Scientific Reasons for XI Chemistry

1. At b.p. the temperature of a liquid remains constant in spite of

continuous supply of heat.
Boiling point is the temperature at which vapour pressure of
liquid becomes equal to atmospheric pressure. Initially, the heat
supplied to a liquid is mostly consumed in increasing the
average kinetic energy of the molecules or simply the
temperature of the liquid, which leads to increase the rate of
evaporation till the liquid starts boiling. At B.P. the molecules of
liquid attain maximum average K.E. and any further increase in
heat does not affect the temperature. Instead of raising the
temperature of the liquid, the heat supplied is used to overcome
the intermolecular attractive forces and excessive energy is
carried away by the liquid molecules into their vapour state.
Heat is taken away by the escaping molecules (vapours) in the
form of Latent Heat of Vaporization (which is the amount of
heat required to vaporize one gram of liquid at its B.P. without
change in temperature). Thus the average K.E. of liquid
molecules or the temperature of liquid at B.P. remains constant
at its maximum. Therefore, the B.P. of liquid remains constant,
although heat is continuously supplied to it at its B.P.
2. Steam produces more severe burns than does the boiling
water.
Both the boiling water and steam may be at same temperature
but the amount of heat energy contained in one gram of steam is
much greater than in one gram of water. 1 gram of water absorbs
2.26 x 103 joules of energy at B.P. in the form of Latent Heat of
Vaporization and changes to steam. This heat is stored in steam.
This means that each gram of steam has 2.26 x 103 joules more
energy than boiling water. Hence burning effect of steam will be
more severe than does the boiling water.
3. Heat is evolved when a liquid (or gas) condenses.
Condensation is a process of conversion of vapours into liquid
and is reverse of evaporation. Evaporation is an endothermic
process and absorbed heat energy is used to overcome
intermolecular attractive forces among liquid molecules to
change them in vapour form. On the other hand condensation is
an exothermic process, caused by cooling effect of evaporation.
Due to cooling K.E. of vapours decrease and they condense back
to liquid by giving out heat energy. Hence, heat is evolved when
a liquid (gas) condenses.
4. A liquid boils at different temperatures at sea level and at
mountain.
Boiling point of a liquid is defined as the temperature at which
the vapour pressure of the liquid becomes equal to atmospheric
pressure. It is apparent that B.P. is directly proportional to
atmospheric pressure i.e. if atmospheric pressure increases, B.P.
will also increase and vice versa. At sea level atmospheric
pressure is higher than at mountains. At sea level the vapour
pressure of the liquid becomes equal to the atmospheric pressure
at certain higher temperature. This results, an increase in B.P.
On the other hand at mountains the vapour pressure becomes
readily equal to the external pressure and B.P. of the liquid
decreases. That is why water boils at temperature lower than
100°C at higher altitudes. At sea level, water boils at 100°C at 1
atmosphere while at Murree Hills where atmospheric pressure is
lowered (about 0.921 atm) water boils at about 98°C.
5. Some liquids (e.g. H2O) form concave meniscus while certain
liquids (e.g. Hg) form convex meniscus.
The shape of the surface of a liquid in a cylindrical container is
called Meniscus (Greek word meaning small moon). The
formation of meniscus depends upon the interaction between
liquid and surface of the vessel.
Liquids like water which wet glass surface forms a concave
meniscus which is a meniscus in which surface of the liquid
curved downward. This is due to strong interaction between
liquid (water) and the glass surface, by which unbalanced forces
on the surface molecules due to surface tension are partially
overcome and the liquid tends to climb a short distance up the
walls of vessel and increase the surface area of contact with the
vessel. This is because the forces of adhesion exceed the forces
of cohesion. Thus a liquid with stronger adhesive forces than
cohesive forces shows concave meniscus (downward curve).
Liquids like mercury which does not wet glass surface forms a
convex meniscus which is the meniscus in which surface of the
liquid curved upward. This is due to weak interaction between
liquid (mercury) and the glass surface. Since Mercury is non-
wetting liquid, the cohesive forces acting among its molecules
are much stronger than the adhesive forces with glass. Thus
there is repulsion between the surface molecules of mercury and
the walls of container. Therefore, mercury is pushed away from
the walls of glass at the point of contact. In such cases cohesion
exceeds the adhesion. The non-wetting liquids form upward
curvature (convex meniscus).
6. The surface of a liquid appears like a stretched sheet of rubber
trying to contract.
