Micro-turbines,Fuel Cells and

Energy Storage Schemes

1
Distributed Generation Technologies

Microturbines
Reciprocating Engines
Advanced Turbines

Fuel Cells
Photovoltaics Wind turbines 2
 Basic Gas Turbine

• Fresh air is drawn into a compressor where spinning rotor

blades compress the air, elevating its temperature and
pressure
• This hot, compressed air is mixed with fuel (natural gas, LPG,
kerosene) and burnt in the combustion chamber
• The hot exhaust gases are expanded in a turbine and released
to the atmosphere
• The compressor and turbine shares a common shaft, so that a
portion, typically more than half, of the rotational energy
created by the turbine is used to power the turbine 3
 Combined-Cycle Power Plants

• Carnot efficiency reveals that the maximum possible efficiency

of a heat engine is limited by a low-temperature sink as well as
by a high-temperature source
• With exhaust gases leaving a gas turbine at temperatures
frequently above 5000 C, overall efficiencies are low, in the 30%
range
• A heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) can capture some of
that waste heat for process steam whereby the gas turbine
waste heat can be used to power a second stage steam turbine
4
• Working together such combined cycle power plants have
achieved efficiencies above 50%
 Microturbines
• Recently, a new generation of
very small gas turbines
entered the marketplace.
Often referred to as
microturbines, these units
generate anywhere from about
500 W to several hundred kW.
• Incoming air is compressed
and sent through a heat
exchanger called recuperartor,
where its temperature is
elevated by the hot exhaust
gases. By preheating the
compressed incoming air, the
recuperator helps boost the
efficiency

The hot, compressed air is mixed with fuel in the combustion chamber
and is burnt. The expansion of hot gases through the turbine spins
the compressor and the generator

The exhaust gas is released to the atmosphere after
transferring much of its heat to the incoming compressed air in the 5
recuperator
 Example
The Elliott TA 100A microturbine at its full 105 kW output burns
1.24 X 106 Btu/hr ( 1Btu = 1055J ) of natural gas. Its waste heat is
used to supplement a boiler used for water and space heating in an
apartment house. The design calls for water from the boiler at
1200 F to be heated to 1400 F and returned to the boiler. The
system operates in this mode for 8000 hours per year.
a) If 47% of the fuel energy is transferred to the boiler water, what
should the water flow rate be ?
b) If the boiler is 75% efficient, and it is fueled with natural gas
costing $6 per million Btu, how much money will the
microturbine save in displaced boiler fuel ?
c) If utility electricity costs $0.08/kWh, how much will the
microturbine save in avoided utility electricity ?
d) If O&M is $1500/yr, what is the net annual savings for the
microturbine ?
e) If the microturbine costs $220,000, what is the ratio of annual
savings to initial investment (called the initial rate of return) ?
6
 Solution
a) The heat Q required to raise a substance with specific
heat c and mass flow rate m& by a temperature
difference of ∆T is Q = m& C∆T. Since it takes 1 Btu to
raise 1 lb of water by 10 F, and one gallon of water
weighs 8.34 lb, we can write,
Water flow rate m& = 0.47X 1.24 X 106 Btu/h X 1/60 h/min
1 Btu/lb0F X 200F X 8.34 lb/gal
= 58 gpm
b) The fuel displaced by not using the 75% efficient boiler is
worth,
Fuel savings = 0.47 X 1.24 X 106 Btu/h X $6 X 8000 h/yr
0.75 106 Btu

