.The sugar in molasses, sugarcane or fruits such as grapes is
converted to glucose and fructose, in the presence of an enzyme, invertase.
2947.Glucose and fructose undergo fermentation in the presence of
another enzyme, zymase, which is found in yeast.
2948.Ingestion of ethanol acts on the central nervous system.
2949.Ethanol affects judgment and lowers inhibitions. Higher
concentrations cause nausea and loss of consciousness.
2950.Ethanol interferes with spontaneous respiration and can be fatal.
2951.Grapes are the source of sugars and yeast.
2952.As grapes ripen, the quantity of sugar increases and yeast grows on
the outer skin.
2953.When grapes are crushed, sugar and the enzyme come in contact and
fermentation starts.
2954.Fermentation takes place in anaerobic conditions i.e. in absence of
air.
2955.Carbon dioxide is released during fermentation.
2956.If air gets into fermentation mixture, the oxygen of air oxidises
ethanol to ethanoic acid which in turn destroys the taste of alcoholic
drinks.
2957.Ethanol is a colourless liquid.
2958.Ethanol is used as a solvent in paint industry and in the preparation
of a number of carbon compounds.
2959.The commercial alcohol is made unfit for drinking by mixing in it
some copper sulphate (to give it a colour) and pyridine (a foul smelling
liquid). It is known as denaturation of alcohol.
2960.Ethanol are obtained by hydration of ethene.
2961.Diethyl ether has been used widely as an inhalation anaesthetic.
2962.Alcohols undergo dehydration in the presence of protic acids.
2963.Ethanol is dehydrated to ethene in the presence of sulphuric acid.
2964.Acidic dehydration of alcohols, to give an alkene.
2965.Alexander William Williamson became Professor of Chemistry at
University College, London. He is best known today for the Williamson
ether synthesis.
2966.Phenol is used as the phenoxide moiety.
2967.The large difference in boiling points of alcohols and ethers is due to
the presence of hydrogen bonding in alcohols.
2968.Ethers are the least reactive.
2969.Iodide is a good nucleophile.
2970.Phenols do not react further to give halide.
2971.Halogens are called amides and acyl halide.
2972.Esters and anhydrides are derivatives of carboxylic acids.
2973.Aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids are widespread in plants
and animal kingdom.
2974.Vanillin (from vanilla beans), salicylaldehyde (from meadow sweet)
and cinnamaldehyde (from cinnamon) have very pleasant fragrances.
2975.Aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids are used in many food
products and pharmaceuticals to add flavours. Some of these families are
manufactured for use as solvents (i.e., acetone) and for preparing
materials like adhesives, paints, resins, perfumes, plastics, fabrics.
2976.Aldehydes and ketones are the simplest and most important carbonyl
compounds.
2977.Aldehydes and ketones are often called by their common names
instead of IUPAC names.
2978.Carbonyl carbon is an electrophilic (Lewis acid), and carbonyl
oxygen, a nucleophilic (Lewis base).
2979.Primary and secondary alcohols give aldehydes and ketones.
2980.Acyl chloride (acid chloride) is hydrogenated over catalyst,
palladium on barium sulphate. This reaction is called Rosenmund
reduction.
2981.Strong oxidising agents oxidise toluene and its derivatives to benzoic
acids.
2982.Methanal is a gas at room temperature. Ethanal is a volatile liquid.
2983.Aldehydes and ketones are liquid or solid at room temperature.
2984.The boiling points of aldehydes and ketones are higher than
hydrocarbons and ethers.
2985.The lower members of aldehydes and ketones such as methanal,
ethanal and propanone are miscible with water.
2986.All aldehydes and ketones are fairly soluble in organic solvents like
benzene, ether, methanol, chloroform.
2987.Aldehydes and ketones are used in the blending of perfumes and
flavouring agents.
2988.Aldehydes are generally more reactive than ketones.
2989.Aldehydes react with one equivalent of monohydric alcohol in the
presence of dry hydrogen chloride to yield alkoxy alcohol intermediate,
known as hemiacetals.
2990.Acetals and ketals are hydrolysed.
2991.Yellow, orange or red solids, useful for characterisation of aldehydes
and ketones.
2992.Aldehydes are easily oxidised to carboxylic acids on treatment with
common oxidising agents like nitric acid, potassium permanganate,
potassium dichromate.
2993.Tollens’ reagent and Fehlings’ reagent also oxidise aldehydes.
2994.Bernhard Tollens was a Professor of Chemistry at the University of
Gottingen, Germany.
2995.Silver mirror is produced due to the formation of silver metal.
2996.Sodium potassium tartrate (Rochelle salt).
2997.Aldehydes and ketones are used as solvents and reagents for the
synthesis.
2998.Formaldehyde is well known as formalin is used to preserve to
prepare bakelite (a phenol-formaldehyde resin), urea-formaldehyde glues
and other polymeric products.
2999.Acetaldehyde is used primarily as a starting material in the
manufacture of acetic acid, ethyl acetate, vinyl acetate, polymers and
drugs.
3000.Benzaldehyde is used in perfumery and in dye industries.
3001.Acetone and ethyl methyl ketone are common industrial solvents.
3002.Aldehydes and ketones, e.g., butyraldehyde, vanillin, acetophenone,
camphor are well known for their odours and flavours.
3003.Carboxylic acids may be aliphatic or aromatic depending on the
group, alkyl or aryl.
3004.Carboxylic acids known as fatty acids, occur in natural fats as esters
of glycerol.
3005.Carboxylic acids serve as organic compounds such as anhydrides,
esters, acid chlorides, amides.
3006.Carboxylic acids are also prepared from aldehydes by the use of mild
oxidising agents.
3007.Aliphatic carboxylic acids upto nine carbon atoms are colourless
liquids at room temperature with unpleasant odours.
3008.The higher acids are wax like solids and are practically odourless due
to their low volatility.
3009.Carboxylic acids are higher boiling liquids than aldehydes and
ketones.
3010.Carboxylic acids exist as a dimer in the vapour phase or in aprotic
solvents.
3011.Higher carboxylic acids are insoluble in water.
3012.Benzoic acid the simplest aromatic carboxylic acid is insoluble in cold
water.
3013.Carboxylic acids are also soluble in less polar organic solvents like
benzene, ether, alcohol, chloroform.
3014.Trifluoroacetic acid the strongest carboxylic acid.
3015.Carboxylic acids are weaker than mineral acids, but they are
stronger acids than alcohols.
3016.Carboxylic acids are most acidic organic compounds.
3017.Phenols are more acidic than alcohols.
3018.Carboxylic acids are more acidic than phenols.
3019.Sodalime (Sodium hydroxide and Calcium oxide in the ratio of 3 : 1).
3020.Methanoic acid is used in rubber, textile, dyeing, leather and
electroplating industries.
3021.Ethanoic acid is used as a solvent and as vinegar in food industry.
3022.Hexanedioic acid is used in the manufacture of nylon.
3023.Esters of benzoic acid are used in perfumery.
3024.Sodium benzoate is used as a food preservative.
3025.Higher fatty acids are used for the manufacture of soaps and
detergents.
3026.Amines is used in the synthesis of medicines and fibres”.
3027.Adrenaline and ephedrine, both containing secondary amino group,
are used to increase blood pressure.
3028.Novocain a synthetic amino compound is used as an anaesthetic in
dentistry.
3029.Antihistaminic drug also contains tertiary amino group.
3030.Quaternary ammonium salts are used as surfactants.
3031.Diazonium salts are intermediates in the preparation of a variety of
aromatic compounds including dyes.
3032.Primary amines are named as alkanamines.
3033.Secondary and tertiary amines and also a quaternary ammonium
salt.
3034.Primary amine is obtained as a major product by taking large excess
of ammonia.
3035.Gabriel synthesis is used for the preparation of primary amines.
3036.The lower aliphatic amines are gases with fishy odour.
3037.Primary amines with three or more carbon atoms are liquid and still
higher ones are solid.
