s as laalia. i.O s aslaalia. i.O s aslaalia. i.O s aslaalia. i.

O saasla
d
aa ad a aa a
www.Padasalai.Net
d d a aad a
d a www.TrbTnpsc.com
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d a aad a
d
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wwKUMAR. DGD., M.Sc., ww
wwM.Phil., Ph.D (Botany)ww ww wwww
A.VINOTH
i .O . rgrg
O i .O . Orgrg i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O
l a a i l a a i l a a i l a a i
d adsaasa Biol
d a
d saasa l
UNIT VII: d a saasa
Genetics
d
l
d a
d
l
saasa 12th d a
d saasla
aa
.P.P aa
.P.P aa
.P.P aa
.P.P aa
.P.P
w ww
w Botany wwww wwww wwww Std wwww
ww ww Chromosomal ww Basis of Inheritance ww ww
i . O . rgrg
O (Overi . O . rgrgthe 2 & 3 Marks questions)
O
all i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O
a i a i a i a i
d a
d saaslala d a
d saaslala d a
d saaslala d a
d saaslala d a
d saasla
a
.P.Pa 1. Explain thewchromosomal a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
theory of inheritance? a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww ww w wwww wwww wwww
ww w
 wSutton and Boveri (1903)
ww independently proposed
ww the chromosomew
w
i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O
a
theory
l
asal a i of inheritance. l
asala a i l
asala a i l
asala a i asla
d a sa d a sa d a sa d a sa d a sa
a ad
.P.P  a adunited the knowledge
.P.P
Sutton a ad of chromosomal.P.P
.P.P ad
asegregation with ww a ad
.P.P
w w w w w w w ww w ww w
www www www www www
Mendelian principles and called it chromosomal theory of inheritance.
i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O
l a a i l a a i l a a i l a a i
d a
d
l
saas2.aList out the Salient d a
d sa asa l
features a
of the Chromosomal
d d
l
saasa theory of inheritance? d a
d saasa l
d a
d saasla
aa
.P.P aa
.P.P aa
.P.P aa
.P.P aa
.P.P
w ww
w www w
 wwSomatic cells of organisms wwww wwww wwww
ww ww are derived from the wwzygote by repeated cell ww
division
i .O . rgr(mitosis).
O g These consist
i .O . rgrgof two identical sets
O i .O . rgofrgchromosomes. One
O i .O . O grgis
rset
l a a i l a a i l a a i l a a i
d a
d
a l
saasreceived from femaled a
d
asa
saparentl
(maternal) andd a
d saasa
the
l
other from male d a
d
parent
l
saasa(paternal). d a
d saasla
aa
.P.P aa
.P.P aa
.P.P aa
.P.P aa
.P.P
w ww
w w ww
w wwww wwww wwww
ww These twowchromosomes
w constitutewthe w homologous pair. ww ww
i . O . rgrg Chromosomesi.Oretain
O . rgrg their structurali.O.uniqueness
O rgrg
O and i . O
individuality
. rgrg
O
a i a i a i a i
d a
d saaslala d a
d saaslala d a
d saaslala d a
d saaslala d a
d saasla
a
.P.Pa throughout thewlife a a of an organism. .P.Pa
.P.Pcycle a a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww w w w wwww wwww wwww
ww w
 wEach chromosome carries
ww specific determiners ww or Mendelian factorsw w
i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O
l
asal a
which a i are now termed as a
genes.
l
asal a i l
asala a i l
asala a i asla
d a sa d a sa d a sa d a sa d a sa
a ad
.P.P  The a
.P.P ad
behaviour of chromosomes a adduring the gamete.P
.P.P a ad
.P
formation (meiosis) ww a ad
.P.P
w w w w w w w ww w ww w
www www www www www
provides evidence to the fact that genes or factors are located on chromosomes.