The surface molecules of the liquid behave differently as
compared to the internal molecules of the liquid. The
intermolecular forces acting on a molecule which are situated
within the body of liquid are balanced in all directions due to
presence of neighbouring molecules and hence there is no net
operative force acting on that molecule. On the other hand
molecules which are situated at the surface of a liquid are
attracted unequally and they experience more downward pull
because there is no upward attractive force acting on the
molecules. This downward pull is expressed in terms of surface
tension, which tends to cause the surface to volume ratio of the
liquid to be as small as possible. It is due to this force i.e.
surface tension, the surface of the liquid behaves like a stretched
sheet of rubber trying to contract in all directions. [This
stretched sheet of surface molecules can also support the mass of
lighter insects like mosquitoes].
7. High pressure and low temperature makes the gas non-ideal.
Ideal gas is an imaginary gas which obeys gas laws at all
conditions of temperature and pressure while the gases which do
not obey the gas laws strictly and show deviation from ideal
behaviour under all or certain conditions are called real or non-
ideal gas. At high pressure and low temperature, gas molecules
come closer to each other and intermolecular attractive forces
arise in them. These forces include:
Dipole-dipole interaction; It is the force of attraction acting
among polar molecules of gases.
van der Waal Forces; It is the force of attraction between
gaseous molecules due to transit/temporary polarity.
Thus at high pressure and low temperature, gases behave non-
ideally i.e. they deviate from ideal behaviour and do not obey
gas laws strictly.
8. H2 and He are ideal at room temperature and ordinary
pressure while SO2 is non-ideal.
Ideal gas is an imaginary gas which obeys gas laws at all
conditions of temperature and pressure while the gases which do
not obey the gas laws strictly and show deviation from ideal
behaviour under all or certain conditions are called real or non-
ideal gas. H2 and He show more ideal behaviour due to their
smaller size of molecules and weak forces of attraction (van der
Waal Forces) between their molecules. Due to weak attractive
forces, these gases behave more ideally and do not show
deviation from gas laws at room temperature and ordinary
pressure.
SO2 is a polar molecule in which additional attractive force is
present in the form of dipole-dipole interaction. Due to greater
intermolecular forces SO2 does not show ideal behaviour at
room temperature and ordinary pressure.
9. Water kept in earthen-ware jars keeps cooler.
We know that earthenware jars are porous. Since evaporation
takes place at all temperature, therefore liquid molecules
manage to escape out of the pores of the earthenware jars. Only
those molecules which have higher kinetic energy are able to
overcome the intermolecular attractive forces and go off as
vapours in the air. Due to escaping of higher energy molecules,
the kinetic energy of remaining molecules get lowered. As
average kinetic energy is the measure of temperature of the
liquid i.e. kinetic energy varies directly with absolute
temperature, the temperature of remaining liquid will also fall.
That is why water kept in earthenware jars keeps cooler.
10. Glycerine is distilled at reduced pressure.
The process of distillation that is carried out under reduced
pressure or in vacuum is called Vacuum Distillation or Reduced
Pressure Distillation. It is based on the fact that boiling point of
liquid is decreased at lower vapour pressure by decreasing
external pressure, so that they can be distilled before their
decomposition. This technique is used for the distillation of high
boiling points liquids, which decompose at their b.p. In order to
avoid decomposition of such liquids, they are distilled out at
lower temperature under reduced pressure before their
decomposition temperature. For example; b.p. of glycerine is
290C and it boils with decomposition. Therefore, b.p. of
glycerine is lowered to 210C by decreasing the external pressure
to 50 mm Hg, so that it can be distilled before its decomposition.
11. Pressure cooker is used for rapid cooking.
Pressure cooker is a closed container where vapours are not
allowed to escape which are accumulated over the surface of the
liquid exerting more vapour pressure. The basis of working
pressure cooker is that the b.p. of a liquid increases with external
pressure. If external pressure is increased, the vapour pressure of
liquid become equal to increased external pressure at a certain
higher temperature and b.p. of a liquid increases. Therefore in
Pressure cooker where pressure is higher than atmospheric
pressure, the b.p. of a liquid (e.g. water) is increased and energy
supplied is conserved in it which cooks the meat and vegetables
quickly.
12. Honey is more viscous than water. OR It is easier to pour
water than honey.
Viscosity of a liquid is the measure of its internal resistance to
flow due to intermolecular attractions. Viscosity depends upon
intermolecular forces, molecular size and density of liquid.
Viscosity varies directly with density of liquids. As the honey is
more denser than water, therefore it is more viscous than water.