3038.Aniline and other arylamines are usually colourless but get coloured
on storage due to atmospheric oxidation.
3039.Lower aliphatic amines are soluble in water.
3040.Higher amines are essentially insoluble in water.
3041.Electronegativity of nitrogen of amine and oxygen of alcohol as 3.0
and 3.5.
3042.Amines are soluble in organic solvents like alcohol, ether and
benzene.
3043.Alcohols are more polar than amines.
3044.Amines act as nucleophiles due to the presence of unshared electron
pair.
3045.Amines, being basic in nature.
3046.Amine salts are soluble in water but insoluble in organic solvents like
ether.
3047.Amines have an unshared pair of electrons on nitrogen atom due to
which they behave as a Lewis base.
3048.Alkylamines are stronger bases than ammonia.
3049.The products obtained by acylation reaction are known as amides.
3050.Nitrous acid which is prepared in situ from a mineral acid and
sodium nitrite.
3051.Lewis acid, which is used as a catalyst.
3052.The conversion of primary aromatic amines into diazonium salts is
known as diazotization.
3053.Due to its instability, the diazonium salt is not generally stored.
3054.Benzenediazonium chloride is a colourless crystalline solid.
3055.Benzenediazonium chloride is soluble in water and is stable in cold
but reacts with water when warmed.
3056.Benzenediazonium chloride decomposes easily in the dry state.
3057.Benzenediazonium fluoroborate is water insoluble and stable at
room temperature.
3058.Cyanobenzene can be easily obtained from diazonium salt.
3059.Examples of carbohydrates are cane sugar, glucose, starch.
3060.Carboxycarben is not a carbohydrate.
3061.Rhamnose is a carbohydrate.
3062.Carbohydrates may be defined as optically active polyhydroxy
aldehydes or ketones or the compounds which produce such units on
hydrolysis.
3063.Carbohydrates, which are sweet in taste, are also called sugars.
3064.Sugar present in milk is known as lactose.
3065.Carbohydrates are also called saccharides (sugar).
3066.Monosaccharides are known to occur in nature. Some common
examples are glucose, fructose, ribose.
3067.Polysaccharides of examples are starch, cellulose, glycogen, gums.
3068.Polysaccharides are not sweet in taste are also called non-sugars.
3069.Carbohydrates may also be classified as either reducing or
nonreducing sugars.
3070.All those carbohydrates which reduce Fehling’s solution and Tollens’
reagent are referred to as reducing sugars.
3071.All monosaccharides whether aldose or ketose are reducing sugars.
3072.Glucose occurs freely in nature. It is present in sweet fruits and
honey. Ripe grapes also contain glucose.
3073.Glucose is obtained by hydrolysis of starch.
3074.Glucose is an aldohexose and is also known as dextrose.
3075.Glucose is the monomer of many of the larger carbohydrates, namely
starch, cellulose.
3076.Glucose is probably the most abundant organic compound on earth.
3077.Steriosomer is each of two or more compounds differing only in the
spatial arrangement of their atoms.
3078.Glucose is found to exist in two different crystalline forms.
3079.Glucose is obtained by crystallisation from concentrated solution.
3080.An anomer is a type of geometric variation found at certain atoms in
carbohydrate molecules.
3081.An anomer is an epimer at the hemiacetal/acetal carbon in a cyclic
saccharide, an atom called the anomeric carbon.
3082.Fructose is an important ketohexose.
3083.Fructose is obtained along with glucose by the hydrolysis of
disaccharide, sucrose.
3084.Fructose is a natural monosaccharide found in fruits, honey and
vegetables.
3085.Sucrose is non reducing sugar.
3086.Reducing sugars are Glucose, Fructose, Mannose, Galactose, Lactose,
and Maltose.
3087.One common disaccharide is sucrose.
3088.Inverted sugar syrup (also called invert syrup) is an edible mixture of
glucose and fructose that is made by heating sucrose (table sugar) with
water.
3089.Lactose is more commonly known as milk sugar since this
disaccharide is found in milk.
3099.Lactose is composed of galactose and glucose.
3100.Maltose is composed of two molecules of glucose.
3101.Polysaccharides contain a large number of monosaccharide units
joined together by glycosidic linkages.
3102.Polysaccharides are the most commonly encountered carbohydrates
in nature.
3103.Polysaccharides act as the food storage or structural materials.
3104.Starch is the main storage polysaccharide of plants.
3105.Starch is the most important dietary source for human beings.
3106.Starch is found in cereals, roots, tubers and some vegetables.
3107. Starch is a polymer of glucose and consists of Amylose and
Amylopectin.
3108.Amylose is water soluble component which constitutes about 15-20%
of starch.
3109.Amylose is a long unbranched chain of glucose.
3110.Amylopectin is insoluble in water and constitutes about 80- 85% of
starch.
3111.Amylopectin is a branched chain polymer of glucose.
3112.Cellulose occurs exclusively in plants and it is the most abundant
organic substance in plant kingdom.
3113.Cellulose is a predominant constituent of cell wall of plant cells.
3114.Cellulose is a straight chain polysaccharide.
3115.Carbohydrates are stored in animal body as glycogen. It is also
known as animal starch because its structure is similar to amylopectin
and is rather more highly branched.
3116.Glycogen is present in liver, muscles and brain.
3117.When the body needs glucose, enzymes break the glycogen down to
glucose.
3118.Glycogen is also found in yeast and fungi.
3119.Honey has been used for a long time as an instant source of energy by
‘Vaids.
3120.Carbohydrates are used as storage molecules as starch in plants and
glycogen in animals.
3121.Cell wall of bacteria and plants is made up of cellulose.
3122.Cellulose in the form of wood and clothe ourselves with cellulose in
the form of cotton fibre.
3123.Cellulose provide raw materials for many important industries like
textiles, paper, lacquers and breweries.
3124.Aldopentoses are present in nucleic acids.
3125.Carbohydrates are found in proteins and lipids.
3126.Glycine has sweet taste.
3127.Tyrosine was first obtained from cheese.
3128.Amino acids are classified as acidic, basic or neutral depending upon
the relative number of amino.
3129.Amino acids which can be synthesised in the body are known as non
essential amino acids.
3130.Amino acids which cannot be synthesised in the body and must be
obtained through diet are known as essential amino acids.
3131.Amino acids are usually colourless, crystalline solids.
3132.Amino are water-soluble, high melting solids and behave like salts
rather than simple amines or carboxylic acids.
3133.Amino acids show amphoteric as they react with both acids and
bases.
3134.If a third amino acid combines to a dipeptide, the product is called a
tripeptide.
3135.When the number of such amino acids is more than ten, then the
products are called polypeptides.
3136.Polypeptides with fewer amino acids are likely to be called proteins.
3137.Insulin which contains 51 amino acids.
3138.Fibrous proteins are insoluble in water. Some common examples are
keratin (present in hair, wool, silk) and myosin (present in muscles).
3139.Globular proteins are soluble in water. Insulin and albumins are the
common examples of globular proteins.
3140.Proteins may have one or more polypeptide chains.
3141.Helix is one of the most common ways in which a polypeptide chain
forms all possible hydrogen bonds.
3142.Proteins are composed of two or more polypeptide chains referred to
as sub-units.
3143.Globules unfold and helix get uncoiled and protein loses its biological
activity. This is called denaturation of protein.
3144.The coagulation of egg white on boiling is a common example of
denaturation.
3145.Example is curdling of milk which is caused due to the formation of
lactic acid by the bacteria present in milk.
3146.All the enzymes are globular proteins.
3147.Hydrolysis of maltose into glucose is named as maltase.
3148.Enzymes are said to reduce the magnitude of activation energy.
3149.Bacteria of the gut can produce some of the vitamins.
3150.Vitamins which are soluble in fat and oils but insoluble in water.
These are vitamins A, D, E and K. They are stored in liver and adipose (fat
storing) tissues.
3151.Vitamin C are soluble in water.
3152.Water soluble vitamins are excreted in urine and cannot be stored
(except vitamin B12).
