Chapter 8 MOTIVATION AND ENGAGEMENT

I. KEY CONCEPTS IN MOTIVATION

 Motivation an internal process that energies, directs, and maintain behavior
over time.
o Components: Energising what starts you off and gets you going;
Direction what you do, what choices you make or what interests you
pursue; and Maintenance ensures the activity continues over time
 Traits and States
 Trait an enduring characteristic; stable lasting dispositions that motivate us
to behave in certain way; can be innate (ex: instinctive sex) or learnt (ex:
power in personal relationships).
 States temporary condition or feeling; short-term conditions or feelings,
although they can recur and are often innate (ex: hunger).
 Anxiety and Arousal
 Anxiety feelings of tension, uneasiness and apprehension; a state of arousal
characterized by heightened alertness and awareness; a normal response state
that enables us to sense danger, escape if we want to, or prepare for a
situation.
 Arousal alertness and attentiveness
 Text anxiety fear of performing poorly in tests
 Intrinsic and Extrinsic
 Intrinsic Motivation refers to motivation arising from internal factors such
as child’s natural feelings of curiosity, excitement, confidence and
satisfaction when performing a task.
 Extrinsic Motivation arises from external sources that can influence us to
complete a task.
 Affect and Interest
  Affect a psychological term used to describe emotional states such as
feelings and moods
 Interest A cognitive and affective state associated with a heightened state of
arousal, leading to increased attention, concentration and persistence.
II. THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
 Behavioural Explanations Motivation is the product of effective contingent
reinforcement which emphasizes the use of extrinsic reinforcement to stimulate
students’ task engagement. (Skinner)
-achievement of desired behavior through external rewards and
reinforcement
 Different types of extrinsic rewards:
o Verbal Rewards positive feedback (praise).
 Two forms: 1. Contingent deliver contingent information
related to the actual performance or task and are positively
motivational (ex: “you used that strategy really well”); 2. Non-
contingent often used for managing or controlling behavior
whereby the controlling element of the statement undermines
the intrinsic motivational effect (ex: “You should keep
working hard”).
o Tangible rewards include things such as trinkers or tokens (food or
stickers).
o Expected rewards offered in advance of task completion (ex: “if you
achieve a certain level or grade, you will earn this reward”);
Unexpected rewards do not demonstrate the same negative effects
on motivation as expected rewards.
 Social-Cognitive Explanations Motivation is a goal directed behavior that is
closely linked to feelings of personal effectiveness or self-efficacy. Emphasizes
learning from the social environment. Suggests that there is a reciprocal interaction
among personal, behavioral, and social/environmental factors. (Bandura)
 -learners have agency and capacity for self-regulation, leading to personal
standards and a sense of self-efficacy
-considers our conscious and regulated cognitive processes, and also
proposes that these cognitive processes interact and shape our behaviors.
o Several motivational processes arising from the theory:
 Goals to enhance motivation, goals should be: specific (clear,
achievable task), proximal (achievable in the near future), and
has the right level of difficulty (set against an appropriate
standard and not too easy nor too hard).
 Self-evaluations and self-monitoring provide important
feedback.
 Self-Efficacy (can do attitude) arises from self-evaluation of
our performance on a task.
 Outcome expectations influence approaches to a task (ex: “If
I study like Einstein, I might do better on tests”).
 Value the perceived importance or usefulness of the learning
task.
 Social Comparison setting performance standards by
comparing themselves with other people.
 Humanist and Human Needs Explanations explain achievement and learning,
also consider students’ welfare and wellbeing through a concern for basic human
needs. (Maslow)
-satisfying basic needs; achieving actual self-actualisation and self-
determination
 Self-determination theory (Deci and Ryan) based on the premise that the
human being is naturally inclined towards achieving a close integration of
their own internal psychological make-up, and between themselves and their
social world.