The more viscous a liquid is, the less easily it flows. Thus honey,
which is a thick liquid, flows slowly. Therefore, it is easier to
pour water (thin liquid) than honey.
13. –273.15C is the lowest possible temperature.
–273.15C (or –459.7F) is referred to as Absolute Zero, which is
the lowest possible temperature. When the volume–temperature
graph is extra plotted downward, it always intercepts the
temperature axis at –273.15C. This temperature represents the
point at which gases (if they did not condense) would have zero
volume which is against the law of conservation of mass. At this
temperature all molecular motion ceases to exist and gases are
condensed to liquid and then to solid. Hence no low temperature
can be achieved than –273.15C.
15. Graphite is a good conductor of electricity whereas diamond
is not.
In diamond, each carbon atom is covalently bonded to four other
carbon atoms at an angle of 109.5 to give crystal lattice of
diamond. Since all the four valence electrons of each carbon are
consumed and there is no free electron, so diamond is bad
conductor of electricity.
In graphite, each carbon atom is covalently bonded to three
other carbon atoms at an angle of 120, forming layers of
hexagons. Since each carbon has one unpaired electron in the
form of free electron, graphite conducts electricity.
16. A freely falling drop of a liquid is spherical.
The outer layer of a liquid behaves like a stretched sheet of
rubber, trying to contract, because the surface molecules have a
downward pull by interior molecules. This inward pull is
expressed in terms of surface tension, which makes the surface
area of liquid shrink to as small an area as possible. In other
words, surface tension tends to reduce the surface to volume
ratio of a liquid as small as possible. Since surface to volume
ratio for given weight of a liquid is the least for a spherical
shape (as compared to any other geometrical shapes of equal
volume), therefore, a freely falling drop or a small quantity of a
liquid tends to be spherical in shape.
17. Mercury does not wet glass surface.
Liquids having low surface tension tend to spread over the solid
surface readily and are called wetting or spreading liquids e.g.
H2O. Mercury has high value of surface tension (471.6
ergs/cm2), therefore, it does not wet the glass surface and forms
a spherical drop. Such liquids are called non-wetting or non-
spreading liquids.
18. Water (or organic liquids) rises in a capillary tube.
The rise of a liquid in a capillary tube against the force of
gravity is called Capillary Action. It is the common property of
all the liquids. This property is the result of tendency of liquid to
reduce their surface area due to surface tension. The liquid
(water) decreases its surface area by rising in the tube due to
surface tension. The liquid (water) will rise in the capillary tube
until the upward driving force due to surface tension is just
balanced by the downward gravitational pull.
In wetting liquids such as water and organic liquids, surface
tension is low and adhesive forces are stronger than cohesive
forces. These liquids have tendency to climb up in the tube
above the level of liquid in surrounding surface.
19. Level of mercury falls in capillary tube.
In non-wetting liquids such as mercury, the surface tension is
high. In such liquids, downward gravitational pull dominates
over surface tension due to stronger cohesive forces i.e.
downward gravitational pull > Upward surface tension. In other
words, cohesive forces are stronger than adhesive forces. That is
why, level of mercury falls in capillary tube.
20. A drop of ink spreads on blotting paper.
A drop of ink spreads on blotting paper due to capillary action.
The thin pores of blotting paper act like fine capillaries and due
to capillary action ink rises in these fine capillaries to reduce the
surface area and hence it spreads on the blotting paper.
21. Density of liquids (or gases) decreases with the rise of
temperature.
The mass per unit volume of a substance is called its density. On
heating, the liquids (or gases) expand and the number of
molecules per unit area decreases thereby increasing its volume.
Since density is inversely proportional to volume, therefore,
density of liquids (or gases) decreases with the rise of
temperature.
22. In electric or magnetic field, the deflection of -rays is greater
than -rays.
In electric or magnetic field, the deflection of massive particles
is less than lighter particles. Since -rays which are actually
electrons, are lighter than -rays which are actually heavy double
positively charged helium nuclei, therefore deflection of -rays is
greater than -rays in electric or magnetic field.
23. Second I.P. is always greater than First I.P.
The energy required to remove second valence electron from the
valence shell of gaseous monopositive cation is called second
Ionization Potential. I.P. varies directly with nuclear charge.
Greater the nuclear charge, greater will be the I.P. Monovalent
cations have greater nuclear charge and smaller radii than its
parent atom. Thus in Monovalent cations, remaining valence
electrons are more firmly held and the subsequent removal of
further electron is exceedingly difficult. That is why 2nd I.P. is
always greater than 1st I.P. e.g. 2nd I.P. of Mg is greater than its
1st I.P.