3153.Vitamin A is source of Fish liver oil, carrots, butter and milk.
3154.Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) is source of Yeast, milk, green vegetables and
cereals.
3155.Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) is source of Milk, eggwhite, liver, kidney.
3156.Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) is source of Yeast, milk, egg yolk, cereals and
grams.
3157.Vitamin B12 is source of Meat, fish, egg and curd.
3158.Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) is source of Citrus fruits, amla and green
leafy vegetables.
3159.Vitamin D is source of Exposure to sunlight, fish and egg yolk.
3160.Vitamin E is source of Vegetable oils like wheat germ oil, sunflower
oil.
3161.Vitamin K is source of Green leafy vegetables.
3162.Deficiency diseases of Vitamin A is Xerophthalmia (hardening of
cornea of eye) Night blindness.
3163.Deficiency diseases of Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) is Beri beri (loss of
appetite, retarded growth).
3164.Deficiency diseases of Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) is Cheilosis (fissuring
at corners of mouth and lips), digestive disorders and burning sensation of
the skin.
3165.Deficiency diseases of Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) is Convulsions.
3166.Deficiency diseases of Vitamin B12 is Pernicious anaemia (RBC
deficient in haemoglobin).
3167.Deficiency diseases of Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) is Scurvy (bleeding
gums).
3168.Deficiency diseases of Vitamin D is Rickets (bone deformities in
children) and osteomalacia (soft bones and joint pain in adults).
3169.Deficiency diseases of Vitamin E is Increased fragility of RBCs and
muscular weakness.
3170.Deficiency disease of Vitamin K is Increased blood clotting time.
3171.Nucleus of a living cell is responsible for this transmission of inherent
characters also called heredity.
3172.The particles in the nucleus of the cell, responsible for heredity, are
called chromosomes which are made up of proteins and another type of
biomolecules called nucleic acids.
3173.Nucleic acids are long chain polymers of nucleotides, so they are also
called polynucleotides.
3174.James Dewey Watson from Indiana University in Zoology. He is best
known for his discovery of the structure of DNA.
3175.Francis Crick proposed the double helix structure of the DNA
molecule.
3176.Maurice Wilkin is known for X-ray diffraction, DNA.
3177.DNA contains four bases adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine.
3178.A unit formed by the attachment of a base to position of sugar is
known as nucleoside.
3179.Watson and Francis Crick gave a double strand helix structure for
DNA.
3180.Adenine forms hydrogen bonds with thymine whereas cytosine
forms hydrogen bonds with guanine.
3181.Har Gobind Khorana became interested in both proteins and nucleic
acids. Dr Khorana shared the Nobel Prize for Medicine and Physiology in
1968 with Marshall Nirenberg and Robert Holley for cracking the genetic
code.
3182.Nucleic acids is the protein synthesis in the cell.
3183.Hormones are produced by endocrine glands poured directly in the
bloodstream.
3184.Hormones are steroids, eg estrogens and androgens.
3185.Some hormones are polypeptides for example insulin and endorphins
and some others are amino acid derivatives such as epinephrine and
norepinephrine.
3185.Insulin in keeping the blood glucose level within the narrow limit.
3186.Insulin is released in response to the rapid rise in blood glucose level.
3187.Hormone glucagon tends to increase the glucose level in the blood.
3188.The two hormones together regulate the glucose level in the blood.
3189.Epinephrine and norepinephrine mediate responses to external
stimuli.
3190.Thyroxine produced in the thyroid gland is an iodinated derivative of
amino acid tyrosine.
3191.Thyroxine leads to hypothyroidism which is characterised by
lethargicness and obesity.
3192.Increased level of thyroxine causes hyperthyroidism.
3193.Low level of iodine in the diet may lead to hypothyroidism and
enlargement of the thyroid gland.
3194.Commercial table salt (“Iodised” salt).
3195.Steroid hormones are produced by the adrenal cortex and gonads
(testes in males and ovaries in females).
3196.Hormones released by the adrenal cortex.
3197.Glucocorticoids control carbohydrate metabolism, modulate
inflammatory reactions, and are involved in reactions to stress.
3198.The mineralocorticoids control the level of excretion of water and
salt by the kidney.
3199.Addison’s disease characterised by hypoglycemia, weakness and
increased susceptibility to stress. The disease is fatal unless it is treated by
glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids.
3200.Hormones released by gonads are responsible for development of
secondary sex characters.
3201.Testosterone is the major sex hormone produced in males.
3202.Testosterone is responsible for development of secondary male
characteristics (deep voice, facial hair, general physical constitution) and
estradiol is the main female sex hormone.
3203.Testosterone is responsible for development of secondary female
characteristics and participates in the control of menstrual cycle.
3204.Progesterone is responsible for preparing the uterus for
implantation of fertilised egg.
3205.Copolymerisation has been used by nature in polypeptides
3206.Polymers are the backbone of four major industries viz. plastics,
elastomers, fibres and paints and varnishes.
3207.The process of formation of polymers from respective monomers is
called polymerisation.
3208.Natural polymers are found in plants and animals. Examples are
proteins, cellulose, starch, some resins and rubber.
3209.Semi-synthetic polymers are cellulose acetate (rayon) and cellulose
nitrate are the usual examples.
3210.Synthetic polymers a variety of synthetic polymers as plastic
(polythene), synthetic fibres (nylon) and synthetic rubber (Buna) are
examples of man-made polymers.
3211.The monomers used are unsaturated compounds, e.g., alkenes,
alkadienes.
3212.Polymerisation of ethene to polythene consists of heating or exposing
to light a mixture of ethene with a small amount of benzoyl peroxide
initiator.
3213.Polymers formed by the polymerisation of a single monomeric
species are known as homopolymers.
3214.The polymers made by addition polymerisation from two different
monomers are termed as copolymers.
3215.Buna which is formed by polymerisation.Butadiene and styrene is an
example of copolymer.
3216.Polythenes are linear or slightly branched long chain molecules.
3217.Low density polythene is chemically inert and tough but flexible and
a poor conductor of electricity.
3218.Low density polythene is used in the insulation of electricity carrying
wires and manufacture of squeeze bottles, toys and flexible pipes.
3219.High density polymers are also chemically inert and more tough and
hard. It is used for manufacturing buckets, dustbins, bottles, pipes.
3220.Teflon is chemically inert and resistant to attack by corrosive
reagents.
3221.Teflon is used in making oil seals and gaskets and also used for non –
stick surface coated utensils.
3222.Polyacrylonitrile is used as a substitute for wool in making
commercial fibres as orlon or acrilan.
3223.Polyamides, These polymers possessing amide linkages are
important examples of synthetic fibres and are termed as nylons.
3224.Nylon is fibre forming solid. It possesses high tensile strength.
3225.Nylon is used in making sheets, bristles for brushes and in textile
industry.
3226.Nylon is used for the manufacture of tyre cords, fabrics and ropes.
3227.Polyesters are the polycondensation products of dicarboxylic acids
and diols.
3228.Dacron or terylene is the best known example of polyesters.
3229.Polysters is manufactured by heating a mixture of ethylene glycol
and terephthalic acid in the presence of zinc acetate.
3230.Dacron fibre (terylene) is crease resistant and is used in blending
with cotton and wool fibres and also as glass reinforcing materials in
safety helmets.
3231.Phenol, formaldehyde polymers are the oldest synthetic polymers.
3232.Phenol are obtained by the condensation reaction of phenol with
formaldehyde in the presence of either an acid or a base catalyst.
3233.Novolac used in paints.
3234.Novolac on heating with formaldehyde undergoes cross linking to
form an infusible solid mass called bakelite.
3235.Bakelite is thermosetting polymer which cannot be reused or
remoulded.
3236.Bakelite is formed by cross linking of linear chains of the polymer
novolac.
3237.Bakelite is used for making combs, phonograph records, electrical
switches and handles of various utensils.
3238.Melamine is used in the manufacture of unbreakable crockery.
3239.Copolymerisation is a polymerisation reaction in which a mixture of
more than one monomeric species.