i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O
l a a i l a a i l a a i l a a i
d a
d
l
saas3.aExplain the linked d a
d
l
saasaunlinked genes? dadsaasa
and l
d a
d saasa l
d a
d saasla
aa
.P.P aa
.P.P aa
.P.P .P.Paa aa
.P.P
w ww
w wGenes
ww
w located close together wwww on the same chromosome wwww and inheritedww ww
ww ww ww ww ww
together rgrare
g called linked genes. rgrg rgrg rgrg
l a ia. O
i . O l a ia.Oi . O l a ia.Oi . O l a ia.Oi . O
d a
d saasa l  The two d a
d sa
genes l
asa that are sufficiently
d a
d saasfarl
a apart on the same
d a
d
asa l
sachromosome d a
d saasla
aa
.P.P aa
.P.P aa
.P.P .P.Paa aa
.P.P
w ww
w are called w ww
w
unlinked genes or syntonic wwww
genes. wwww wwww
ww ww ww ww ww
. O
4.aExplain
i . rgrg the Coupling and
O i . O rgrg
O
Repulsion
. theory? i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O
i a i a i a i
d a
d saaslala d a
d saaslala d a
d saaslala d a
d saaslala d a
d saasla
a
.P.Pa  The a a
a dominant alleles.P.Pora recessive alleles .occur
.P.Ptwo a a in the same .P.Pa a
wwww w ww
w wwww wwwwP.P wwww
ww w w
homologouswchromosomes, tend towinherit together into same
ww gamete are called ww
i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O
l
asal a
coupling
a i or cis configuration.l
asala a i l
asala a i l
asala a i asla
d a sa d a sa d a sa d a sa d a s a
a ad
.P.P a ad
.P.P a ad
.P.P .P.Pa ad a ad
.P.P
w w w w w w w ww w w w w ww
www www www www www
i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O
l a a i l a a i l a a i l a a i
d a
d saasa l
d a
d saasa l
dadsaasa l
d a
d saasa l
d adsaasla
aa
.P.P aa
.P.P aa
.P.1P .P.Paa .P.Paa
w ww
w w ww
w w www w ww
w www
w
ww ww ww ww ww
i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . Orgrg i .O . rgrg
O
aa l al a i aal al a i aal al a i aal al a i ala
dasas dasas dasas dasas dasas
 s as laalia. i.O s aslaalia. i.O s aslaalia. i.O s as laalia. i.O saasla
d
aa ad a aa a
www.Padasalai.Net
d d a aad a
d a www.TrbTnpsc.com
aad a
d a aad a
d
ww.P.P ww .P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P
w
ww w w w
wwKUMAR. DGD., M.Sc., w w
wwM.Phil., Ph.D (Botany)ww ww wwww
A.VINOTH
i .O . rgrg
O i .O . Orgrg i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O
l a a i l a a i l a a i l a a i
d adsaasa  l
If d a
dominant
d
l
saasa or recessive alleles d a
d saasarel
a present on twoasdifferent,
d d aasa l
but d a
d saasla
aa
.P.P aa
.P.P .P.Paa aa
.P.P aa
.P.P
w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w wwww wwww
ww homologous ww chromosomes they winherit w apart into different ww gamete are called ww
repulsion
i . O . rgrgor trans configuration.
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O
a i a i a i a i
d a
d saaslala d a
d saaslala d a
d saaslala d a
d saaslala d a
d saasla
a
.P.Pa 5. Short noteswon .PPa a a
.P.PaLinkage? a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
www.
ww Complete and Incomplete
ww ww ww
ww
ww ww wwww ww ww wwww
 If two linked genes are sufficiently apart, the chances of their separation
. O r
O gr g . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . asla
a saasareal possible. As a result, a sa
l
asaparental and non-parental
a saasal combinations areaobserved. saasal The
a sa
d
a ad d
a ad d
a ad d
a ad d
a ad
w .P.P
w linked genes w .P.P
w
exhibit some crossing w .P.P
w
over. This phenomenon w .P.called
w
is P incomplete ww.P.P
w
www w
www w
www wwww w
www
linkage. rgrThis
g was observed in maize.
rgrg It was reportedi.by rHutchinson.
grg rgrg
l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a a O
i . O l a ia.Oi . O
d a
d
l
saasa  If the chances d a
d
l
saasa of separation of dtwo a
d
l
saaslinked
a genes are not d a
d
l
saasa those
possible d a
d saasla
aa
.P.P aa
.P.P .P.Paa aa
.P.P aa
.P.P
w ww
w genes always w wremain
w w together as a w ww
w
result, only parental wwww
combinations are observed. wwww
ww ww ww ww ww
The O
i . rgrg genes are locatedi.O
.linked
O very
. rgrgclose together on the
O i .O . O grg chromosome such
rsame i .O . O grg
rgenes
l a a i l a a i l a a i l a a i
d a
d
l
saasdoa not exhibit crossing d a
d
l
asa This phenomenon
saover. d a
d
l
asacalled complete linkage.