24. I.P. of N is higher than oxygen, although O comes later than
nitrogen in periodic table.
I.P. increases along each period in periodic table due to increase
in nuclear charge. However atoms with stable electronic
configuration have relatively higher I.P. than expected from their
position in periodic table. The I.P. of Nitrogen (14.7 e.v.) is
higher than O (13.6 e.v.). It is due to fact that in N, the
outermost orbitals are half filled and hence more stable
comparatively. Thus removal of electron will be difficult and I.P.
will become high. Whereas, oxygen has one extra electron than
half filled, which require less energy for its removal.
N= 1s2, 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz1( More stable half-filled orbitals)
O= 1s2, 2s2 2px2 2py1 2pz1 (Extra electron than half-filled)
25. I.P. increases along each period while decreases down each
group.
I.P. increases with the increase in nuclear charge (atomic
number) in same period from left to right. The reason is that in a
period, nuclear charge increases without increasing the number
of shells, which reduces atomic size. Since I.P. is inversely
proportional to atomic size, therefore, I.P. values become high
gradually along each period.
I.P. decreases with the increase in nuclear charge (atomic
number) in the same group from top to bottom. The reason is
that in a group, increase in number of shells produces greater
shielding effect of intervening orbits. Since I.P. is inversely
proportional to shielding effect, therefore, I.P. values become
less gradually down each group.
26. Atomic radii decrease along each period while increase
down each group. OR Ionic radii decrease along each period
while increase down each group.
On moving from left to right in a period, nuclear charge
increases without increasing number of shells thereby increasing
nuclear force of attraction on valence electrons, which results in
decreasing the atomic (ionic) size. Thus atomic (ionic) radii
decrease along each period.
On moving from top to bottom in a group, number of shells
increase producing greater shielding effect which reduces
nuclear attractive forces on valence electrons thereby increasing
atomic (ionic) radii. Thus atomic (ionic) radii increases down
each group.
27. Electronegativity decreases down each group while increases
along each period.
In group, E.N. values decrease from top to bottom. It is due to
the fact that size of atoms increases down each group, so there
will be lesser force of attraction for electrons. So E.N. values
decrease down each group. For example; In VII A group, F, Cl,
Br and I have E.N. 4.0, 3.0, 2.8 and 2.5 respectively.
In period, E.N. values increase from left to right. It is because
that size of atom decrease along a period (due to increased
nuclear charge without increasing number of shells) so there will
be greater force of attraction for electrons. So E.N. values
increase along each period.
28. A cation is smaller in size than its parent atom while an
anion is larger in size than its parent atom.
A cation is formed when an atom looses electron. Thus in a
cation, the number of electrons is always less than the number of
protons i.e. positive charge. The effective nuclear charge
increases due to loss of electron. Thus the nucleus attracts lesser
number of electrons with greater force thereby reducing size of
atom. In certain cations, the loss of electron leads to
disintegration of an orbit while nuclear charge remains the same
in both cases. Thus nucleus attracts lesser number of orbits more
strongly, thereby reducing atomic size.
An anion is formed when an atom gains electron. Thus the
number of electrons in anion is always greater than number of
protons i.e. positive charge. The effective nuclear charge
decreases due to gain of electron. (Due to the decrease in the
force of attraction on the outer electron and the increased
repulsive forces due to added electron(s), the size of anion gets
increased.
29. In iso-electric ions, the ionic radii decrease with the increase
of positive charge or increase with the increase of negative
charge.
Those ions that have same electronic configuration are called
Iso-Electric ions. E.g. Na+, Mg++ and Al+++ are considered to
be iso-electric ions because they posses same electronic
configuration i.e. 1s2, 2s2 2p6, although their atomic numbers
are different i.e. 11,12 and 13.
In Iso-electronic Ions, the ionic radii decrease with the increase
in nuclear charge. The decreased ionic radii in iso-electronic
ions is obviously due to increased nuclear charge i.e. the nucleus
with increasing nuclear charge attracts the same number of
electrons more strongly, ultimately reduction in radii occur e.g.
Na+, Mg2+ and Al3+ ions are iso-electric and their ionic radius
are 0.95A, 0.65A and 0.50A respectively.
30. The 2nd and higher electron affinities of atoms is always
positive.