3240.Butadiene,styrene copolymer is quite tough and is a good substitute
for natural rubber.
3241.Butadiene is used for the manufacture of auto tyres, floor tiles,
footwear components, cable insulation.
3242.Rubber is a natural polymer.
3243.Rubber is also termed as elastomeric polymer.
3244.Polymer chains are held together by weak intermolecular forces.
3245.Rubber is used in manufactured from rubber latex which is a
colloidal dispersion of rubber in water. This latex is obtained from the
rubber tree which is found in India, Srilanka, Indonesia, Malaysia and
South America.
3246.Natural rubber becomes soft at high temperatures and brittle at low
temperatures and shows high water absorption capacity.
3247.Natural rubber is soluble in nonpolar solvents and is non-resistant to
attack by oxidising agents.
3248.Vulcanization is a chemical process, invented by Charles Goodyear,
used to harden rubber.
3249.Vulcanization referred to the treatment of natural rubber with
sulfur and this remains the most common example.
3250.5% of sulphur is used as a crosslinking agent.
3251.Synthetic rubber is any vulcanised rubber like polymer.
3252.Synthetic rubbers are either homopolymers, butadiene or
copolymers, unsaturated monomer.
3253.Neoprene has superior resistance to vegetable and mineral oils.
3254.Neoprene is used for manufacturing conveyor belts, gaskets and
hoses.
3255.Buna N is resistant to the action of petrol, lubricating oil and organic
solvents and used in making oil seals, tank lining.
3256.Aliphatic polyesters are one of the important classes of
biodegradable polymers.
3257.PHBV is used in specialty packaging, orthopaedic devices and in
controlled release of drugs.
3258.PHBV undergoes bacterial degradation in the environment.
3259.An orthopedic implant is a medical device manufactured to replace a
missing joint or bone or to support a damaged bone.
3260.Polystyrene is used as an insulator, wrapping material, manufacture
of toys, radio and television cabinets.
3217.Polyvinylchloride is used in the manufacture of rain (PVC) coats,
hand bags, vinyl flooring, water pipes.
3218.Urea-formaldehyle Resin is used for making unbreakable cups and
laminated sheets.
3219.Glyptal is used in the manufacture of paints and lacquers.
3220.Synthetic fibres used for making clothes.
3221.Drugs are chemicals of low molecular masses.
3222.Chemotherapy is a type of cancer treatment that uses one or more
anti-cancer drugs as part of a standardized chemotherapy regimen.
3223.Analgesics have pain killing effect, antiseptics kill or arrest the
growth of microorganisms.
3224.Histamine which causes inflammation in the body.
3225.Proteins which perform the role of biological catalysts in the body
are called enzymes.
3226.Those which are crucial to communication system in the body are
called receptors.
3227.Nucleic acids have coded genetic information for the cell.
3228.Lipids and carbohydrates are structural parts of the cell membrane.
3229.If the bond formed between an enzyme and an inhibitor is a strong
covalent bond and cannot be broken easily.
3230.Receptors are proteins that are crucial to the body's communication
process.
3231.Receptor proteins are embedded in the cell membrane.
3232.Small part of cell membrane is plasma membrane.
3233.Receptor receive chemical messenger.
3234.An antagonist is a drug or a compound that opposes the physiological
effects of another.
3235.An agonist is a chemical that binds to a receptor and activates the
receptor to produce a biological response.
3236.Whereas an agonist causes an action, an antagonist blocks the action
of the agonist, and an inverse agonist causes an action opposite to that of
the agonist.
3237.Stomach causes irritation and pain.
3238.Ulcers are developed in the stomach.
3239.Treatment for acidity was administration of antacids, such as
sodium hydrogencarbonate or a mixture of aluminium and magnesium
hydroxide.
3239.Metal hydroxides are insoluble and do not increase the pH above
neutrality.
3240.Ulcers is removal of the affected part of the stomach.
3241.Histamine stimulates the secretion of pepsin and hydrochloric acid in
the stomach.
3242.Cimetidine/Tagamet is a stomach acid reducer that is used to treat
and prevent certain types of stomach ulcer.
3243.Cimetidine is also used to treat gastroesophageal reflux disease when
stomach acid backs up into the esophagus and causes heartburn.
3244.Renitidine(Zantac) is commonly used in the treatment of peptic ulcer
disease, gastroesophageal reflux disease, and Zollinger–Ellison syndrome.
3245.Histamine is a potent vasodilator.
3246.Histamine contracts the smooth muscles in the bronchi and gut and
relaxes other muscles, such as those in the walls of fine blood vessels.
3247.Histamine is also responsible for nasal congestion associated with
common cold and allergic response to pollen.
3248.Synthetic drugs, brompheniramine (Dimetapp) and terfenadine
(Seldane), act as antihistamines.
3249.Tranquilizers and analgesics are neurologically active drugs. These
affect the message transfer mechanism from nerve to receptor.
3250.Tranquilizers are used for the treatment of stress, and mild or even
severe mental diseases. They form an essential component of sleeping
pills.
3251.Noradrenaline is one of the neurotransmitters that plays a role in
mood changes.
3252.Antidepressant drugs inhibit the enzymes which catalyse the
degradation of noradrenaline.
3253.Iproniazid and phenelzine are two such drugs.
3254.Some tranquilizers namely, chlordiazepoxide and meprobamate, are
relatively mild tranquilizers suitable for relieving tension.
3255.Equanil is used in controlling depression and hypertension.
3256.Barbituric acid like veronal, amytal, nembutal, luminal and seconal
constitute an important of tranquilizers are called barbiturates.
3257.Barbiturates are hypnotic, sleep producing agents. Some other
substances used as tranquilizers are valium and serotonin.
3258.Analgesics reduce or abolish pain without causing impairment of
consciousness, mental confusion, incoordination or paralysis or some
other disturbances of the nervous system.
3259.Aspirin and paracetamol belong to the class of non
narcotic/addictive analgesics.
3260.Aspirin inhibits the synthesis of chemicals known as prostaglandins
which stimulate inflammation in the tissue and cause pain.
3261.Asoirin are effective in relieving skeletal pain such as that due to
arthritis.
3262.Aspirin have many other effects such as reducing fever (antipyretic)
and preventing platelet coagulation.
3263.Because of its anti blood clotting action, aspirin use in prevention of
heart attacks.
3264.Morphine narcotics are referred to as opiates, since they are
obtained from the opium poppy.
3265.Narcotic analgesics are used for the relief of postoperative pain,
cardiac pain and pains of terminal cancer, and in childbirth.
3266.Microorganisms such as bacteria, virus, fungi and other pathogens.
3267.Antibiotics, antiseptics and disinfectants are antimicrobial drugs.
3268.Antibiotics are used as drugs to treat infections.
3269.An antibiotic refers to a substance produced wholly or partly by
chemical synthesis, which in low concentrations inhibits the growth or
destroys microorganisms by intervening in their metabolic processes.
3270.Paul Ehrlich investigated arsenic based structures in order to
produce less toxic substances for the treatment of syphilis.
3271.Paul developed the medicine, arsphenamine, known as salvarsan.
3272.Paul Ehrlich got Nobel prize for Medicine. It was the first effective
treatment discovered for syphilis.
3273.Arsphenamine, also known as Salvarsan is a drug that was
introduced first effective treatment for syphilis, and was also used to treat
trypanosomiasis.
3274.Spirochete which causes syphilis.
3275.Ehrlich succeeded in preparing the first effective antibacterial agent,
prontosil.
3276.Sulphanilamide which is the real active compound.
3277.Discovery of penicillin and Lysozyme is Alexander Flemming.
3278.Antibiotics have either cidal (killing) effect or a static (inhibitory)
effect on microbes.
3279.Bactericidal are Penicillin, Aminoglycosides, Ofloxacin.
3280.Bacteriostatic are Erythromycin, Tetracycline, Chloramphenicol.
3281.Penicillin G has a narrow spectrum.