sais d a
d
l
saasa It is rare d a
d saasla
aa
.P.P aa
.P.P .P.Paa aa
.P.P aa
.P.P
w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w wwww wwww
ww but has been wwreported in male Drosophila. ww ww ww
6. Explain
i . O . rgrg the types of synapsis
O i . O . rgror
O g syndesis?
i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O
a i a i a i a i
d a
d saaslala d a
d saaslala d a
d saaslala d a
d saaslala d a
d saasla
a
.P.Pa  Procentric a
.P.Pa
synapsis: Pairing starts a
.P.Pa
from middle of the a
.P.Pa
chromosome. a
.P.Pa
wwww w ww
w w ww
w wwww wwww
ww  Proterminalw w synapsis: Pairing w w starts from the telomeres. w w ww
. O O grg
rRandom . O rgrgmay start from anywhere.
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l a i
a i . synapsis: l i i
Pairing
a a . l a ia i . l a ia i .
a saasal a saasal a saasal a saasal a saasla
d
a ad 7. What is the tetrad d
a adstage? d
a ad d
a ad d
a ad
w .P.P
w w .P.P
w w .P.P
w w .P.P
w ww.P.P
w
www w
www w
www wwww w
www
Each homologous chromosome of a bivalent begin to form two identical sister
i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O
l a a i l a a i l a a i l a a i
d a
d saasa l
chromatids, which remain
d a
d saasa l
held together by a centromere.
d a
d saasa l
d a
d saasa l
d a
d saasla
aa
.P.P aa
.P.P .P.Paa aa
.P.P aa
.P.P
w ww
w At thisw wstage
w w each bivalent has w wfour
w w chromatids. This www
stage
w is called tetradww ww
ww ww ww ww ww
stage. g g
i .O . rr
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O
l a a i l a a i l a a i l a a i
d a
d
l
saas8.aExplain the Types d a
dof
l
saasCrossing
a Over? d a
d saasa l
d a
d saasa l
d a
d saasla
aa
.P.P aa
.P.P .P.Paa aa
.P.P aa
.P.P
w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w wwww wwww
ww ww
Depending upon the number ww of chiasmata formed wwcrossing over may be ww
classified
i . O . rgrginto three types. i.O.O
O rgrg i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O
a i a i a i a i
d a
d saaslala d a
d saaslala d a
d saaslala d a
d saaslala d a
d saasla
a
.P.Pa Single a
.P.Pa
cross over: Formation of a
.P.Pasingle chiasma and a
.P.Pa
involves only two a
.P.Pa
wwww w ww
w w ww
w wwww wwww
ww chromatids out w w of four. w w w w ww
. O O grg
rDouble . O rgrg of two chiasmata
O . O rgand
O rg involves two ori.three O rgrgor
O
asall a ia i . cross over: l
asala ia i .
Formation l
asala ia i . l
asal a a i . asla
d a sa d a sa d a sa d a sa d a s a
a ad all four strands .P.P
.P.P a ad .P.Pa ad a ad
.P.P a ad
.P.P
w w w w w w w w w w w w w ww
www www www www www
Multiple cross over: Formation of more than two chiasmata and crossing over
i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O
l a a i l a a i l a a i l a a i
d a
d saasa l
frequency is extremely
d a
d
low.
saasa l
dadsaasa l
d a
d saasa l
d adsaasla
aa
.P.P aa
.P.P aa
.P.2P aa
.P.P .P.Paa
w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w wwww www
w
ww ww ww ww ww
i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . Orgrg i .O . rgrg
O
aa l al a i aal al a i aal al a i aa l al a i ala
dasas dasas dasas dasas dasas
 s as laalia. i.O s as laalia. i.O s aslaalia. i.O s aslaalia. i.O saasla
d
aa ad a aa a
www.Padasalai.Net
d d a aad a
d a www.TrbTnpsc.com
aad a
d a aad a
d
ww.P.P ww .P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P
w
ww w w w
wwKUMAR. DGD., M.Sc., w w
wwM.Phil., Ph.D (Botany)ww w w www w
A.VINOTH
i .O . rgrg
O i .O . Orgrg i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O
l a a i l a a i l a a i l a a i
d ad
l
saas9.aWhat is the Recombination? d a
d saasa l
d a
d saasa l
d a
d saasa l
d a
d saasla
aa
.P.P aa
.P.P .P.Paa aa
.P.P aa
.P.P
w ww
w w ww
w w www w ww
w w ww
w
ww ww over results in thewformation
Crossing w of new combination ww of characters in an ww
organism
i . O . rgrgcalled recombinants.