= $37,300/yr
7
 Solution
c) The utility electricity savings = 105 kW X 8000 h/yr X
$0.08/kWh = $67,200/yr

d) The cost of fuel for the microturbine is

= 1.24 X 106Btu/h X ($6/106 Btu) X 8000 h/yr= $59,520/yr
So the net annual savings of the microturbine, including
$1500/yr in O&M, is = ($37,300 + $67,200) - $59,520 -
$1500 = $43,480/yr

e) The initial rate of return on this investment would be

= Annual savings = $43,480/yr = 0.198 = 19.8%/yr
Initial investment $220,000
8
 Fuel Cells
• Why the Hydrogen Energy density of kWh/kg
hype ? some materials
Gasoline 14
•Hydrogen is the only Lead/acid 0.04
non-polluting fuel available batteries
Flywheel, steel 0.05
• High energy density Flywheel, Carbon 0.2
fiber
• Hydrogen can be produced Flywheel, fused 0.9
either from Methane or by Silica
splitting water Hydrogen 38
Compressed air 2/m3
9
 Fuel Cells
In the archetypal example of a
hydrogen/oxygen proton
exchange membrane fuel cell
(PEMFC), a proton-conducting
polymer membrane, (the
electrolyte), separates the
anode and cathode sides.
On the anode side, hydrogen
diffuses to the anode catalyst
where it dissociates into
protons and electrons.
The protons are conducted through the membrane to the cathode, but the
electrons are forced to travel in an external circuit (supplying power) because
the membrane is electrically insulating. On the cathode catalyst, oxygen
molecules react with the electrons (which have traveled through the external
circuit) and protons to form water. In this example, the only waste product is
10
water vapor and/or liquid water.
 Parts of a fuel cell
There are four basic elements
of a PEMFC:

The anode, the negative post of the

fuel cell, has several jobs. It conducts
the electrons that are freed from the
hydrogen molecules so that they can
be used in an external circuit. It has
channels etched into it that disperse
the hydrogen gas equally over the
surface of the catalyst.

The cathode, the positive post of the fuel cell, has channels etched into it
that distribute the oxygen to the surface of the catalyst. It also conducts the
electrons back from the external circuit to the catalyst, where they can
recombine with the hydrogen ions and oxygen to form water.
11
 Parts of a fuel cell
• The electrolyte is the proton exchange membrane.
This specially treated material, which looks something
like ordinary kitchen plastic wrap, only conducts
positively charged ions. The membrane blocks electrons.

• The catalyst is a special material that facilitates the

reaction of oxygen and hydrogen. It is usually made of
platinum powder very thinly coated onto carbon paper or
cloth. The catalyst is rough and porous so that the
maximum surface area of the platinum can be exposed
to the hydrogen or oxygen.

12
 Parts of a fuel cell
Figure on page 10 shows the pressurized hydrogen gas (H2) entering
the fuel cell on the anode side. This gas is forced through the catalyst
by the pressure. When an H2 molecule comes in contact with the
platinum on the catalyst, it splits into two H+ ions and two electrons (e-
). The electrons are conducted through the anode, where they make
their way through the external circuit (doing useful work such as turning
a motor) and return to the cathode side of the fuel cell.

Meanwhile, on the cathode side of the fuel cell, oxygen gas (O2) is
being forced through the catalyst, where it forms two oxygen atoms.
Each of these atoms has a strong negative charge. This negative
charge attracts the two H+ ions through the membrane, where they
combine with an oxygen atom and two of the electrons from the
external circuit to form a water molecule (H2O).