3282.Ampicillin and Amoxicillin are synthetic modifications of penicillins.
3283.Penicillin is manufactured at the Hindustan Antibiotics in Pimpri,
(Pune).
3284.Chloramphenicol, isolated in 1947, is a broad spectrum antibiotic.
3285.Chloramphenicol is an antibiotic useful for the treatment of a
number of bacterial infections.
3286.Chloramphenicol includes use as an eye ointment to treat
conjunctivitis.
3287.By mouth or by injection into a vein, chloramphenicol is used to treat
meningitis, plague, cholera, and typhoid fever, Acute fever, Dysentery,
urinary infections, meningitis and pneumonia.
3288.Vancomycin and ofloxacin are the other important broad spectrum
antibiotics.
3289.Dysidazirine is a narrow spectrum antibiotic.
3290.A narrow spectrum antibiotic is effective against both gram positive
and gram negative bacteria.
3291.A limited spectrum antibiotic is effective against a single organism or
disease.
3292.Antiseptics and disinfectants are also the chemicals which either kill
or prevent the growth of microorganisms.
3293.Antiseptics are applied to the living tissues such as wounds, cuts,
ulcers and diseased skin surfaces. Examples are furacine, soframycin.
3294.Dettol is a mixture of chloroxylenol and terpineol.
3295.Bithionol (the compound is also called bithional) is antiseptic
properties.
3296.Iodoform is also used as an antiseptic for wounds.
3297.Boric acid in dilute aqueous solution is weak antiseptic for eyes.
3298.Disinfectants such as floors, drainage system, instruments.
3299.0.2 per cent solution of phenol is an antiseptic while its one percent
solution is disinfectant.
3300.Chlorine in the concentration of 0.2 to 0.4 ppm in aqueous solution
and sulphur dioxide in very low concentrations, are disinfectants.
3301.Birth control pills essentially contain a mixture of synthetic estrogen
and progesterone.
3302.Norethindrone is an example of synthetic progesterone derivative
most widely used as antifertility drug.
3303.Estrogen is used in combination with progesterone derivative is
ethynylestradiol (novestrol).
3304.Ortho-sulphobenzimide, also called saccharin, is the first popular
artificial sweetening agent. It was discovered in 1879. It is about 550 times
as sweet as cane sugar. It is excreted from the body in urine.
3305.Aspartame is used artificial sweetener. It is roughly 100 times as
sweet as cane sugar. It is a methyl ester of a dipeptide formed from
aspartic acid and phenylalanine.
3306.Use of aspartame is limited to cold foods and soft drinks because it is
unstable at cooking temperature.
3307.Alitame is high potency sweetener.
3308 Sucralose is trichloro derivative of sucrose. Its appearance and taste
are like sugar. It is stable at cooking temperature. It does not provide
calories.
3309.Food preservatives prevent spoilage of food due to microbial growth.
3310.The most commonly used preservatives include table salt, sugar,
vegetable oils and sodium benzoate.
3311.Sodium benzoate is used in limited quantities and is metabolised in
the body.
3312.Salts of sorbic acid and propanoic acid are also used as preservatives.
3313.Sulphur dioxide and sulphite are useful antioxidants for wine and
beer, sugar syrups and cut, peeled or dried fruits and vegetables.
3314.Detergents are used as cleansing agents. These are soaps and
synthetic detergents.
3315.Detergents help in removal of fats which bind other materials to the
fabric or skin.
3316.Soaps used for cleaning purpose are sodium or potassium salts of
long chain fatty acids, stearic, oleic and palmitic acids.
3317.Soaps containing sodium salts are formed by heating fat (i.e., glyceryl
ester of fatty acid) with aqueous sodium hydroxide solution. This reaction
is known as saponification.
3318.Esters of fatty acids are hydrolysed and the soap obtained remains in
colloidal form.
3319.Soap contains glycerol, which can be recovered by fractional
distillation.
3320.Only sodium and potassium soaps are soluble in water and are used
for cleaning purposes.
3321.Potassium soaps are soft to the skin than sodium soaps.
3322.Soaps are made by boiling fats or oils with suitable soluble
hydroxide.
3323.Toilet soaps are prepared by using better grades of fats and oils and
care is taken to remove excess alkali. Colour and perfumes are added to
make these more attractive.
3324.Soaps that float in water are made by beating tiny air bubbles before
their hardening.
3325.Transparent soaps are made by dissolving the soap in ethanol and
then evaporating the excess solvent.
3326.Shaving soaps contain glycerol to prevent rapid drying. A gum called,
rosin is added while making them.
3327.Shaving soaps forms sodium rosinate which lathers well.
3328.Laundry soaps contain fillers like sodium rosinate, sodium silicate,
borax and sodium carbonate.
3329.Soap chips are made by running a thin sheet of melted soap onto a
cool cylinder and scraping off the soaps in small broken pieces.
3330.Soap granules are dried miniature soap bubbles.
3331.Soap powders and scouring soaps contain some soap, a scouring 
agent (abrasive) such as powdered pumice or finely divided sand, and 
builders like sodium carbonate and trisodium phosphate. 
3332.Hard water contains calcium and magnesium ions. These ions form 
insoluble calcium and magnesium soaps. 
3333.Sodium or potassium soaps are dissolved in hard water. 
3334.Insoluble soaps separate as scum in water and are useless as 
cleansing agent. 
3335.Synthetic detergents are cleansing agents but do not contain any 
soap. 
3336.Synthetic detergents can be used both in soft and hard water as they 
give foam even in hard water. 
3337.Some of the detergents give foam even in ice cold water. 
3338.In anionic detergents, the anionic part of the molecule is involved in 
the cleansing action. 
3339.Sodium salts of alkylbenzenesulfonates are an important anionic 
detergents. 
3340.Anionic detergents are used for household work. 
3341.Anionic detergents are also used in toothpastes. 
3342.Cationic detergent is used in hair conditioners. 
3343.Liquid dishwashing detergents are non-ionic detergents. 
3344.Non ionic detergents also remove grease and oil by micelle formation. 
3345.Acetylsalicylic acid - Aspirin. 
3346.Ammonium chloride - Sal ammoniac, Nausadar, Soldering flux 
3347.Ammonium ferrous sulfate hexahydrate - Mohr’s salt. 
3348.Aqueous sodium chloride solution - Brine. 
3349.Aluminium potassium sulfate - Potash Alum. 
3350.Aluminium oxide - Corundum (ruby, sapphire), Alumina 
3351.Acetic/Ethanoic acid - Vinegar. 
3352.Aluminium sulfate - Argile/Clay Vitriol, Flocculating powder, 
Papermakers alum, Alunoganite, Cake Filter alum. 
3353.Ammonia - Windex, Spirit of hartshorn, Azane, Hydrogen nitride 
3354.Ascorbic Acid - Vitamin C.  
3355.Aluminum chlorohydrate - Antiperspirant. 
3356.Amyl acetate - Banana oil. 
3357.Alloy of copper and zinc - Brass. 
3358.Alloy of copper and tin - Bronze. 
3359.Ammonium nitrate - Fertilizer. 
3360.Alloy of tin, antimony, copper, and lead - Pewter. 
3361.Ammonium carbonate - Smelling salts, Salt of Hartshorn, Baker’s 
ammonia, Sal Volatile. 
3362.Alloy of tin and antimony - Solder. 
3363.Ammonium Acetate - Red liquor, Spirit of Mindererus  
3364.Ammonium hydroxide - Liquor ammonia, alcali volatil. 
3365.Ammonium oxalate - Anticoagulants.   
3366.Antinomy chloride - Butter of antimony 
3367.Ammonium bicarbonate - Salt of hartshorn, baking soda. 
3368.Amylose - Corn starch. 
3369.Agar-agar, gelatine - Isinglass. 
3370.Antimony Trisulfide - Antimony black/glance 
3371.Antinomy trioxide - Antimony bloom. 
3372.Arsenic trioxide - Arsenic glass. 
3373.Anhydrous potassium carbonate. - Pearl ash. 