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O
a i a i a i a i
d a
d saaslala d a
d saaslala d a
d saaslala d a
d saaslala d a
d saasla
a
.P.Pa In this, a
.P.Pa
segments of DNA are a
.P.Pa
broken and recombined a
.P.Pa
to produce new a
.P.Pa
wwww w ww
w w www w ww
w w ww
w
ww combinations w w
w of alleles. This processwis called Recombination. w w w w
i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O
l a a i
al List out the Importance
as10. l a a i
asal of Crossing Over? l
asala a i l
asala a i asla
d a sa d a sa d a sa d a sa d a sa
a ad
.P.P a ad
.P.occurs
P a ad
.Plike
.P a ad
.P.P a ad
.P.P
w w w Crossing w w
overw in all organisms
w w w bacteria, yeast, w w w
fungi, higher plants and w w w
www www www www www
animals. rgrIts
g importance is .O.O rgrg rgrg rgrg
l a ia. O
i . O l a ia i l a ia.Oi . O l a ia.Oi . O
d a
d saasa  l Exchanged a
d saaof l
sasegments leads toda new
d
l
saasagene combinationsdawhich d
l
saasa plays an d a
d saasla
aa
.P.P aa
.P.P .P.Paa aa
.P.P aa
.P.P
w ww
w important w
role winw
w evolution. w www w ww
w w ww
w
ww ww ww ww ww
i .O . rgrg Studies of crossing
O i .O . rgrgover reveal that genes
O i .O . rgrare
O g arranged linearly.O.on
i rgrg
O the
l a a i l a a i l a a i l a a i
d a
d
a l
saaschromosomes. d a
d saasa l
d a
d saasa l
d a
d saasa l
d a
d saasla
aa
.P.P aa
.P.P .P.Paa aa
.P.P aa
.P.P
w ww
w w ww
w w www w ww
w w ww
w
ww  wwGenetic maps are made wwbased on the frequencyww of crossing over. ww
i . O . rgrg Crossing overi.helps
O O . rgrgto understand thei.O
O . rgrg and mechanismi.of
nature
O O . rggene
O rg
l a a i l a a i l a a i l a a i
d a
d
a
sasa l
d a
d
a
sasa l
d a
d
a
sasa l
d a
d
a
sasa l
d a
d saasla
a
.P.Pa action. a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww w ww
w w www w ww
w w ww
w
ww w
 wIf a useful new combination ww is formed it can be w w used in plant breeding. w w
i . O . rgrgare the steps involved
O i . O . rgrin
O g
i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O
11.
l
asal a a i
What l
asal a a i DNA Recombination?
l
asala a i l
asala a i asla
d a sa d a sa d a sa d a sa d a sa
a ad
.P.P It was first a ad
.P.proposed
P by Robin Holliday .P.Pa adin 1964. a ad
.P.P a ad
.P.P
w w w w w w w w w w w w w w w
www www www www www
It involves several steps.
i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O
l a 
a i l a a i l a a i l a a i
d a
d saasa l Homologous
d
DNA
a
d saasa l
molecules are paired
d a
d saasa l
side by side with
d
their
a
d saasa l
duplicated
d a
d saasla
aa
.P.P aa
P.P
.DNAs .P.Paa aa
.P.P aa
.P.P
w ww
w copiesww ww
of w www w ww
w w ww
w
ww ww ww ww ww
 One strand of both DNAs cut in one place by the enzyme endonuclease.
i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O
l a a i l a a i l a a i l a a i
d a
d
l
saasa  The cut strands d a
d
l
asa and join the homologous
sacross d a
d
l
saasa strands forming d a
d
l
asa Holliday
sathe d a
d saasla
aa
.P.P aa
.Por
.P .P.Paa aa
.P.P aa
.P.P
w ww
w w
structureww
w Holliday junction. w www w ww
w w ww
w
ww ww ww ww ww
 rThe grg Holliday junction.Omigrates rgrg away from the roriginal grg site, a process called rgrg
a i . O
i . O a i i . O a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O
d a
d saaslala branch migration, d a
d saaslaaslaa result heteroduplex d a
d
la
saaslaregion is formed.ada d saaslala d a
d saasla
a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa .P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww ww
wstrands
w w www w ww
w w ww
w
ww  DNA ww may cut along w w
through the vertical (V) w w
line or horizontal (H) w
line. w
. O O grg vertical cut will result
rThe . O rgrin
O g heteroduplexes with . O rgrecombinants.
