INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

Pistons

 The piston's primary responsibility is to take thermal

energy created by the ignition of fuel and air, and
transform it into linear motion. Linear motion acts on the
crankshaft journal and becomes rotary motion.

Piston Composition

 Iron – heavy machinery or “old school”

 Aluminum - cast
Pour aluminum into a mold  Higher performance
Light-weight  Less brittle
economical  Predictable expansion qualities
Some silicone added  Aluminum - Forged
General usage  Can be made lighter weight (smaller)
Brittle than cast because it’s stronger
Somewhat unpredictable expansion  Can withstand abuse
qualities  Newer designs have predictable
 Hypereutectic expansion qualities
 Cast aluminum with a high silicon  Silicon & Nickel added
content  Greater piston to wall clearance
 Light-weight
Pistons are often cam-ground to produce the elliptical shape when the piston is at room temperature.

Piston Rings Piston Ring Types- Oil Rings

 On bottom of piston below compression rings
 Provide seal between cylinder wall and piston
 Regulates oil film thickness on cylinder wall
 Rings ride on a thin film of oil
 Holes in ring and piston allow excess oil to drain
 Conduct heat from the piston out to the
back to crankcase
cylinder and the fins
 Too much oil film and the engine will use
 Material is cast iron or chrome steel
excessive oil and too little oil causes heat and
insufficient lubrication.
 Compression rings are located at the top of the
 Directs the oil away from or towards the oil
piston and seal the combustion chamber
control rings depending upon the requirements
Types include rectangular, tapered, wedge
of the engine.

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Piston ring end gap
 The gap at the end of the rings allows for expansion and
contraction and unevenness in the cylinder wall
 Butt, step and angle types
 Always stagger the end gaps during ring installation to
prevent losing compression
Piston Pins (wrist pins)
 Connects the piston to the end of the connecting rod
 Constructed of hardened steel
 The pin is retained in the piston with clips or plugs to
prevent cylinder wall scoring
 Typical Lycoming and Continental pins are free-floating,
meaning the pin is not secured to the piston or the rod.

Connecting Rod Assembly Plain Type Rods

 The link between the crankshaft and the piston  Used on inline and opposed engines
 Normally steel but some low powered engines  Small bushing at piston pin end is pressed in
use aluminum to save weight place and reamed to final dimensions
 Cross section is an “H” or “I”  Large end of rod includes a cap, bolts, nuts, and
 Types include : plain bearing inserts
 Plain Rod  Rods are numbered as to cylinder and for cap-
 Fork and blade rod to-rod alignment
 Master and articulated

Fork and Blade Connecting Rod

 Used on “V” type engines
 One rod inside another allows cylinders to be aligned
and to share a common location on the crankshaft
Master and Articulating Rod
 Used on radial engines
 Uses “knuckle pins” to retain articulated rods to
master

Crankshaft
 Changes reciprocating motion of pistons into rotating motion to drive propeller
 Constructed of chrome-nickel-molybdenum-steel
 The propeller mounts to the front of the crankshaft using a spline, taper, or flange
 The crankshaft rotates within the crankcase and is supported by main bearing journals
 Crankshaft throws or crankpins are off center and account for the reciprocating motion of the pistons.
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Crankshaft Parts
 Dynamic Dampers can be mounted to the crankshaft to reduce vibration (floating)
 Counterweights are also used to reduce vibration but they are rigid and do not float
 Counterweights and dampers are used in piston engines because the power pulses and movement of the pistons
create large amounts of vibration
 Vibration shortens airframe and engine life and can lead to premature component failure
 The engine is also mounted in rubber bushings to absorb vibration

Valves and the Valve System

 Valves control the flow of gases inside the engine
 Poppet valves are the most common and get their name
from the popping open and closed during operation
 Intake valves are chrome steel and are cooled by the
incoming air and fuel mixture
 Exhaust valves are also alloy steel but are often filled with
metallic sodium for cooling. Valve faces may be coated with
Stellite to reduce wear and corrosion
 Valve faces are ground to 30 degrees for intake (airflow) and
45 degrees (cooling) for exhaust

Valve Lifter or Tappet

 May be solid, roller, or hydraulic
 The lifter follows the cam lobes and pushes on the pushrod
 Solid and roller lifters require adjustable rocker arms
 Hydraulic type lifters fill with oil and lengthen to compensate for any clearances in the valve system