-has major interest in extrinsic and intrinsic states of motivation
 o Basic Human Needs to satisfy SD:
 Competence the psychological need to feel effective in interactions;
the desire to exercise one’s capabilities and master challenges
 Autonomy an inner sense of an integrated self and an internal locus
of causality; the desire to be determined by our own actions and not
the forces of others
 Relatedness the psychological need to feel emotionally connected and
c lose to others to form close bonds and attachments.
o SD Continuum showing motivational approaches, self-regulation and sense
of autonomy:
 Amotivation complete absence of motivation (driven extrinsically)
 Self-determined person intrinsically motivated (driven intrinsically,
completely autonomous)
 Autonomy-supportive strategy that enable self-determination and the
development of intrinsic motivation; teacher behaviors that foster students’
intrinsic motivational resources
o A-S Strategies:
1. Nurture inner motivational resources
2. Use informational, non-controlling language
3. Communicate value, provide rationale
4. Acknowledge and accept students’ negative affect
5. Autonomy-supportive behaviours
 Cognitive Explanations Motivation is the product of our cognitive process and
emotions; achievement needs, and beliefs about causes of success and failure; goal
setting. (Atkinson, Dweck, Weiner and others)
 Achievement Motivation theories (Atkinson and McClelland) the need for
individual to strive for success.
o Approach Success a stable motivational tendency to strive for success by
tackling moderately difficult tasks with a high expectation of success
o Avoid failure a stable motivational tendency to avoid tasks because of a fear
of failure and an expectancy for failure on tasks.
 Implicit theories of competence and ability
o Two main theories: 1. Entity theory a belief that intelligence and
ability are fixed traits, and not malleable or easily changed; 2.
Incremental theory a belief that intelligence and ability are
changeable states that are able to grow and develop.
 Expectancy-value Beliefs considers learners’ expectations of success and
the value they give to that success.
o Four Key Task values identified:
1. Intrinsic value personal enjoyment the student receives from doing
that task
2. utility value importance of the activity to a future goal that the
student may hold, such as attaining a qualification or advancing
towards a career goal
3. attainment value importance of actually doing well on the task
4. cost value ‘cost’ or toll that involvement in the task may take on
other physical or emotional resources, such as taking time away from
other activities, or causing stress or anxiety.
 Self-worth theory of motivation (Beery) explains the students’ need to
avoid failure and hence, protect their self-worth.
 Overstrivers work hard to ensure success on a task
 Failure avoiders characterized by learners who are more concerned
about avoiding failures than gaining success on a task
o Strategies students employ when faced with the dual motives to
approach success and avoid failure: self-handicapping actions or
choices an individual makes to prevent or hinder performance or
achievement; defensive pessimism A defensive or protective
 cognitive strategy to lower expectations and hence protect the sense
of self when faced with negative outcomes.
o The Student motivation and engagement wheel:
 ADAPTIVE COGNITION (adaptive motivation) Valuing,
Mastery Orientation, Self-Efficacy
 ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR (adaptive engagement)
Persistence, Planning, Task Management
 MALADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR (maladaptive engagement)
Disengagement, Self-Handicapping
 MALADPATIVE/IMPEDING COGNITION (maladaptive
motivational) Anxiety, Failure Avoidance, Uncertain control
 Attribution theories concerned with the way in which an individual’s
explanations of success and failure influence subsequent motivation and
behavior; learners may attribute success or failure to different causes,
depending on their beliefs about who or what ‘controls’ their success and
failure.
o Three important features explaining success or failure:
 Internal or external causes internal (own ability or effort);
external (luck, task difficulty, poor teaching)
Internal locus of control tendency to attribute success
or failure to internal (controllable factors) or external
(uncontrollable factors).
 Stable or unstable causes stable (aptitude or ability); unstable
(mood at the time of a test)
 Controllable or uncontrollable causes controllability of the
factors influencing performance.
o Series of connection between attributions and emotions:
 Pride learner attributes success to internal attributes (high
ability)
  Guilt attributes failure to internal controllable causes (lack of
effort)
 Shame, embarrassment attributes failure to internal
uncontrollable causes (low ability)
 Hopelessness stable causes of failure (unfair teacher)
 Hope unstable causes of failure (bad luck)
 Goal Theories of motivation achievement goal theories and arose from
early theories of achievement motivation
o Two overarching goal structures:
 Mastery goals personal objective to achieve mastery of a task
or skill
 Performance goal personal objective to perform well in an
area of achievement (less desirable approach to achievement)
o Two separate types of goal-dimension:
 Performance-avoid goal a personal objective to compete
academic work in order to avoid appearing incompetent
 Performance-approach goal a personal objective to perform
well by demonstrating competence over others and
outperforming classmates
III. ENGAGEMENT IN LEARNING
 Engagement ‘energy in action’; the energy that connects and shows our
participation in an activity; consists of behavior (shows that we are engaged
through signs of paying attention, being on task and following instructions,
absences and attendance, drop-out rates and being disruptive), cognitive
(show engagement when we are actively thinking about a task and setting
goals for ourselves, exerting effort, self-regulation, and motivational goals),
and emotional (show engagement when we are interested, bored or when
we react to teacher feedback, sense of belonging and connectedness with the
school) components.