O rg .O rgrg
O
l
asal a ia i . l
asal a ia i . l
asala ia i . l
asala ia i . asla
d a sa  The horizontal d a sa d a s a d a sa d a s a
a ad
.P.P a adcut will result in heteroduplex
.P.P .P.Pa ad with non-recombinants. a ad
.P.P a ad
.P.P
w w w w w w w w w w w w w ww
www www www www www
i .O . rgrg the Genetic mapping?
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O
12.
l a a i
Explain l a a i l a a i l a a i
d a
d saasa l
d a
d saasa l
d adsaasa l
d a
d saasa l
d adsaasla
aa
.P.P aa
.P.P aa
.P.3P aa
.P.P aa
.P.P
w ww
w w ww
w w www w ww
w wwww
ww ww ww ww ww
i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . Orgrg i .O . rgrg
O
aa l al a i aa l al a i aal al a i aal al a i ala
dasas dasas dasas dasas dasas
 s as laalia. i.O s aslaalia. i.O s as laalia. i.O s aslaalia. i.O saasla
d
aa ad a aa a
www.Padasalai.Net
d d a aad a
d a aad a
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d a aad a
d
ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P
w
ww w ww
wwKUMAR. DGD., M.Sc., w w
wwM.Phil., Ph.D (Botany)ww w w wwww
A.VINOTH
i .O . rgrg
O i .O . Orgrg i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O
l a a i l a a i l a a i l a a i
d adsaasa l
o Genes d a
are
d
asa l
sapresent in a linear d
ordera
d
l
asa the chromosome.asaasa
saalong d d
l
d a
d saasla
aa
.P.P .P.Paa .P.Paa aa
.P.P aa
.P.P
w ww
w wwww w ww
w w ww
w wwww
ww w
owThey are present in a w w
specific location called locus ww (plural: loci). ww
i . O . rgrgo The diagrammatic
O i . O . rgrgrepresentation of i.position
O O . rgrg of genes andi.O.related
O rgrg
O
a i a i a i a i
d a
d saaslala d a
d saaslala d a
d saaslala d a
d saaslala d a
d saasla
a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
distances between the adjacent a
.P.Pa genes is called genetic a
.P.Pa
mapping. a
.P.Pa
wwww wwww wwww wwww wwww
ww ww ww ww ww
13. List out the Uses of genetic mapping?
i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O
l a a i
asal It is used to determine l a a i
asal gene order, identify l a a i
al locus of a gene and
asthe l a
al a
acalculatei the asla
d a sa d a sa d a sa d a sa s d a sa
a ad
.P.P P.Pa ad
.between .P.Pa ad a ad
.P.P a ad
.P.P
w w w distances
w ww genes. w w w w w w w ww
www www www www www
 rThey grg are useful in predicting rgrg results of dihybrid and
rgrgtrihybrid crosses. i.O.O rgrg
l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a a i
d a
d
l
saasa  It allows thedadgeneticists saasa l to understandd a
d saasthe l
a overall genetic acomplexity
d d saasa l of d a
d saasla
aa
.P.P .P.Paa .P.Paa aa
.P.P aa
.P.P
w ww
w wwww
particular organism. w ww
w w ww
w wwww
ww ww ww ww ww
14. i .O
What. rgrgis the Multiple alleles?
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O
l a a i l a a i l a a i l a a i
d a
d saasa l
d a
d saasa l
d a
d saasa l
d a
d saasa l
d a
d saasla
aa
.P.P aa
A given .phenotypic trait of an individuala a depends on a single a a pair of genes, .P.P aa
w ww
w wwwwP.P w ww
w
.P.P
w ww
w
.P.P
wwww
ww each of which ww occupies a specific ww position called the wwlocus on homologous ww
i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O
i
chromosome.
a a i a i a i
d a
d saaslala d a
d saaslala d a
d saaslala d a
d saaslala d a
d saasla
a
.P.Pa When any a
.P.ofPathe three or more allelic a
.P.Pa forms of a gene occupy a a same locus in .P.Pa
.P.Pthe a
wwww wwww wwww wwww wwww
ww ww ww ww ww
a given pair of homologous chromosomes, they are said to be called multiple alleles.
i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O
l a a i
al What are the Characteristics
as15. l
asala a i l
asal a a i l
asala a i asla
d a sa d a sa of multiple d a s
alleles?
