Earth’s Lithosphere

III. Outer core

Lithos” = “rock”
 Hot, because as the depth
“Sphira” = “sphere” increases, the temperature
increases too.
 Only liquid layer
Lithosphere - Combination of crust and
mantle  Composed of molten iron and nickel

Earth Subsystems IV. Inner Core

1. Atmosphere (Gas)
2. Hydrosphere (Water)  Solid, because as the depth
increases, the pressure increases
3. Biosphere (Life)
too.
4. Lithosphere (Land)
 Composed of Iron and nickel
 Has the highest density
Layers of the Earth

I. Crust

 Outermost layer
The Two Types of Crust
 Lowest density
 Solid
A. Oceanic
 Mainly composed of rocks (Granite
and Basalt)
 Denser than continental
 Younger than continental
II. Mantle
 Colder than continental
 Has lower silica content
 Thickest layer of the Earth
 Composed of Basaltic rocks
 Composed of molten rocks
(Combination of rocks and molten
rocks)
B. Continental
 Semi-solid (Combination of solid
and liquid)
 Divided into three; Upper mantle,  Thicker than oceanic
Asthenosphere, Lower mantle  Older than oceanic
 Hotter than oceanic B. Small tectonic plates or MINOR
TECTONIC PLATES
 Has greater amount of silica content
 Composed of granatic rocks
Major Tectonic Plates

Additional:
1. North American plate
2. South American plate
Iron and nickel composing the core is
just a THEORY 3. Eurasian plate
4. Australian plate
 Density: They were the heaviest 5. Antarctic plate
element in the galaxy (during the
6. African plate
formation of planets)
7. Pacific plate
 Magnetic field: They are magnetic
elements

Minor Tectonic Plates

Tectonic Plates
1. Arabian plate
2. Cocos plate
78% of the Earth is composed by water,
if the Earth has no water, it’d look like a 3. Philippine plate
cracked egg.
4. Nazca plate
5. Juan de Puca plate
These plates are moving 1-10cm every
6. Scotia plate
year.
7. Caribbean plate
8. Indian plate
The two kinds of plate:

A. Continental Plate - lies in the

continent Locating Earthquake
B. Oceanic Plate - Lies in the ocean Epicenter

The two classifications of plate:

P-waves are hypothetically 8s faster
than S-waves.
A. Large tectonic plates or MAJOR
TECTONIC PLATES
Triangulation Method

d
Td
100km
8s
Wherein:
d = distance in kilometer
Td = Time difference in the arrival of
p-wave and s-wave in seconds
*having only one or two recording
stations might result to a wrong
epicenter.
Plate Boundaries
 Most of the earthquake epicenters
are located near plate boundaries
 Most of the volcanoes are located in
the Pacific plate, it is called the
Pacific Ring of Fire.
 Most of the mountain ranges are
near the plate boundaries.
 Majority of earthquake epicenters
and volcanic eruptions and
formation belong to same (if not,
near) location.
Oceanic-Continental
Convergence
 Presence of subduction wherein the
leading edge of the oceanic crust
would melt because it goes down to
asthenosphere.
 The oceanic crust subducts under
the continental crust because it is
denser.
 Forms the trenches (deepest parts
of the ocean) under the ocean.
 Forms volcanic arc above the
continental crust.
 When the melted rocks are
combined with water and other
elements, its density becomes less
causing it to go above to the
continental crust forming volcanic
mountains.
 This convergence destroys the
oceanic plate
 Destructive Plate Boundary
Additional: Mariana Trench is the
deepest trench
Oceanic-Oceanic
Convergence
 Presence of subduction between an
old oceanic crust and young
oceanic crust.
 Older oceanic crust subducts more
because it is denser.
 This type of convergence forms
vocanic islands
 Tsunamis may also occur in this
convergence
Continental-Continental
Convergence