The 2nd and higher electron affinities of atoms are always
positive i.e. the formation of bivalent (bi-negative) anion from a
univalent anion is endothermic and positive sign represents
energy released. The bivalent ion formation is endothermic
because addition of second electron to univalent anion must
overcome the repulsion of the negative charge already present
on univalent anion. Thus univalent anion exerts an electrostatic
repulsive force on an additional incoming electron.
31. Halogens have high electron affinity values.
Halogens (and other non-metals) have high values of electron
affinity i.e. F, Cl, Br and I have electron affinities of –333, –348,
–340 and –297 kJ/mole respectively. The high E.A. values of
halogens are due to following reasons:
(a) Their small atomic radii and great attraction for electrons.
(b) Moreover, addition of an electron produces the stable inert
gas configuration (i.e. Octet)
32. Electron Affinity of Fluorine is less than that of chlorine.
Electron affinity of Fluorine is less (– 333 kJ/mole) than that of
Chlorine (– 348 kJ/mole). The anomalous E.A. value of Fluorine
is probably due to following reasons:
(a) Fluorine atom is very small sized.
(b) The electrons already present repel incoming electron.
33. Radioactivity is confined to heavy elements.
Radioactivity is a nuclear phenomenon in which nuclei of
certain unstable heavy elements with atomic number greater
than 83 change into nuclei of other stable element along with the
liberation of particles and nuclear energy (in the form of nuclear
radiation). Heavy elements with atomic number greater than 83
are naturally unstable because their nuclei have neutron to
proton ratio are more than 1.5. In order to gain stability, they
undergo spontaneous nuclear decay by continuously emitting
different types of particles or electromagnetic radiations until a
stable atom of lead (82Pb) is formed. On the contrary, n/p ratio
in nuclei of lighter elements is usually less than 1.5, that is why
atoms of lighter elements being stable do not emit nuclear
radiations or particles.
34. Cations are more electronegative while anions are less
electronegative than their parent atom.
Cations are formed when neutral atom looses electron. So in
cation the number of electrons is always less than the number of
protons i.e. positive charge. Thus effective nuclear charge on
remaining electrons increases. Therefore size of atom decreases
due to greater charge. As small sized atoms are more
electronegative so, cations are more electronegative than parent
atom. For example; electronegativity of Li+ is 2.5 while that of
Li atom is 1.
Anions are formed by the gain of electrons by a neutral atom. So
in anion the number of electrons is always greater than the
number of protons i.e. positive charge. Thus effective nuclear
charge on added electron decreases. Therefore, size of atom
increases due to lesser nuclear charge. As bigger sized atoms are
less electronegative, so anions are less electronegative than
parent atom. For example; electronegativity of F is 0.78 while
that of F atom is 4.
35. A covalent bond b/w unlike atoms is partially ionic but not
b/w like atoms. OR A covalent bond between dissimilar atoms is
stronger than that of identical atoms. OR A polar bond is
stronger than non-polar bond.
A polar covalent bond is formed b/w two dissimilar atoms
having different values of electronegativity, which has partial
negative and partial positive charges at ends or poles b/c of
unequal distribution of electrons. Polar bond, thus have partial
ionic character. Thus polar bond has two types of interatomic
binding forces namely Joint Inter-nuclear Controlling Force
(Covalent Bond) and Electrostatic Force b/w dipoles (Partial
Ionic Bond). The additional electrostatic forces b/w dipoles of
polar bond shorten the bond length and elevate bond energy. On
the other hand, a non-polar covalent bond is formed b/w two
identical atoms having no or very small difference of
electronegativity lacking poles due to equal electronic
distribution. A non-polar covalent bond is a pure covalent bond
devoid of ionic character. Thus non-polar molecules have less
bond energy than polar molecules. Thus a polar bond is always
stronger than non-polar bond. E.g. A non-polar bond b/w HH or
Cl Cl is weaker than HCl or HF bond.
36. NH3 and H2O can form co-ordinate bond with H but CH4
cannot do so.
In order to form co-ordinate covalent bond, one of the two atoms
should have a lone pair of electrons. Since NH3 and H2O have
one and two lone pair of electrons on N and O atoms
respectively, therefore they can form co-ordinate covalent bond
with H+ (which is deficient of electrons). In CH4 there is no
lone pair of electrons on C, therefore it cannot form co-ordinate
bond with H+ (proton).
37. Sigma bond is stronger than pi bond.
A sigma bond results from end to end overlap of atomic orbitals,
resulting a maximum overlap. The extent of overlapping in
sigma bond is sufficient. Thus, the electron density is maximum
in the region b/w two nuclei. This results in strong bond b/w two
atoms. Hence bond formed has higher bond energy and is strong
i.e. less reactive and more stable.