a d a sa d a sa
a ad
.P.P .P.Pa ad .P.Pa ad a ad
.P.P a ad
.P.P
w w w w w
• Multiplew w w w w w w w ww
www www alleles of a serieswalways ww occupy the sameww locus
w in the homologous www
chromosome.
i .O . rgrg Therefore, no icrossing
O .O . rgrg over occurs within
O i .O . O grgalleles of a series. .OO
rthe i . rgrg
l a a i l a a i l a a i l a a i
d a
d
l
saasa • Multiple alleles d a
d saaare l
sa always responsible d a
d a
l
asathe same character. asaasa
sfor d d
l
d a
d saasla
aa
.P.P .P.Paa .P.Paa aa
.P.P aa
.P.P
w ww
w wwww w ww
w w ww
w wwww
ww • Thewwwild type alleles of awseries w exhibit dominantwcharacter w whereas mutant ww
typei.O will
. rgrginfluence dominance
O i .O . rgran
or
O g intermediate phenotypic
i .O . rgrg effect.
O i .O . rgrg
O
l a a i l a a i l a a i l a a i
d a
d saasa l
d a
d saasa l
d a
d saasa l
d a
d saasa l
d a
d saasla
aa
.P.P • When any .P.Pa atwo of the mutant multiple .P.Pa a alleles are crossed athe
.P.P a phenotype is .P.P aa
w ww
w wwww w ww
w w ww
w wwww
ww always mutant ww type and not the wildww type. ww ww
i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O
16.a i
Explain the mutation and
a i mutagens? a i a i
d a
d saaslala d a
d saaslala d a
d saaslala d a
d saaslala d a
d saasla
a
.P.Pa a
.PPa among individuals
Geneticwvariation a a
.P.Pprovides the raw material a
.P.Pafor the ultimate ww a
.PPa
ww
ww
ww
wwwww. wwwwww
wwwwww
wwww .
source of evolutionary changes.
i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O
l a a i
asal Mutation and arecombination l
asala a i are the two l a a i
asalmajor processes responsible l
asala a i for asla
d a sa d sa d a s a d a sa d a s a
a ad
.P.P .P.Pa ad .P.Pa ad a ad
.P.P a ad
.P.P
w w w genetic ww
variation.
w w w w w w w w ww
www www www www www
i . O . rAgrgsudden change in the
O i . O .
genetic
rgrg material of an iorganisms
O . O . rgrg is called mutation.
O i .O . rgrg
O
l a a i l a a i l a a i l a a i
d a
d saasa l
d a
d saasa l
d adsaasa l
d a
d saasa l
d adsaasla
aa
.P.P .P.Paa aa
.P.4P aa
.P.P .P.Paa
w ww
w wwww w ww
w w ww
w www
w
ww ww ww ww ww
i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . Orgrg i .O . rgrg
O
aa l al a i aal al a i aa l al a i aal al a i ala
dasas dasas dasas dasas dasas
 s as laalia. i.O s as laalia. i.O s aslaalia. i.O s aslaalia. i.O saasla
d
aa ad a www.Padasalai.Net
d
aa a
d a aa d a
d a www.TrbTnpsc.com
aad a
d a aad a
d
ww.P.P ww .P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P
w
ww w w w
wwKUMAR. DGD., M.Sc., w w
wwM.Phil., Ph.D (Botany)ww w w www w
A.VINOTH
i .O . rgrg
O i .O . Orgrg i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O
l a a i l a a i l a a i l a a i
d ad
l
saasa The term mutation d a
d saasa l
was introduced by d a
Hugo
d
l
saasade Vries (1901). dadsaasa l
d a
d saasla
aa
.P.P .P.Paa .P.Paa .P.Paa aa
.P.P
w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w
ww ww which are responsibleww
Agents for mutation are called w w
mutagens. ww
17. i O
Short
. . rgrgnotes on Synonymous,
O i . O . rgrgMissense, and Nonsense
O i . O . rgrg Mutation?