3374.Anhydrous potassium aluminum sulfate - Burnt alum. 
3375.Anhydrous sodium carbonate - Soda ash. 
3376.Antinomy oxysulfide - antimony red (vermillion). 
3377.Ammonia in alcohol - aromatic spirit of ammonia. 
3378.Antinomy trichloride - butter of antimony. 
3379.Anhydrous stannic chloride - butter of tin. 
3380.Anhydride iron chloride - flores martis. 
3381.Aqueous formaldehyde solution - formalin. 
3382.Aqueous solution of calcium hydroxide - limewater. 
3383.Barium Hydroxide - Baryta. 
3384.Benzene Hexachloride (Lindane) - Gammaxene. 
3385.Barium oxide - Baryta. 
3386.Barium sulfate - Barytes, Heavy spur, Lithopone, Barium white, 
Blanc-fixe 
3387.Benzene - Benzol. 
3389.Boric acid - Boracic acid, Ant/Roach killer. 
3390.Benzaldehyde - Oil of bitter almonds. 
3391.Barium hydroxide - Water softener. 
3392.Basic lead carbonate - White lead. 
3393.Benzoyl peroxide - Benzoic acid. 
3394.Bismuth - Lead-free shot/sinkers. 
3395.Bismuth subsalicylate - Pepto-bismol. 
3396.Bromothymol-blue - pH test. 
3397.Basic copper carbonate - Bremen blue, Green verditer 
3398.Basic lead chromate - Chinese red. 
3399.Basic copper acetate - French verdigris. 
3400.Boiled linseed oil - Hard oil. 
3401.Boron nitride - Borazon. 
3402.Boron carbide - Norbide. 
3403.Barium carbonate - Witherite. 
3404.Calcium chloro chlorite - Bleaching Powder. 
3405.Carbon dioxide - Dry ice. 
3406.Copper sulphate - Blue Vitriol/Roman,Cyprus Vitriol, Blue stone. 
3407.Calcium oxide - QuickLime, Unslaked lime 
3408.Carboxyl chloride - Phosgene. 
3409.Calcium sulphate hemihydrate - Plaster of Paris. 
3410.Chloropicrin - Tear gas. 
3411.Calcium hydride - Hydrolith. 
3412.Calcium Sulphate Dihydrate - Gypsum. 
3413.Calcium hydroxide - Slaked Lime, Caustic lime, Milk lime. 
3414.Carbon - Graphite. 
3415.Calcium Carbonate - Limestone, Chalk(Marble), Vienna lime, Whiting 
3416.Calcium Hypochlorite - Bleaching powder. 
3417.Calcium Magnesium Carbonate - Dolomite. 
3418.Cobalt Sulphate - Red Vitriol. 
3419.Carbon disulfide - Alcohol sulfuris. 
3420.Crude form of sodium carbonate - Black Ash. 
3421.Cupric oxide - Black copper dioxide. 
3422.Crude Calcium Phosphate - Bone Ash. 
3423.Crude animal charcoal - bone black. 
3424.Chromium oxide - Chrome green. 
3425.Chromium trioxide - chromic acid. 
3426.Carbon crystal - Diamond. 
3427.Chloride of metal - Muriate of metal. 
3428.Copper Acetoacetic - Paris green. 
3429.Crude form of carbon - Lampblack. 
3430.Dichlorodifluoro methane - Freon. 
3431.Dinitrogen/Nitrous oxide - Laughing gas. 
3432.Deuteurium oxide - Heavy water. 
3433.Diethyl Ether - Sweet oil of vitriol 
3434.Dimethyl ketone; 2-propanone - Acetone. 
3435.Deliquescent anhydrous iron chloride - Oil of Mars. 
3436.Dilute sulfuric acid - Sour water. 
3437.Ethanol - Grain alcohol. 
3438.Ethyl Alcohol - Grain alcohol(Spirit), Ethanol 
3439.Ethyl glycol - Antifreeze. 
3440.Ethyl nitrate - Spirit of nitrous ether. 
3441.Ethyl ether - Sulfuric ether. 
3442.Ferrous sulphate - Green Vitriol, Cooperas 
3443.Ferric oxide/Iron oxide - Jeweller’s rouge, Burnt ochre/ore, Crocus 
powder, Indian red, Venetian red 
3444.Ferric Sulphate - Mars/Martial vitriol. 
3445.Formaldehyde - Formalin. 
3446.Fuming sulfuric acid - Nordhausen acid. 
3447.Ferric ferrocyanide - Paris blue. 
3448.Graphite - Plumbago, Black lead. 
3449.Hydrochloric acid - Muriatic Acid, Spirit of salt 
3450.Hydrogen Cyanide - Prussic acid. 
3451.Hydrogen oxide - Water. 
3452.Iron disulfide - Iron pyrite(Fool’s gold). 
3453.Isopropyl alcohol - Rubbing alcohol. 
3454.Iron Sulphate - Green Vitriol. 
3455.Iron oxide - Magnetite. 
3456.Isomyl Acetate - Banana/Pearl oil. 
3457.Impure aluminium oxide - Emery powder. 
3458.Iron - Ferrum. 
3459.Lead sulfate - Blue lead. 
3460.Lead chromate - Chrome yellow. 
3461.Lead dioxide - Lead peroxide. 
3462.Lead oxide - Lead protoxide. 
3463.Lead monoxide - Litharge. 
3464.Lead tetroxide - Red lead. 
3465.Lead acetate - Lead sugar. 
3466.Lead sulfide - Galena. 
3467.Methane - Marsh gas. 
3468.Magnesium sulfate heptahydrate - Epsom salt, Bitter salt. 
3469.Magnesium hydroxide - Milk of magnesia. 
3470.Mercury - Quicksilver. 
3471.Methyl alcohol - Wood alcohol, Ethanol, Methylated spirits 
3472.Mercurous/Mercury chloride - Calomel. 
3473.Methyl salicylate - Oil of Wintergreen. 
3474.Mercuric sulfide - Vermilion/Cinnabar. 
3475.Magnesium silicate - Talcum or Talc, Asbestos. 
3476.Metal sulphate - Black vitriol. 
3477.Magnesium oxide - Magnesia. 
3478.Mercuric chloride - Corrosive sublimate, Bichloride mercury. 
3479.Mineral form of basic copper carbonate - Azurite. 
3480.Magnesium dioxide - Black Manganese. 
3481.Mercurous oxide - Black mercury oxide. 
3482.Mixture of calcium oxide and sodium hydroxide - Soda lime. 
3483.Nitrous oxide - Laughing gas. 
3484.Nitrohydrochloric acid - Aqua regia. 
3485.Nitric acid - Aqua fortis. 
3486.Nickel sulfate - blue salts. 
3487.Natural calcium fluoride - Fluorspar. 
3488.Natural magnesium silicate - French chalk. 
3489.Natural sodium carbonate - Trona. 
3490.Potassium bisulfate - Acid potassium sulphate. 
3491.Oxalic acid - Acid sugar. 
3492.Potassium dichromate - Bichrome. 
3493.Potassium hydroxide - Caustic potash, Potassa. 
3494.Potassium bitartrate - Tartar cream. 
3495.Potassium ferricyanide - Ferro prussiate, Red/Yellow prussiate. 
3496.Precipitated sulfur - Milk sulfur. 
3497.Potassium nitrate - Nitre, Saltpeter, Indian nitre 
3498.Phosphoric acid - Orthophosphoric acid. 
3499.Powdered calcium carbonate - Paris white. 
3500.Potassium carbonate - Pearl ash, Potash, Tartar salt. 
3501.Potassium sodium tartrate - Rochelle salt. 
3502.Potassium binoxalate - Lemon salt. 
3503.Phenol - carbolic acid. 
3504.Sodium thiosulfate - Antichlor. 
3505.Sodium bicarbonate/Sodium hydrogen carbonate - baking soda. 
3506.Sodium borate/tetraborate - Borax. 
3507.Sodium hydroxide - Caustic soda, soda lye, White caustic., Baryta. 