A Pi-bond results from side-ways (lateral) overlap of two atomic
(p) orbitals at the two sides of the lobe, resulting in less extent of
overlapping. Thus, electron density is maximum above and
below the line joining the two nuclei. So Pi-bond has less bond
energy and is weaker than sigma bond i.e. more reactive and less
stable.
38. Water has a high B.P. than hydrogen fluoride although F is
more electronegative than O.
Boiling Point of a liquid is the measure of strength of
intermolecular forces. Both water and hydrogen fluoride are
polar covalent molecules. The polarity of a molecule depends on
difference in electronegativity of bonded atoms. Since F is more
electronegative than O, therefore HF is more polar than H2O. In
addition, both water and HF can form hydrogen bond. HF has
strongest hydrogen bonding than water. But in HF the net
attractive forces are less due to the fact water has two polar
hydrogen (H+) enabling three dimensional hydrogen bonding
where as in HF there is only one polar hydrogen (H+) permitting
only two dimensional hydrogen bonding. That is why water has
higher B.P. than HF.
39. Dipole moment of CO2 (CS2) is zero while H2O (SO2) has
some dipole moment
Dipole moment is the extent of a polar molecule to turn or orient
in an electric field. Dipole moment is a vector quantity. If the
vector sum of bond moments is zero, the dipole moment will be
zero and the molecule will be non-polar. If the bond moments do
not cancel, then the dipole moment will be greater than zero and
the molecule will be polar.
In polyatomic molecules, dipole moment depends upon
geometry of molecules. Linear Polyatomic molecules have zero
dipole moment as vector sum of bond moments is zero. CO2 has
linear structure in which dipole moment of one side is cancelled
by the dipole moment of other side. Thus CO2 has zero dipole
moment and CO2 molecule, as a whole, is non-polar.
Angular Polyatomic molecules have > 0 as vector sum of bond
moments is not zero. H2O has angular or bent structure due to
which bond dipoles do not cancel out. Thus H2O show = 1.84 D
and H2O molecule as a whole is polar.
40. Carbon is tetravalent but not divalent
The number of unpaired electrons or half-filled orbitals in an
atom is called its valency. The ground state electronic
configuration of carbon is 1s2, 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz0. From its E.C.,
carbon appears to be divalent due to two unpaired electrons but
it exhibits tetravalency in most of its compounds (organic
compounds). To explain this discrepancy, it is assumed that one
of the 2s electron is promoted to an empty 2pz orbital making its
configuration 1s2, 2s1 2px1 2py1 2pz1. Energy needed for
promotion and unpairing the 2s electron is assumed to be
obtained from energy released during covalent bond formation.
Thus according to excited state E.C., carbon atom has four
unpaired electrons, therefore, it accounts for tetravalency of
carbon.
41. HF is more polar than HCl.
The extent of the ionic character of a covalent bond depends on
polarity of molecule which in turn is proportional to the
difference of electronegativity b/w the bonded atoms. The E.N
in HF is 4-2.1=1.9 while E.N in HCl is 3-2.1 = 0.9. Since HF
has greater E.N. than HCl, therefore, HF is more polar than HCl.
It is also proved by their ionic character since HF is 43% ionic
and HCl is 17% ionic.
42. It is essential to mention physical states of reactants and
products in thermochemical equations.
The heat of reaction (heat of formation) depends upon the
physical states of the reactants and products. The heat of
reaction of a same compound may be different in different
physical states. This is because heat contents of same reactants
and products are different for different physical states. For
example; heat of formation of liquid water and steam are
different i.e. –285.8 kJ/mole and –241.8 kJ/mole although same
compound (H2O) is formed. This difference of heat of formation
is due to difference of physical states of H2O. Thus it is
necessary to mention the physical states of reactants and
products in thermochemical equations.
44. A catalyst does not change the position of equilibrium but
equilibrium position reaches earlier.
Catalyst is a substance, which increases the rate of a chemical
reaction without itself being consumed in the reaction. A catalyst
speeds up the rates of both forward and reverse reactions to the
same extent by decreasing the energy of activation. Thus
catalyst enables equilibrium to be reached more quickly thereby
increasing the rate at which equilibrium is attained. However, a
catalyst does not change the equilibrium concentration (and also
Kc) and the yield of a reaction. Thus a catalyst does not change
the position of equilibrium but simply help in the early approach
of equilibrium position by decreasing activation energy.
45. Dilute HCl should be added to get ppt. of basic radicals of
group II before passing H2S.