O i . O . rgrg
O
a i a i a i a i
d a
d saaslala d a
d saaslala d a
d saaslala d a
d saaslala d a
d saasla
a
.P.Pa The a
.P.Pa
mutation that changes one codon a
.P.Pa for an amino acid into a
.P.Pa
another codon for a
.P.Pa
wwww w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w
ww that same amino w w acid are called Synonymous ww or silent mutations. ww w w
. O Ogrg
rThe . O Ogrg
rcodon . O rgris
O g . O rgrgfor
O
l
asal a ia i . mutation where l
asal a ithe
a i . for one amino l
asala ia i .
acid changed into a
l
asala i
codon
a i . asla
d a sa d a sa d a sa d a sa d a sa
a ad another amino acid
.P.P .P.Paisadcalled Missense or.P a ad
.P
non-synonymous .P.P
mutations. a ad a ad
.P.P
w w w w w w w w w w w w w w w
www www www www www
The mutations where codon for one amino acid is changed into a termination or
i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O
l a a i l a a i l a a i l a a i
d a
d
stop
saasa l codon is called
d
Nonsense
a
d saasa l mutation.
d a
d saasa l
d a
d saasa l
d a
d saasla
aa
.P.P aa
.P.Frameshift
P .P.Paa .P.Paa aa
.P.P
w ww
w 18. What are w w
w w
the mutations?
w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w
ww ww ww ww ww
i . O . rMutations
Ogrg that result in the
i . O . rgrg addition or deletion
O i . O . rof
O grga single base pair .of
i O . rDNA
Ogrg
l a a i l a a i l a a i l a a i
d a
d saasthatl
a changes the reading
d a
d
l
saasframe
a for the translation
d a
d
l
saasprocess
a
d d
l
saasa there is
as a result ofawhich
d a
d saasla
aa
.P.P P.P
.of aa .P.Paa aa
.P.called
P aa
.P.P
w ww
w complete w
lossww
w normal protein w ww
w
structure and function w ww
w
are Frameshift w ww
w
ww ww ww ww ww
mutations.
i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O
a i a i a i a i
d a
d saaslala d a
d saaslala d a
d saaslala d a
d saaslala d a
d saasla
a
.P.Pa 19. Explain the a
.P.Pa
Types of mutation? a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w
ww Let us seew w
w the two general classeswof gene mutation: ww w w
i .•O rgrg
O
Mutations
. affecting single
i . O . rgbase
O rg or base pair of DNA i . O . rgrare
O g
called point .
mutation.
i O . rgrg
O
l
asal a a i l
asal a a i l
asala a i l
asala a i asla
d a sa d a sa d a sa d a sa d a sa
a ad
.P.P • Mutations P.Pa ad the number of copies
.altering .P.Pa adof a small repeated.P a ad
nucleotide
.P sequence ww a ad
.P.P
w w w w w w w w w w w w w
www www www www www
within a gene.
i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O
l a a i l a a i l a a i l a a i
d a
d saas20. l
a Define and typesaofsaasMutagenic
d d
a l agents?dasaasa
d
l
d a
d saasa l
d a
d saasla
aa
.P.P .P.Paa .P.Paa .P.Paa aa
.P.P
w ww
w The w ww
w
factors which cause w ww
w
genetic mutation are called w w
w w
mutagenic agents orwwww
ww ww ww ww ww
mutagens.
i .O . rgrg Mutagens are of itwo
O .O . rgtypes,
O rg i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O
l a a i l a a i l a a i l a a i
d a
d
l
saasa Physical mutagen, d a
d saasa l
d a
d saasa l
d a
d saasa l
d a
d saasla
aa
.P.P .P.Paa .P.Paa .P.Paa aa
.P.P
w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w wwww
ww ww mutagen.
Chemical ww ww ww
. O Ogrg (1927) was the.Ofirst
rMuller rgrgto find out physical
O . O rgrg in Drosophila.i.O.O
mutagen
O rgrg
a i i . a i i . a i i . a i
d a
d saaslala d a
d saaslala d a
d saaslala d a
d saaslala d a
d saasla
a
.P.Pa 21. Explain the a
.P.Pa
chromosomal mutations? a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w wwww
ww w w
The genome can also be modified ww on a larger scale by w w altering the chromosomew w
i . O . rgrgor by changing thei.number
O O . rgrg of chromosomesi.in
O O . ragrcell.