13
 Phosphoric Acid (PAFC).
Phosphoric acid fuel cells are
commercially available today. Hundreds of
fuel cell systems have been installed in 19
nations - in hospitals, nursing homes,
hotels, office buildings, schools, utility
power plants, landfills and waste water
treatment plants. PAFCs generate
electricity at more than 40% efficiency –
and nearly 85% of the steam this fuel cell
produces is used for cogeneration - this
compares to about 35% for the utility
power grid in the United States.
Phosphoric acid fuel cells use liquid
phosphoric acid as the electrolyte and
operate at about 450°F.
One of the main advantages to this type of fuel cell, besides the nearly 85%
cogeneration efficiency, is that it can use impure hydrogen as fuel. PAFCs
can tolerate a CO concentration of about 1.5 percent, which broadens the
choice of fuels they can use. If gasoline is used, the sulfur must be removed.
14
 Proton Exchange Membrane
(PEM)
• These fuel cells operate at relatively
low temperatures (about 175°F), have
high power density, can vary their
output quickly to meet shifts in power
demand, and are suited for
applications, such as in automobiles,
where quick startup is required.
According to the U.S. Department of
Energy (DOE), "they are the primary
candidates for light-duty vehicles, for
buildings, and potentially for much
smaller applications such as
replacements for rechargeable
batteries." This type of fuel cell is
sensitive to fuel impurities. Cell
outputs generally range from 50 watts
to 75 kW. 15
Solid Oxide Fuel Cells(SOFC)
• Solid oxide fuel cells use a hard,
non-porous ceramic compound as
the electrolyte, and operate at
very high temperatures - around
1800°F. One type of SOFC uses
an array of meter-long tubes, and
other variations include a
compressed disc that resembles
the top of a soup can. Tubular
SOFC designs are closer to
commercialization and are being
produced by several companies
around the world. SOFCs are
suitable for stationary applications
as well as for auxiliary power units
(APUs) used in vehicles to power
electronics. 16
 Molten Carbonate (MCFC)
Molten carbonate fuel cells use an
electrolyte composed of a molten
carbonate salt mixture suspended in a
porous, chemically inert matrix, and
operate at high temperatures –
approximately 1,200ºF. They require
carbon dioxide and oxygen to be
delivered to the cathode. To date, MCFCs
have been operated on hydrogen, carbon
monoxide, natural gas, propane, landfill
gas, marine diesel, and simulated coal
gasification products. 10 kW to 2 MW
MCFCs have been tested on a variety of
fuels and are primarily targeted to electric
utility applications. 17
Summary of Fuel Cell Types

18
 Fuel Cell Thermodynamics –
Enthalpy of Formation
The fuel cell shown on page 10 is described by the following pair of
Reactions:

Anode: H2  2H+ + 2e-

Cathode: (1/2)O2 + 2H+ + 2e-  H2O

When combined, the above equations result in the equation for

combustion of hydrogen:

H2 + (1/2)O2  H2O

One way to think about enthalpy is that it is a measure of the energy that it
takes to form that substance out of its constituent elements. The difference
between the enthalpy of the substance and the enthalpies of its elements is
called the enthalpy of formation (∆H).

19
Enthalpy of formation for selected
substances (At 250C and 1 atm)

20
Electrochemical reactions in fuel
cells

21
 Enthalpy of formation of water
Analyzing the reactions on page 21, the enthalpies of H2 and O2 are
zero so the enthalpy of formation is simply the enthalpy of the resulting
H2O. Noticing table on page 20, the enthalpy of H2O depends on
whether it is liquid water or gaseous water vapor. When the result is
liquid water:

H2 + (1/2)O2  H2O(l) ∆H= -285.8 kJ

When the resulting product is water vapor:

H2 + (1/2)O2  H2O(g) ∆H= -241.8 kJ

The negative signs for the enthalpy changes in above tells us these
reactions are exothermic: that is, heat is released.

22
 Example
Find the HHV of methane (CH4) in kJ/mol and kJ/kg when it is oxidized to CO2
and liquid H2O.

SOLUTION
The reaction is written below, and beneath it are enthalpies.
Notice that we must balance the equation so that we know how many
moles of each constituent are involved.
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2 H2O(l)
(-74.9) 2X(0) (-393.5) 2X(-285.8)
Notice, too, that we have used the enthalpy of liquid water to find HHV.
The difference between the total enthalpy of the reaction products and the
reactants is
∆H = [(-393.5) + 2 X (-285.8)] – [(-74.9) + 2 X (0)] = -890.2 kJ/mol of CH4
Since the result is negative, heat is released during combustion; that is, it is
exothermic. The HHV is the absolute value of ∆H which is 890.2 kJ/mol.
Since there are 12.011 + 4X1.008 = 16.043 g/mol of CH4, the HHV can be
Written as
HHV = (890.2 kJ/mol) / (16.403 g/mol) X1000 g/kg = 55,490 kJ/kg23
 Entropy and Theoretical Efficiency
of Fuel Cells
The reactions H2 + 1/2O2  H2O(l) and Enthalpy
H2 + 1/2O2  H2O(g) act as a source of enthalpy H in H
that can be converted to heat and work. The cell
generates an amount of electricity We and rejects an
amount of thermal energy Q to its environment. Fuel We
Since there is heat transfer and it is a real system, Cell
there must be an increase in entropy. We can write
the entropy appearing in the rejected heat as Enthalpy
∆S=Q/T. However there is no entropy associated Output
Rejected
with the work done We as there is no heat transfer. Heat Q
According to 2nd law of thermodynamics,
Entropy gain ≥ Entropy loss