Camshaft
 Turns at 1/2 the speed of the crankshaft
 Must be mechanically coupled to the crankshaft for timing purposes (gears, belts, chains)
 The camshaft consists of bearing journals and lobes spaced along the shaft
 Each lobe is positioned to open and close a valve at a specific time

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Bearings
 Must be able to withstand forces inside an engine with minimal friction and heat build-up. Must accept radial
and thrust loads.
 The purpose of a bearing is to reduce friction, most often on a rotating shaft. It may be made of many different
materials including sintered bronze, which holds oil to reduce friction, and various metals which are cast in place
to make a soft slippery surface for really heavy shafts. A bearing can also use balls or rods between two
hardened metal surfaces, the balls or rollers convert what would be a sliding contact to a rolling point contact.

Types of Bearings- Plain Bearings Types of Bearings- Roller Bearings

 A steel insert with babbitt (lead alloy) bonded
to the bearing surface
 Plain bearings are keyed to keep them in place
 A lip or flange allows the plain bearing to accept
thrust loads
 Commonly used as crankshaft and rod bearings
in opposed engines
 Roller Bearings (antifriction)
 Hard steel rollers captured between an inner
and outer “race” and held in alignment by a
“cage”
 May be tapered to absorb radial and thrust
loads or straight to absorb radial loads only.

Types of Bearings- Ball Bearings  Propeller always turns slower than the engine
 Ball Bearings (antifriction)  Gear Ratios:
 Used for both radial and thrust loads  Expressed as 2:1, .64:1, 300:1
 Deep grooves in races allow thrust loads  At what speed will the propeller be turning if
Propeller Reduction Gearing the engine rpm is 2000 and the gear ratio is
 Purpose is to reduce propeller rpm to its 2:1?
optimal speed and to increase engine rpm to its  1000 rpm
optimal speed

Cooling System
• Get the engine up to optimum operating Temperature as quickly as possible and maintains it at that
temperature.
• Controls the heat produced in combustion chamber, so that the engine parts are not damaged & the oil does
not break down.

AIR COOLED
• Have metal FINS on the outer perimeter of the engine.
• Heat is transferred from the engine, through these fins,
into the atmosphere.
LIQUID COOLED
 A liquid (coolant) is circulated around the cylinders and
absorb heat from the cylinder walls and cylinder head.
 COOLANT is a mixture of antifreeze (Ethylene Glycol)
and Water (some Aluminum radiators have special
antifreeze)
 Coolant absorbs heat as it passes through the engine and also lubricates the water pump.
 Hot coolant enters the radiator in which the heat is passed on to air that is flowing through the radiator.
 Prevents rust and corrosion from the water jackets.

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Water Jackets

 Designed to keep engine block and cylinder head cool.

 Open spaces between the outside of cylinder and inside of cylinder block and head. When engine is running at
normal operating temperature, the coolant is forced through the water jackets in the engine block, through the
head gasket, into the head, and back to the radiator.

Water Pump (Impeller Type)

 Draws the coolant from the radiator, through the lower radiator hose, and then forces it through the water
jackets, back into the radiator.
 If the clutch fan can be wiggled up and down, most likely the water pump needs to be replaced.

Radiator is a heat exchanger that removes heat from the coolant passing through it.

Lubricating System

Operation
 Oil pump pulls oil out of the pan
 Pickup screen removes large particles
 Pump pushes oil through the oil filter and galleries
 Oil filter removes very small particles
 Filtered oil flows to camshaft, crankshaft, lifters, rocker arms and other moving parts

Purpose of Lubrication System

• Lubricate
Reduces Friction by creating a thin film(Clearance) between moving parts (Bearings and journals)

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 • Seals
 The oil helps form a gastight seal between piston rings and cylinder walls (Reduces Blow-By)
 Internal oil leak (blow-by) will result in BLUE SMOKE at the tale pipe.

• Cleans
As it circulates through the engine, the oil picks up metal particles and carbon, and brings them back down to the pan.

• Cools
Picks up heat when moving through the engine and then drops into the cooler oil pan, giving up some of this heat.

• Absorbs shock
When heavy loads are imposed on the bearings, the oil helps to
cushion the load.