The sulphides of basic radicals of group II (Cu2+, Hg2+, Pb2+,
Sn2+, Cd2+, Bi3+, Sb3+, As3+, Sn4+) are precipitated as
sulphides by passing H2S gas through their solution in presence
of dilute HCl. The Ksp of sulphides of group II is very low (10-
28). H2S, which is a precipitating agent, is a weak electrolyte
and partially dissociates to give H+ and S2– ions. Inspite of
partial dissociation, the concentration of S2- ions is high enough
to exceed the Ksp of group II as well as cation of higher groups
too. To encounter this effect, HCl is added before passing H2S
gas.
HCl is a good ionizer, produces common ion effect by providing
H+ ions, which combines with S2- ions to form unionized H2S
thereby lowering the concentration of S2- ions. HCl suppresses
the ionization of H2S to such an extent at which S2- ion
concentration is just sufficient to precipitate the sulphides of
group II only. In this low concentration of S2- ions, the
sulphides of other higher groups’ cations are not precipitated due
to their higher Ksp.
46. Powdered marble (CaCO3) gives more effervescence with
HCl than a piece of marble.
The chemical equation for the reaction b/w marble and HCl is
given below:
CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl(aq) = CO2 (g) + CaCl2 (aq) + H2O(l)
The above reaction is a heterogeneous reaction in which
reactants are present in different phases. In a heterogeneous
reaction, rate of reaction is proportional to the surface area of the
solid reactant i.e. greater the surface area of solid reactant,
higher will be the rate of reaction. Powdered marble gives more
effervescence of CO2 with HCl than a piece of marble b/c
powdered marble offers greater surface area to reacting HCl
molecules. So the chances of actual contact i.e. effective
collision is considerably increased when powdered marble is
used. Hence, rate of reaction increases and formation of
effervescence of CO2 becomes rapid.
47. Powdered zinc reacts more vigorously with water than the
chunks of metallic zinc.
The chemical equation for the reaction b/w zinc and water is
given below:
Zn(s) + H2O(l) = ZnO(s) + H2 (g)
The above reaction is a heterogeneous reaction in which
reactants are present in different phases. In a heterogeneous
reaction, rate of reaction is proportional to the surface area of the
solid reactant i.e. greater the surface area of solid reactant,
higher will be the rate of reaction. Powdered zinc reacts more
rapidly with water than the metallic pieces of zinc b/c powdered
zinc provides greater surface area to the reacting water
molecules. So, the chances of actual contact i.e. effective
collisions is considerably increased when finely divided zinc is
used, consequently rate of reaction enhances.
48. Milk sours more rapidly in summer than in winter.
Souring of milk is a biochemical process called Fermentation.
The process occurs due to the activity of enzymes present in
milk. Fermentation is accelerated at high temperature. In
summer, temperature is high as compared to winter, so process
of fermentation occurs more rapidly in summer due to which
milk sours more rapidly.
49. Unless ignited H2 gas does not react with O2 gas of air but a
stream of H2 gas passed over platinum gauze bursts into flame.
Reaction between H2 and O2 to form H2O is an example of
slow molecular reaction. It is due to very high energy of
activation of H2 and O2. On ignition, given heat is used to
overcome high activation energy and H2 and O2 can react to
form water rapidly. When H2 is passed over O2 in the presence
of catalyst, platinum in the form gauze, the activation energy for
the reaction decreases. So reaction occurs at low temperature so
vigorously that H2 gas bursts into flame.
50. The elements of same group are chemically similar but their
physical properties gradually change down the group.
The chemical properties of elements depend upon the number
and arrangement of electrons in valence shells. Atoms with same
number of valence electrons would be expected to be chemically
similar. Since elements of same group have same valence shell
electronic configuration, therefore, they have same chemical
properties.
The regular variation in physical properties such as atomic size,
I.P., E.N., etc down a group is called Group Trend. Group trend
in physical properties such as atomic size, ionic size, metallic
character is that they increase down the group whereas E.N., I.P.
and E.A. decrease down the group. The physical properties of
elements depend upon atomic mass and the total number of
electrons in inner shells. As going down a group, a new shell is
added in each period, hence there is a regular change in physical
properties.
For Example
In group III-A elements, the number of total valence electrons
are 3 (ns2 np1) but number of inner electrons are different. e.g.
B, Al and Ga have 2, 10 and 28 inner electrons respectively, due
to this reason, regular change in physical properties is observed
down a group.