Q/T + ΣSproducts ≥ ΣSreactants which leads to

24
Q ≥ T(ΣSreactants - ΣSproducts )
 Entropy and Theoretical Efficiency
of Fuel Cells
Above equation tells us that the minimum amount of heat
that must appear in the fuel cell. That is we cannot convert
all of the fuel’s energy into electricity – we are stuck with
some thermal losses.
We can now easily determine the maximum efficiency of
the fuel cell. From the figure in page 24, the enthalpy
supplied by the chemical reaction ∆H equals the electricity
produced We plus the heat rejected Q:
∆H = We + Q
Since it is the electrical output that we want, we can write
the fuel cell’s efficiency as
η= We/∆H = (∆H – Q)/∆H = 1 – Q/∆H
25
 Example
Suppose a fuel cell that operates at 250C (298K) and 1 atm
forms liquid water (that is we are working with the HHV of
the hydrogen fuel):
H2 + (½ )O2 H2O(l) ∆H = -285.8 kJ/mol of H2

a) Find the minimum amount of heat rejected per mole of

H2.
b) What is the maximum efficiency of the fuel cell ?

26
 Solution
a) From the reaction, 1 mole of H2 reacts with ½ mole of O2 to
produce 1 mole of liquid H2O. The loss of entropy by the reactants per
mole of H2 is found as follows:
ΣSreactants = 0.13 kJ/mol-K X 1mol H2
+ 0.205 kJ/mol-K X (1/2) mol O2 = 0.2325 kJ/K
The gain in entropy in the product water is
ΣSproduct = 0.0699 kJ/mol-K X 1mol H2O = 0.0699 kJ/K

The minimum amount of heat released during the reaction

is therefore
Qmin = T( ΣSreactants - ΣSproduct ) = 298 K (0.2325 – 0.0699) kJ/K
= 48.45 kJ per mole H2

b) The enthalpy made available during the formation of liquid water from
H2 and O2 is H = 285.8 kJ/mol of H2.
The maximum efficiency possible occurs when Q is a minimum; thus 27
ηmax = 1 – Qmin/H = 1 – 48.45/285.8 = 0.83 = 83%
 Gibbs Free Energy and Fuel Cell
Efficiency
The chemical energy released in a reaction can be thought of as
consisting of two parts: an entropy-free part, called free energy ∆G, that
can be converted directly into electrical or mechanical work, plus a part
that must appear as heat Q. The free energy G is the enthalpy H
created by the chemical reaction, minus the heat that must be liberated,
Q=T∆S, to satisfy the 2nd law.

The Gibbs free energy ∆G corresponds to the maximum possible,

entropy-free, electrical output from a chemical reaction. It can be found
at STP using Table on page 20 by taking the difference between the
sum of the Gibbs energies of the reactants and the products:
∆G = ΣGproducts - Σ Greactants
This means that the maximum possible efficiency is just the ratio of the
Gibbs free energy to the enthalpy change in the chemical reaction.

28
 Example
What is the maximum efficiency at STP of a proton-
exchange –membrane (PEM) fuel cell based on the higher
heating value (HHV) of hydrogen ?