3508.Sodium nitrate - Chile saltpeter/nitre, soda nitre. 
3509.Sodium hypochlorite - Soda chloride, Bleach(liquid/Laundry) 
3510.Sodium carbonate - crystal carbonate, natron, Salt soda, soda ash, 
Washing soda. 
3511.Sodium thiophosphate - dechlor. 
3512.Starch - farina. 
3513.Sodium sulfate - Glauber’s salt. 
3514.Sodium thiosulfate solution - Hypo(Photography). 
3515.Silver nitrate - Lunar caustic. 
3516.Sulphurated potash - Liver sulphur. 
3517.Sulphuric acid(Fuming) - Oil/Spirit of vitriol, Battery acid, Oleum. 
3518.Sodium ferrocyanide - Red prussiate soda, Yellow prussiate soda. 
3519.Sodium/Stannic chloride - Rock salt, Butter tin, Table salt(Common 
salt). 
3520.Silicon dioxide - Silica, sand, quartz. 
3521.Sodium silicate - Soluble glass, water glass 
3522.Sucrose - Sugar table. 
3523.Stannous chloride - Tin crystals. 
3524.Silicon carbide - Carborundum. 
3525.Sodium ammonium hydrogen phosphate - Microcosmic salt. 
3526.Sodium peroxide - Oxone. 
3527.Sodium perborate - Bleach(Solid). 
3528.Sulphur - Brimstone. 
3529.Solid carbon dioxide - Dry ice. 
3530.Trichloromethane - Chloroform. 
3531.Trihydroxy propanol - Glycerin. 
3532.Trinitrotoluene - TNT. 
3533.Triplumbic tetroxide - Red lead. 
3534.Trinitrophenol - Picric acid. 
3535.Tetraethyl lead - Tel. 
3536.Tetrasodium pyrophosphate - Pyro. 
3537.Zinc chloride - Butter zinc, Killed spirit. 
3538.Zinc oxide - Philosopher’s wool. 
3539.Zinc sulphate - White vitriol. 
3540.Haloalkanes are fluoromethane. 
3541.Haloarenes are chloromycetin (a chlorine containing antibiotic) is 
used for the treatment of typhoid fever. 
3542.Alkyl halides (also known as haloalkanes). 
3543.Alkyl halides are fluoride, chlorine, iodine, bromine, or astatine. 
3544.Vinyl chloride is a Chlorine. Chloroethene( monomer of PVC pipes) is 
the most commonly known. 
3545.Methylene chloride, also known as dichloromethane. 
3546.Methylene chloride has been linked to cancer, cognitive impairment, 
and asphyxiation. 
3547.Methylene chloride is used as an extraction solvent in the food and 
beverage manufacturing industry. For example, methylene chloride can 
be used to remove caffeine from unroasted coffee beans and tea leaves, to 
make decaffeinated coffee and tea. 
3548.Chloroform is a colorless, sweet-smelling. 
3549.Chloroform can daze or knock out people even when it's consumed in 
small doses. 
3550.Chloroform is a liquid used to keep your refrigerator cold. 
3551.An example of chloroform is a liquid used to get the morphine out of a 
poppy plant. 
3552.An example of chloroform is what is used in movies to knock someone 
out in a kidnapping. 
3553.Bromoform soluble are sol acetone, benzene, chloroform, ethanol, 
ether, petroleum ether. 
3554.Halogen are fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, astatine, and 
tennessine. 
3555.Alcohols is propanol. 
3556.Acetonitrile, also known as methyl cyanide. 
3557.Alkyl nitrite are isopropyl nitrite, isobutyl nitrite and butyl nitrite. 
3558.Nitromethane and nitroethane are nitroalkanes. 
3559.Ethyl acetate (ethyl ethanoate) is an ester. 
3560.Esters include ethyl propanoate, propyl methanoate, propyl 
ethanoate, and methyl butanoate. 
3561.Methane, butane, propane, and hexane are all hydrocarbons. 
3562.Alkanes are Methane, Ethane, Propane, Butane, Pentane, Hexane, 
Heptane, Octane, Nonane, Decane. 
3563.Alkynes are Acetylene, Methylacetylene, Ethylacetylene, 
Dimethylacetylene. 
3564.Vanillin, salicylic acid, pyrocatechol, resorcinol, cresol, 
hydroquinone, and eugenol) are often used for the most common phenolic. 
3565.Glycerol is a simple polyol compound. glycerol backbone is found in 
many lipids. Glycerol consists of a propane. 
3566.Propane is a type of gas, commonly burned for heating, cooking, and 
as a fuel for engines. 
3567.Propane is an example of a class of chemicals called hydrocarbons. 
3568.Examples of flammable gases are propane, hydrogen, butane, 
methane, ethylene, acetylene, ammonia, ethane and silane. 
3569.Hexanes are used in the formulation of glues for shoes, leather 
products, and roofing. They are also used to extract cooking oils (such as 
canola oil or soy oil) from seeds, for cleansing and degreasing a variety of 
items, and in textile manufacturing. 
3570.A gasoline with an octane number of 92 has the same knock as a 
mixture of 92% isooctane and 8% heptane. 
3571.Aldehydes are Formaldehyde (methanal), Acetaldehyde (ethanal), 
Propionaldehyde (propanal), Butyraldehyde (butanal), Benzaldehyde 
(phenylmethanal), Cinnamaldehyde, Vanillin, Tolualdehyde, Furfural 
Retinaldehyde. 
3572.Ketones are chemicals made in your liver. Liver turns this fat into 
ketones. 
3573.Aldehydes are as follows: 
1 carbon atom: form 
2 carbon atoms: acet 
3 carbon atoms: propion 
4 carbon atoms: butyr 
3574.Amides include carboxamides, sulfonamides, and phosphoramides. 
Nylon is a polyamide. Several drugs are amides, including LCD, penicillin, 
and paracetamol. 
3575.Salicylaldehyde is the red poplar leaf beetle Chrysomela populi. 
3576.Cinnamon leaf oil contained predominantly eugenol. 
3577.Cinnamon oil contained trans-cinnamaldehyde as the major 
component. 
3578.Thyme oil contained thymol as the main component and small 
amounts of linalool and carvacrol. 
3579.Benzaldehyde, anisole, and vanillin, for example, have pleasant 
aromas. 
3580.Benzaldehyde is an aromatic aldehyde and imparts much of the 
aroma to cherries and almonds. 
3581.Acetone used is in nail polish remover. 
3582.Acetophenone occurs naturally in many foods including apples, 
cheese, apricot, bananas, beef, and cauliflower. 
3583.Formaldehyde is a colorless, strong-smelling gas.  
3584.Acetaldehyde is a clear liquid that burns easily. 
3585.Acetaldehyde has a strong, fruity odor that in high concentrations 
can make breathing difficult. Also known as ethanal, acetaldehyde forms 
naturally in the body and in plants. 
3586.Acrolein is the simplest unsaturated aldehyde. 
3587.Pentanal, also called pentanaldehyde or valeraldehyde, is an alkyl 
aldehyde. 
3588.Isobutyraldehyde is an aldehyde, isomeric with n-butyraldehyde. 
3589.Methoxyethane, also known as ethyl methyl ether. its inhalation may 
cause asphyxiation or dizziness. 
3590.Hydrazine damages the central nervous system, producing 
symptoms as extreme as tumours and seizures. 
3591.Hydrazine are cefazolin, rizatriptan, anastrozole, fluconazole, 
metazachlor, metamitron, metribuzin, paclobutrazol, diclobutrazole, 
propiconazole, hydrazine sulfate, diimide, triadimefon, and 
dibenzoylhydrazine. 
3592.Phenylacetic acid forms white to yellow crystals or flakes. 
3593.Phthalic acid is an aromatic dicarboxylic acid. 
3594.Benzoic acid occurs naturally in many plants and serves as an 
intermediate in the biosynthesis of many secondary metabolites. 