• Absorbs Contaminants
The additives in oil helps in absorbing the contaminants that
enter the lubrication system.

VISCOSITY
 Viscosity is a measure of oil’s resistance to flow.
 A low viscosity oil is thin and flows easily
 A high viscosity oil is thick and flows slowly.
 As oil heats up it becomes more viscous (Becomes thick)
 If the oil is too thin(has very low viscosity) it will be
forced out from between the moving parts, resulting in rapid wear.
 If the oil is too thick(has very high viscosity) it will flow very slowly to engine parts, especially when the engine
and the oil are cold, resulting in rapid wear.
 Viscosity Index is the measure of how much the viscosity of an oil changes with temperature. (20 W)
 Viscosity number is set by SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers)
Properties of oil

 Corrosion and Rust Inhibitor: Displaces water from metal surfaces, to prevent corrosion.
 Foaming Resistance: Rotating crankshaft tends to cause bubbles (Foam) in the oil and bubbles in oil will reduce
the effectiveness of oil to lubricate.
 Synthetic Oils: Made by chemical process and do not necessarily come from petroleum.

Carburetion
Gasoline engine’s air fuel mixture may vary from rich (8:1) to lean (18:1)
• 8:1 for cold starting.
• 16:1 for idling.
• 15:1 for part throttle.
• 13:1 for full acceleration.
• 18:1 for normal cruising at highway speeds.

 Fuel Tank – The fuel tank is pressurised to about 2 psi to prevent fuel vaporization and pollution. The fuel tank is
vented through its own venting system and the engine managements emission control systems again to control
pollution.
 Fuel pipes – These can be made from steel or plastic and are secured by clips at several points along the
underside of the vehicle. To allow for engine movement and vibration, rubber hoses connect the pipes to the
engine. Later fuel pipes use special connectors which require special tools to disconnect the pipes.
 Fuel Filters – to prevent dirt and fluff entering the fuel pump a filter is fitted on the suction side of the pump.

 Air Filters – air cleaners and silencers are fitted to all

modern vehicles. Its most important function is to
prevent dust and abrasive particles from entering
the engine and causing rapid wear. Air filters are
designed to give sufficient filtered air, to obtain
maximum engine power.
 Fuel Pump – this supplies fuel under high pressure to
the fuel injection system, or under low pressure to a
carburettor.

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  Carburettor – this is a device which atomizes the fuel and mixes it which the correct amount of air, this device
has now been superseded by modern electronic fuel injection.
 Float chamber (function) – to set and maintain the fuel level within the carburettor, and to control the supply
fuel to the carburettor venturi.

Air Fuel Ratio

 Fuel mixture strengths – petrol will not burn unless it is mixed with air, to obtain the best possible combustion of
the fuel, which should result in good engine power and fuel consumption and low emissions (pollution), the air
fuel ratio must be chemically correct i.e. the right amount of air and fuel must be mixed together to give an air
fuel ratio of 14.7 to 1 by mass. This is referred to as the Stoichiometry air fuel ratio.

 When there is more air present than fuel in the air fuel mixture, it is said to be ‘weak’ or ‘lean’ i.e. not enough
fuel e.g. a ratio of 25 to 1, this results in a Lambda reading of more than 1.When there is not enough air present,
the mixture is referred to as ‘rich’ e.g. a air fuel ratio of 8 to 1, in this case Lambda equals less than 1.

 Weak/lean air/fuel mixtures – can result in low fuel consumption, low emissions (pollution), however, weak air
fuel mixtures can also result in poor engine performance (lack of power) and high engine temperatures (
because the fuel burns more slowly)

 Rich air/ fuel mixtures – can result in greater engine power, however this also results in poorer fuel consumption
and greatly increased emissions (pollution)

Fuel Injection System

 Uses pressure (not Vacuum) from an electrical pump to spray fuel into the intake manifold.

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  Provides the engine with proper air-fuel ratio (14.7 : 1)

Engine Performance

Wide Open Throttle

 Wide open throttle (WOT) refers to an internal combustion engine's maximum intake of air and fuel that occurs
when the throttle plates inside the carburetor or throttle body are "wide open", providing the least resistance to
the incoming air.

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Brake and Rated Horsepower