SOLUTION
The HHV corresponds to liberated water in the liquid state
so that the appropriate reaction is
H2 + (½ )O2 H2O(l) ∆H = -285.8 kJ/mol of H2

The Gibbs free energy of the reactants H2 and O2 are both

zero, and that of the product, liquid water, is -237.2 kJ.
Therefore, ∆G = -237.2 –(0+0) = -237.2 kJ/mol.
So, ηmax = ∆G / ∆H = -237.2/(-285.8) = 0.83 = 83%

This is the same answer that we found in the previous example.

29
Electrical Output of an Ideal Cell
The Gibbs free energy ∆G is the maximum possible amount of work or
electricity that a fuel cell can deliver. For an ideal hydrogen fuel cell,
the maximum possible electrical output is therefore equal to the
magnitude of ∆G. For a fuel cell producing liquid water, this makes the
maximum electrical output at STP equal to We= | ∆G | = 237.2 kJ/mol
of H2.
To use above equation we just have to adjust the units so that the
electrical output We will have the conventional electrical units of volts,
amps and watts. For each mole of H2 into an ideal fuel cell, two
electrons will pass through the electrical load (see figure on page 10).

30
Electrical Output of an Ideal Cell
If n is the rate of flow of hydrogen into the cell (in mol/s), we can
therefore write that the current flowing through the load will be
I(A) = n (mol/s). 6.022X1023(molecules of H2/mol).
2 (electrons/molecules H2) . 1.602X10-19(coulombs/electron)
= 192945n A

The ideal power (watts) delivered to the load will be 237.2 kJ/mol of H2
times the rate of hydrogen use:
P(W) = 237.2 (kJ/mol) . n (mol/s) . 1000
= 237200n W

And the reversible voltage produced across the terminals of this ideal
fuel cell will be,
VR = P(W)/ I(A) = 237200n/192945n
= 1.229 V
31
 Electrical Characteristics of
Fuel Cells
Usually real fuel cells do not deliver the full Gibbs free energy.
Activation losses result from the energy required by the catalysts to
initiate the reactions. The relatively slow speed of reactions at the
cathode, where oxygen combines with protons and electrons to form
water, tends to limit the fuel cell power. Ohmic losses result from
current passing through the internal resistance posed by the electrolyte
membrane, electrodes, and various interconnections in the cell.
Another loss, referred to as fuel crossover, results from fuel passing
through the electrolyte without releasing its electrons to the external
circuit. And finally, mass transport losses result when hydrogen and
oxygen gasses have difficulty reaching the electrodes. This is
especially true at the cathode if water is allowed to build up, clogging
the catalyst. For these and other reasons, fuel cells, in general,
generate only about 60-70% of the theoretical maximum.

32
 Electrical Characteristics of
Fuel Cells
Figure shows the relationship
between current and voltage for a 1.229 V
typical fuel cell. Notice that the 0.9V
voltage at zero current, called the
open circuit voltage, is a little
less than 1V, which is about 25%
0.85V
lower than the theoretical value
of 1.229 V. Over most of the 0.25 V/(A/cm2)
length of the fuel cell I-V graph,
voltage drops linearly as current
increases. This suggests a
Simple equivalent circuit consisting
of a voltage source in series with
some internal resistance.
Fitting the V-I curve in the ohmic region for the fuel cell,
V = 0.85 – 0.25J = 0.85 – (0.25/A)I
where A is the cell area (cm2), I is current (A) and J is current density(A/cm2). 33
 Energy storage
• Why energy storage?
• Utility load levelling: to improve load factors,
reduce pollution in populated urban areas and to
make better use of available plants and fuels
• Utilization of renewable energy in its various
forms to relieve the burden on finite fossil fuel
resources and to improve the environment
• Storage for remote users
• Uninterruptible power supplies

34
 Pumped Storage Systems
Pumped Storage balances
supply and demand by moving
water between reservoirs (70%
efficient for water) construct a
reservoir above a source of H2O.
In times of slack demand, use
electricity to pump water to the
reservoir. When you need
electricity, run water through
turbines to generate it. It can be
used to increase base load,
decrease peak load....is this
good?
Pumped water storage is used in Michigan (2000 MWe plant in Ludington)
Pennsylvania (870 MWe).
Can also do this for air at about 90% efficiency. In 2000 the US had about 20GW of
pumped storage capability. 35
 Superconductors
• What is a superconductor?
Materials in which the electrical resistance disappears at some
critical temperature (Mercury Tc = 4.2K; Niobium-Tin Tc = 23K).