 Uplift and folding occurs in this type
of convergence
 Forms mountains and mountain
ranges
 Due to uplift and folding, the
continental crust is deformed.
Divergent boundaries
 Constructive boundaries
 Forms ridges (Elevated boundaries)
Divergent is possible if:
 2 continental plates
 2 old oceanic plates
 2 young oceanic plates
 A young and an old oceanic crust
At divergent boundarie…
1. The plates are moving away from
each other creating a gap between
them.
2. The gap between the two plates will
be filled out by the materials from the
asthenosphere forming a young crust
3. When two continental plates diverge,
rift valleys are formed
Transform boundaries
 Generates the most destructive
earthquakes
 Conservative boundary
Seismic Waves
 Waves generated by Earthquakes.
 Can be a body or surface waves
Body Waves
 Travels inside the Earth.
 Can be a Primary Wave (P-wave) or
a secondary wave (S-wave.)
Primary Waves
 Faster than S-wave
 Compressional waves; travel by
oarticles vibrating parallel to the
movement of force.
 Pulse energy that travels quickly
through Earth and liquids.
 Forward-Backward (Up-Down)
 Can travel through solid, liquid and
gas.
Secondary Waves
 Can’t travel through liquid and gas.
 Shear
 Side to side
 Points of  Named after Lord Rayleigh
P-WAVES S-WAVES
comparison

Speed Faster Slower

Type Longitudinal Transverse

Up and down The ground

Effect on Shadow Zones
(forward, moves side
ground
background) to side

Travels
Travels  There are P-wave shadow zones
Travelling through
through solid because the waves are refracted as
medium solid, liquid,
not gas it passes through the outer core
ga
(which is a liquid; change in phase =
change in direction)
 There are S-wave shadow zones
because S-waves cannot pass
Surface Waves through the outer core. Also, the
S-waves are absorbed.

 Travels through the surface of the  All P-waves shadow zones are
Earth S-waves shadow zone

 Can be a Love wave or Rayleigh  Not all S-wave shadow zone are
wave. P-wave shadow zone

Love Wave The Crust

 Its motion is like S-wave without

vertical displacement
 Moves the ground side to sid in a
horizontal plane but at right angles
to the direction of propagation.
 Causes the most damage
 Named after Augustus Edward
Hough love
Rayleigh Wave
 Like rolling ocean waves
 Moves both vertically and
horizontally in a vertical plane
pointed in the direction in which the
waves are travelling.
 Thinnest layer of the Earth
 32 km from the surface.
 The thickness may vary: Sea has
thinner, mountains has thicker
 Underneath mountains, it extends to
72 km
 Continental crust, which is
composed of granite measures from
40-70 km
 Continental crust is less dense
 The thickness of oceanic crust is 5
km
 Crust is largely composed of
Alumina (Al2O3) and Silica (SiO2)
 Mohorovicic (Moho) Discontinuity  When you go deep, it becomes
separates the crust and the mantle 1000 ℃ - 3700 ℃

 Ferro-magnesium silicate rocks

Elements present in the crust:  Gutenberg Discontinuity separates
the mantle and the outercore

1. Oxygen: 46.60%
2. Silicon: 27.70% Outercore
3. Aluminum: 18.3%
4. Iron: 5.00%
 The only liquid layer of the Earth
5. Calcium: 3.63%
 Molten iron and nickel
6. Sodium: 2.83%
 2270 km thick
7. Potassium: 2.59%
 3700℃ - 4300℃
8. Magnesium: 2.09%
9. Titanium: 0.40%
*** the temperature in the outercore was
10. Hydrogen: 0.14% determined because the melting point of
iron and nickel is from 3700℃ - 4300℃,
if it exceeds, it would be a gas.

Innercore

 1220 km
 Solid iron and nickel
Mantle
*** they say that it is solid because the
p-waves refracted again as they pass
through the inner core
 2900 km from the Earth’s surface
 Could increase to 6000℃
 80% of Earth’s volume
 68% of Earth’s mass
Additional:
 The mantle is solid
 The uppermost part of the mantle is
relatively cool, a rigid shell, Some clues that inner and outer core
composes the lithosphere, and is are composed of iron and nickel
50-100km thick
 Iron and nickel are both dense and
 The temperature of the top layer of magnetic
the mantle is 900 ℃
 The overall density of Earth is much
higher than the density of the rocks
 Meteorite analysis have revealed
that the most common type in
chondrite is composed of Iron and
silicon.