The goal of scientific c psychology is to understand why people think

and act as they do. psychologists use a variety of well-developed

techniques to gather information
and develop theoretical explanations
One possible benefi t of such basic research into a phenomenon is that the fi
ndings
may be applied later to solve some practical problem (epdf)
The experiments performed will, when carefully
conducted, promote a better understanding of the phenomenon of interest than
will simple observation of events and refl ection about them
Skepticism is the philosophical belief that the truth of all knowledge is
questionable.
Therefore, all inquiry must be accompanied by reasonable doubt. No scientifi c
fact can
be known with 100 percent certainty
Many of the tools,
such as statistics, discussed in this text allow the skeptical scientist to measure
reasonable
doubt
Science is based on the assumption that events have causes and that we
can discover those causes through controlled observation. This belief, that
observable
causes determine events, is known as determinism
The fi rst advantage of the scientifi c method is its emphasis on empirical
observation.
The word
empirical is derived from an old Greek word meaning “experience.” Having an
empirical
basis for beliefs means that experience rather than faith is the source of knowledge
second advantage of science is that it offers procedures for establishing the
superiority of one belief over another
Science overcomes this problem. In principle, anyone can
make an empirical observation, which means that scientifi c data can be public and
can
be repeatedly obtained. Through public observations, new beliefs are compared
with old
beliefs, and old beliefs are discarded if they do not fi t the empirical facts.
Empirical, public observations are the cornerstone of the
scientifi c method, because they make science a self-correcting endeavour
A theory can be crudely defi ned as a set of related statements that explains a
variety
of occurrences. The more the occurrences and the fewer the statements, the better
the
theory
Theory in psychology performs two major functions. First, it provides a
framework
for the systematic and orderly display of data—that is, it serves as a convenient
way for
the scientist to organize data
Second, it
allows the scientist to generate predictions for situations in which no data have been
obtained. The greater the degree of precision of these predictions, the better the
theory
Theories cannot be tested directly.
A hypothesis is a very specifi c testable statement that can be
evaluated from observable data
A generalization is a broader statement
that cannot be tested directly but can be used to derive several testable hypotheses.
Each generalization can produce more than one
hypothesis. Generalisations come from theory or from experience.
While hypothesis testing is the dominant methodology used in experimental
psychology, there are other points of view. Most theories in psychology are verbal
and qualitative so that mathematical predictions are hard to come by. However, if
a formal model can be generated either mathematically or by computer simulation,
then it becomes possible to estimate parameters of the model. Parameter
estimation
is superior to hypothesis testing and curve fi tting (Kantowitz & Fujita, 1990), and
as
psychology evolves as a science, estimation will supplement, and perhaps
eventually
replace, hypothesis testing

independent variables are those manipulated by the experimenter. For example,

not allowing rats to have any water for several hours would create an independent
variable called hours of deprivation. Dependent variables are those observed by the
experimenter.
For example, one could observe how much water a rat drinks.
Science tries to explain the world by relating independent and dependent variables.
Intervening variables are abstract concepts that link independent variables to
dependent variable
relate
an independent variable, hours of deprivation, to a dependent variable, rate of bar
pressing. The dependent variable is obtained by placing a rat into a small chamber
where it can press a bar to obtain drinking water. The experimenter observes the
rate
(how many presses per minute) at which the rat presses the bar to get water. The
direct
relationship uses only one arrow to link hours of deprivation to rate of bar
pressing.
After doing the experiment, we could build a mathematical formula that directly
relates
hours of deprivation to rate of bar pressing

much of contemporary psychology

was regarded as the sole property of philosophy at one time. As psychological
techniques improved, these aspects of human expertise and behavior moved into
the
realm of science.

Applied
research aims at solving a specifi c problem—such as how to cure bedwetting—
whereas
basic research has no immediate practical goal. Basic research establishes a
reservoir of
data, theoretical explanations, and concepts that can be tapped by the applied
researcher.
naturalistic observation, which is the most
obvious and perhaps the most venerable way of gathering data. Many people, such as
birdwatchers, are amateur naturalists, but scientifi c naturalists, as we will see, are more
systematic in their observations. For example, male blue-throated hummingbirds have
songs that consist of notes organized into fi ve song units; males in a particular area
tend to sing the same song units (Ficken et al., 2000).