5B = 5e = 1s2, 2s2 2p1
13Al = 13e = 1s2, 2s2 2p6, 3s2 3p1
31Ga = 31e = 1s2, 2s2 2p6, 3s2 3p6, 3d10, 4s2, 4p1
51. Hydration energy decreases down each group
Hydration energy decreases down each group because down the
group the size of ion increases which consequently decreases the
charge density (which is inversely proportional to size of ion )
which ultimately decreases the hydration energy. For example:
Hydration energy of Li+ = –499 kJ/mole
Hydration energy of Na+ = –390 kJ/mole
Hydration energy of K+ = –306 kJ/mole
53. Lithium resembles with Mg (Beryllium resembles with
aluminium) in properties
Li and Be has a number of common properties, such as their
carbonates, fluorides, sulphates and phosphates are only slightly
soluble in water. Lithium resembles more with Mg while
Beryllium matches more with Al. This is called Diagonal
Relationship. The element of the second period belonging to the
IA or IIA group is similar in behaviour to the element of IIA or
IIIA group in the third period. This close resemblance between
the properties of an element of 2nd period with those of the
element of 3rd period belonging to next group is called Diagonal
Relationship. This is due to approximately equal sizes of Li+
(0.060 nm) and Mg2+ (0.065 nm). Similarly Be2+ (0.031 nm)
and Al3+ (0.25 nm) ions are of equal sizes. Even their atoms are
of nearly equal sizes.
52. Li and Be differ from other members of their group
Lithium and Beryllium, the first member of groups IA and IIA
differ markedly from other members of their respective groups.
This is because of their small atomic sizes, which results in high
charge densities on Li+ and Be2+ ions, which produces high
heat of hydration. Thus Li and Be have a more tendency to form
covalent compounds.
54. Electropositivity increases down the group.
The tendency of an atom to lose electrons and to change to
positive ions is called Electropositivity. This tendency decides
the metallic character. The greater the electropositivitiy, the
more is the metallic nature of an element. The metallic character
increases down the group in all s and p-block elements. This is
because of following reasons:-
(i) Decrease in ionization potential (inversely proportional to
E.P)
(ii)Electron population of outermost shell (inversely
proportional to E.P)
55. Aluminium is more metallic than Boron.
Aluminium in group IIIA is more metallic than boron. This is
because of low I.P. and low electron population ratio of Al.
Electron population ratio is defined as the ratio of number of
electrons in valence shell and total capacity of valence shell.
For example
Electronic configuration of 5B= 1s2, 2s2 2p1
E.C. of 13Al = 1s2, 2s2 2p6, 3s2 3p1
Total valence electrons = 3 Total valence electrons = 3
Total capacity in 2nd orbit = 8 Total capacity in 3rd orbit = 18
Electron population ratio = 3/8 Electron population ratio = 3/18
Electron population ratio in Al is less than B, so Al is more
metallic than B.
56. Boron is considered as semi-conductor OR Boron generally
forms covalent compounds.
The electropositivity i.e. tendency to give out electrons is
inversely proportional to ionization potential and directly
proportional to atomic size. Being a first member, Boron has
least atomic size and highest I.P. in group IIIA. That is why its
metallic character is least as compared to other members of its
group. Therefore it is regarded as a non-metal. Its non-metallic
character is proved by its non-conductivity at room temperature.
However, its conductivity increases 100 times at 600C.
Therefore, it is considered to be semi-conductor and semi-metal.
This is also the reason, why boron having 3 valence electrons,
does not form tri-positive B3+ ion, and in most of its
compounds, boron is covalently bonded.
57. Diamond is hard while graphite is soft although both are
allotropes of carbon.
In diamond, each carbon atom is bonded strongly to four other
carbon atoms to form basic tetrahedral units that are united with
one another to give cubic unit cell of diamond. Thus atoms
occupy fixed positions and it is difficult for the atoms to slide
pass over the other. Due to closely packed tetrahedral structure,
diamond is hard.
The interplanner distance between layers of graphite is very
large (3.35A) and these hexagonal layers of carbon are held
loosely by Vander Waal’s Forces. Hence these layers can slide
easily over one another. That is why, graphite is soft and slippery
to touch having low density, hence used as a lubricant.

Colligative Properties:
The properties of solutions that depend on the ratio between the
number of solute particles and solvent particles are known as
colligative properties.
E.g;
Relative lowering of vapor pressure
Osmotic Pressure

Macroscopic Properties
Properties that can be visualized or measured by the naked eye;
examples include pressure, temperature, and volume are known
as macroscopic properties.