  School factors that influence engagement
 Expectancy-value theory explains decline in motivation and valuing of
schooling (a problem of ‘stage/environment fit’)
o Four key features associated with feeling of connectedness to school:
1. Positive classroom-management climates (teachers who
showed empathy and emphasized students’ autonomy)
2. Participation in extracurricular activities
3. Tolerant discipline policies
4. Small school sizes
 Classroom factors
 Social factors
 Relationship between Peer relationship to Sense of belonging to
engagement: Peer relationship Sense of belonging engagement
1. Social-emotional factors
2. Academic motivation and success
3. Peer groups and social networks

Chapter 9 INTELLIGENCE

A. Measuring Intelligence
 Stanford-Binet test (test created by Binet-Simon and revised to be used
in the USA) 30-items test that measures practical knowledge and skills
(naming objects in pictures, define words, repeat a set of digits, copy a simple
shape, etc.)
 Mental age divided by chronological age multiply by 100
 IQ a score on an intelligence test that permits an individual’s performance
to be compared with the average performance on the test
 Mental age the chronological age that typically corresponds with a
particular performance level on an intelligence test.
  Weschler’s Intelligence Scales (David Weschler)
 Deviation IQ an IQ score that compares an individual’s performance
on a test with the expected average performance of someone in the
same age group (for calculating adult IQs); a measure of how far a
particular test score is above or below the mean score of the relevant
age cohort; provide a method for rank-ordering individuals in terms
of their performance on a test
 Actual test score divided by expected test score and multiplied
by 100
B. Administering Intelligence Test
 S-B IS and WAIS, WAIS-C, and WPPSI-IV- administered
individual (more expensive than group administered test)
 DAP individual or group
C. Interpreting IQ Scores
 Mean score=100; SD=15 or 16
 Frequency distribution number of times each score occurs in a range of
possible scores represented by bell-shaped curve (normal distribution)
representation of test scores, showing their natural tendency to cluster around
the middle (mean) of the distribution and taper off at either side.
 Standard deviation a measure of how much test scores vary from the mean
of the sample
D. What intelligence test do not measure
1. Learning
2. Creativity
3. Various (persistence, impulse control, intellectual engagement,
conscientiousness and self-discipline)
 Strengths
  Can identify who may be at risk of problem in learning as a
result of impaired intellectual abilities, and for planning
appropriate educational programs;
 Identify students who are intellectually gifted, particularly
those who are underachieving.
 Limitations
 Reliability and validity of scores derived from group tests in particular
 Restricted range of skills measured
 Etc. kapoy na
E. Learners with exceptional abilities
F. Concepts of giftedness and talent
 Gifted individuals with high general intellectual ability; significantly superior
potential to achieve in one or more domains; partly innate
 Talent significantly superior performance in one or more domains/performance
o Attributes that are frequently present in gifted and talented students:
 Language and literacy-related skills
 Cognitive and problem-solving skills
 Independence and broad interests and activities
o Three-ring conception of giftedness:
 Above-average ability general ability and specific ability
 High levels of task communication including self-confidence,
capacity for high interest level, hard work, determination and
setting high standards in a particular area
 High level of creativity openness to new experiences, curiosity,
willingness to take risk, and fluency, flexibility and originally
of thought
G. Identifying gifted and talented learners
o Characteristics:
 Highly curious
  Abstract thinker
 Flexible thinker
 Superior vocabulary
 Advanced reading
 Independent
 Otherrrrrssss!
H. Educational programs and provisions for gifted students
 Acceleration allowing students to move faster through the education system
 Curriculum differentiate modification of instruction, materials and
assessment procedures to match learner needs
I. Creativity novel thinking that leads to the production of innovative and valuable
ideas (judged what is produced).
o Components (Individual Factors):
 Intelligence necessary but not sufficient
 Thinking skills both divergent and convergent thinking to
ensure novelty and appropriateness
 Knowledge and expertise
 Personality willingness to take risks, perseverance, self-
efficacy
 Others na pudddd!