3595.Isopropylamine are Amine, Ammonia, Pyridine, Detergent, Zeolite, 
Ethyl, Diethylamine, Column Like Crystal. 
3596.Allylamine and Benzylamine Antifungal Drugs. 
3597.Allylamines used as antifungals are naftifine and terbinafine. 
3598.Aniline dyes followed, such as fuchsin, safranin, and induline. 
3599.Simplest amine called methylamine, methanamine or 
aminomethane. 
3600.Monosaccharides are Triose Aldotriose Ketotriose 
Tetrose Aldotetrose Ketotetrose 
Pentose Aldopentose Ketopentose 
Hexose Aldohexose Ketohexose 
Heptose Aldoheptose Ketoheptose 
3601.Glycine is an amino acid, a building block for protein.  
3602.Glycine can be the internal amino acid of a collagen helix. 
3603.Alanine is an important source of energy for muscles and central 
nervous system, strengthens the immune system, helps in the metabolism 
of sugars and organic acids, and displays a cholesterol-reducing effect in 
animals. 
3604.Valine is an aliphatic and extremely hydrophobic essential amino 
acid in humans related to leucine, Valine is found in many proteins. 
3605.Amino acids were: arginine (basic), tryptophan (neutral and 
hydrophobic), valine (neutral and hydrophobic) and aspartic acid (acidic). 
3606.Leucine is an essential amino acid that is used in the biosynthesis of 
proteins. 
3607.Isoleucine is one of nine essential amino acids in humans (present in 
dietary proteins). 
3608.Isoleucine are assisting wound healing, detoxification of nitrogenous 
wastes, stimulating immune function, and promoting secretion of several 
hormones. 
3609.Isoleucine include eggs, soy protein, seaweed, turkey, chicken, lamb, 
cheese, and fish. 
3610.Arginine may help improve blood flow in the arteries of the heart. 
3611.Arginine are turkey breast, pork loin, chicken, pumpkin seeds, 
soyabean, peanuts, spirulina, dairy, lentils, chickpeas. 
3612.Lysine is an amino acid (a building block of protein). 
3613.Lysine is used for preventing and treating cold sores (caused by a 
virus called herpes simplex labialis). 
3614.Lysine is an essential amino acid that is not naturally produced by 
the body. 
3615.Glutamic acid is an a-amino acid. It is also an excitatory 
neurotransmitter, in fact the most abundant one, in the vertebrate 
nervous system.  
3616.Glutamine is used for side effects of cancer chemotherapy including 
diarrhea, pain and swelling inside the mouth (mucositis), nerve pain 
(neuropathy), and muscle and joint pains caused by the cancer drug Taxol. 
3617.Asparagine is a non-essential amino acid in humans, Asparagine is a 
beta-amido derivative of aspartic acid. Asparagine is a nontoxic carrier of 
residual ammonia to be eliminated from the body. 
3618.Asparagine is found in: Animal sources: dairy, whey, beef, poultry, 
eggs, fish, lactalbumin, seafood. 
3619.Some examples of serine proteases are: 
Chymotrypsin - pancreatic digestive enzyme 
Trypsin - pancreatic digestive enzyme 
Elastase - pancreatic digestive enzyme 
Plasmin - dissolves blood clots 
Thrombin - activates fibrinogen to form blood clots 
Acrosomal protease - sperm penetration of ova 
Complement C1 - cell lysis in immune reaction 
Keratinase - digestion of hair & connective tissue 
Collagenase - digestion of hair & connective tissue 
Fibrinolysin - cell transformation 
Cocoonase - dissolution of cocoon in moth metamorphosis 
3620.Cysteine biosynthesis occurs in bacteria, yeast, plants and some 
protozoa. 
3621.Cysteine is a non-essential sulfur-containing amino acid. 
3622.Methionine is an amino acid. Methionine, cysteine, homocysteine, 
and taurine are common sulfur-containing amino acids. 
3623.Tyrosine is an amino acid that is naturally produced in the body from 
another amino acid called phenylalanine. 
3624.Tyrosine is found in casein, a protein in milk and other milk-based 
products (like cheese). 
3625.Tyrosine is also present in non-dairy foods that are aged, including 
some types of meats and red wine. 
3626.Tyrosine is a non-essential amino acid. 
3627.Tryptophan is an amino acid needed for normal growth in infants 
and for nitrogen balance in adults. It is an essential amino acid. 
3628.Histidine and b-alanine yield the dipeptide carnosine (present in 
muscle), and histidine and aminobutyrate yield homocarnosine (found in 
brain). 
3629.Aspartame is an artificial non-saccharide sweetener used as a sugar 
substitute in some foods and beverages. It is a methyl ester of the aspartic 
acid/phenylalanine dipeptide. 
3630.Aspartame was first made in 1965 and approved for use in food 
products by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in 1981. 
3631.Aspartame are diet soda, sugar-free ice cream, reduced-calorie fruit, 
juice, gum, yogurt, sugarless candy. 
3632.Sodium saccharin (benzoic sulfimide) is an artificial sweetener. 
Saccharin is used to sweeten products such as drinks, candies, cookies, 
and medicines. 
3633.Sucralose is a zero-calorie artificial sweetener, and Splenda is the 
most common sucralose. 
3634.Alitame is an aspartic acid-containing dipeptide sweetener. It was 
developed by Pfizer. 
3635.Sodium atomic number 11. 
3636.Copper atomic number 29. 
3637.Silver atomic number 47. 
3638.Gold atomic number 79. 
3639.Iron atomic number 26. 
3640.Graphite atomic number is 6. 
3641.Positively charged sols are Metallic hydroxide sols e.g., Ferric/Iron 
hydroxide, Aluminium hydroxide, Chromium hydroxide, Titanium dioxide 
sol, haemoglobin, sols of basic dyes such as methylene blue. 
3642.Negatively charged sols: Metal sols e.g., Copper, Silver, Gold, 
Platinum etc. sols, metal sulphide sols e.g., Arsenic trisulfide, Cadmium 
sulfide., Antimony trisulfide. Acid dye stuff, e.g., eosin, congo red sols. Sols 
of starch, gum, gelatin, clay, charcoal. 
3643.Orthophosphorous acid a clear or yellow monobasic acid 
hypophosphorous acid, phosphorous acid. oxyacid, oxygen acid any acid 
that contains oxygen. 
3644.Orthophosphoric acid is a non-toxic acid, which, when pure, is a solid 
at room temperature and pressure. 
3645.Hypohalous acid are hypofluorous acid, hypochlorous acid, 
hypobromous acid, and hypoiodous acid. 
3646.A halous acid, also known as a halogenous acid. 
3647.Halous acid are chlorous acid, bromous acid, and iodous acid. 
3648.Halic acid are (chloric acid) (bromic acid) (iodic acid). 
3649.Perhalic acid are perchloric acid perbromic acid, periodic acid. 
3650.Lanthanum are Antimony, Barium, Beryllium, Bismuth, Boron, 
Bromine, Calcium, Carbon, Cerium, Cesium, Chloride, Chromium, Cobalt, 
Copper, Dysprosium, Erbium, Europium, Florine, Gadolinium, Gallium. 
3651.Lanthanides are lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, 
promethium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, 
holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, and lutetium. 
3652.Actinium are Astatine, francium and protactinium. 
3653.Actinides are Actinium, Thorium, Protactinium, Uranium, 
Neptunium, Plutonium, Americium, Curium, Berkelium, Californium, 
Einsteinium, Fermium, Mendelevium, Nobelium, and Lawrencium. 
3654.Weak acids are Hydrofluoric Acid, Nitrous Acid, Formic Acid, Niacin, 
Acetic Acid, Benzoic Acid, Hypochlorous Acid, Hydrocyanic Acid, Phenol. 
3655.Weak bases are Dimethylamine, Triethylamine, Ammonia, Quinine, 
(A plant product), Pyridine, Aniline, Urea. 
3656.Polyprotic Acids are oxalic, ascorbic, Sulphurous, sulphuric, 
carbonic, citric and phosphoric.