• Why superconductors? Joule losses (I2R)!

True workable room temperature superconductors would
revolutionize technology.

• Efficiency of electric generators

-Conventional electric generators are 98.6% efficient.
-Superconducting generators will be ~99.5% efficient.
Is this gain worth it?

• Room-temperature superconducting transmission lines would save

10-15% for short-distance transmission
2% for long-distance transmission.

• What does this mean?

-1% improvement in transmission $1 billion in savings.
36
 Superconducting Magnetic Energy
Storage (SMES)
A typical SMES configuration comprises
of two 6-pulse thyristor bridges series
connected to the superconducting coil
on the DC part of the bridge and
coupled through an AC transformer
to a power system on the AC side
Superconducting

of the bridge.
winding

The energy stored in the coil is

magnetic energy given by (1/2)LI2.
The current can be increased to a very
high value due to the superconductive
nature of the coil to provide superior
energy storage capacity. 37
 Flywheels
• Flywheels are an old technology. Storing energy in a
slow moving heavy object has been around for a long
time.
• Example: The car engine

So what is new about flywheels?....

• It is the material....strong plastics and epoxy allow edge

speed of 1400 m/s!
• It is now feasible to create cars which store energy in
flywheels. These could be powered by electricity, natural
gas, etc.
• The presently available flywheels for cars rotate at
30,000 rpm and can deliver 0.55 kWhe. These may be
considered flywheel batteries. The Prius uses flywheels
to store energy!
38
Flywheels

39
 Flywheels
• A wheel winds up through some system of gears and
then delivers rotational energy until friction dissipates it
• Stored energy = sum of kinetic energy of individual mass
elements that comprise the flywheel
• Kinetic Energy = (1/2)*Iω2
• I = moment of inertia ability of an object to resist
changes in its rotational velocity
• ω = rotational velocity
• To optimize the energy-to-mass ratio, the flywheel needs
to spin at the maximum possible speed. This is because
kinetic energy only increases linearly with mass but goes
as the square of the rotation speed.

40
 Flywheels
• Rapidly rotating objects are subject to centrifugal forces
that can rip them apart. Centrifugal force for a rotating
object goes as: MRω2
• Thus, while dense material can store more energy it is
also subject to higher centrifugal force and thus fails at
lower rotation speeds than low density material.
• Tensile Strength is More important than density of
material.
• Long rundown times are also required. Frictionless
bearings and a vacuum to minimize air resistance can
result in rundown times of 6 months steady supply of
energy.
• Flywheels are about 80% efficient (like hydro)
• Flywheels do take up much less land than pumped hydro
systems 41
 Batteries
• The oldest electrical storage device is the battery. The lead-acid
battery in a car is capable of producing 50-100W/kg for a total stored
energy of 25-35 Wh/kg.

• However lead is expensive. Other alternatives include:

• - sodium-sulfur battery (100 kWh - GE)

- zinc-chloride prototype (50 Wh - Gulf)
- lithium-aluminum (100 Wh/kg - ANL)
- lithium-water (55 Wh/kg - Canada)

• Batteries comprise two electrode systems and an electrolyte, placed

together in a special container and connected to an external circuit
or load. These two electrodes, fitted on both sides of an electrolyte
and exchanging ions with the electrolyte and electrons with the
external circuit, are called anode and cathode respectively.

• Today batteries are mainly used in emergency standby supplies

duty for DC auxiliaries.
42