O g
i .O . rgrg
O
structure
l
asal a a i l
asal a a i l
asala a i l
asala a i asla
d a sa d a sa d a sa d a sa d a s a
a ad
.P.P These w .P.Pa ad variations are.P.P
large-scale ad as chromosomal
atermed .P.Pa admutations or .P.P a ad
w w w w w w w w w w w w ww
www www www www www
chromosomal aberrations.
i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O
l a a i l a a i l a a i l a a i
d a
d saasa l
d a
d saasa l
dadsaasa l
d a
d saasa l
d adsaasla
aa
.P.P .P.Paa aa
.P.5P .P.Paa aa
.P.P
w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w wwww
ww ww ww ww ww
i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . Orgrg i .O . rgrg
O
aa l al a i aa l al a i aal al a i aal al a i ala
dasas dasas dasas dasas dasas
 s as laalia. i.O s aslaalia. i.O s aslaalia. i.O s aslaalia. i.O saasla
d
aa ad a aa a
www.Padasalai.Net
d d a aad a
d a aad a
www.TrbTnpsc.com
d a aad a
d
ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P
w
ww w w w
wwKUMAR. DGD., M.Sc., w w
wwM.Phil., Ph.D (Botany)ww ww wwww
A.VINOTH
i .O . rgrg
O i .O . Orgrg i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O
l a a i l a a i l a a i l a a i
d ad
l
saasa Chromosomaldadmutations saasa l
are divided d a
into
d saatwo l
sa groups: changesdin a
d
asa l
sachromosome d a
d saasla
aa
.P.P aa
.P.P .P.Paa aa
.P.P aa
.P.P
w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w wwww wwww
ww number and wwchanges in chromosome wwstructure. ww ww
22. i O
What
. . rgrgare the Significance
O i . O . O grgPloidy?
rof i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O
a i a i a i a i
d a
d saaslala d a
d saaslala d a
d saaslala d a
d saaslala d a
d saasla
a
.P.Pa • Many polyploids
a
.P.Pa are more vigorous a
.P.Paand more adaptable thana
.P.Padiploids. a
.P.Pa
wwww w ww
w w ww
w www
w wwww
ww w
• Many w ornamental plants are w w w
autotetraploids and havewlarger flower and longerw w
i . O . rgrgduration than diploids.
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O
flowering
l
asal a a i l
asala a i l
asala a i l
asala a i asla
d a sa d a sa d a sa d a sa d a sa
a ad
.P.P a ad usually have increase
• Autopolyploids
.P.P .P.Pa ad in fresh weight.Pdue a adto more water .P.P
.P a ad
w w w w w w w w w w w w w ww
www www www www www
content.
i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O
l a a i • Aneuploids are l a
usefula i to determine the a i
phenotypic
l a effects of loss l a
or a i
gain of
d a
d saasa l
d a
d saasa l
d a
d saasa l
d a
d saasa l
d a
d saasla
aa
.P.P aa
.P.P .P.Paa aa
.P.P aa
.P.P
w ww
w different chromosomes.
w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w wwww
ww ww ww ww ww
i . O . r•grMany
O g angiosperms are g
i . O . r allopolyploids
O rg and they play
i . O . rgrg a role in an evolution
O i . O . rgrgof
O
laala i i i i
d a
d saasplants. d a
d saaslaala d a
d saaslaala d a
d saaslaala d a
d saasla
aa
.P.P aa
.P.P .P.Paa aa
.P.P aa
.P.P
w ww
w 23. Define w
thewstructural
w w chromosomal w ww
w aberration? w ww
w wwww
ww ww ww ww ww
i . O . rAgrgstructural variationi.O
O . rgrg by addition or deletion
caused
O i . O . rgrg of a part of chromosome
O i . O . rgrg
O
a
lala i a
lala i a i a i
d a
d saasleading to rearrangement
d a
d saasof genes is called a saaslala chromosomal daberration.
structural
d d a
d saaslala d a
d saasla
a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww wwww wwww wwww wwww
ww ww ww ww ww
i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O
l
asal a a i l
asala a i l
asala a i l
asala a i asla
d a sa d a sa d a sa d a sa d a sa
a ad
.P.P a ad
.P.P .P.Pa ad a ad
.P.P a ad
.P.P
w w w w w w w w w w w w w ww
www www www www www
i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O
l a a i l a a i l a a i l a a i
d a
d saasa l
d a
d saasa l
d a
d saasa l
d a
d saasa l
d a
d saasla
aa
.P.P aa
.P.P .P.Paa aa
.P.P aa
.P.P
w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w wwww
ww ww ww ww ww
i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O
l a a i l a a i l a a i l a a i
d a
d saasa l Notes a
d d
l
saasa By
Prepared
d a
d saasa l
d a
d saasa l
d a
d saasla
aa
.P.P aa
.P.P .P.Paa aa
P.P
.Ph.D aa
.P.P
w ww
w w wMr.A.VINOTH
w w KUMAR.w ww
w DGD, M.Sc., w ww
M.Phil.,
w wwww
ww ww ww ww ww
i . O . rgrg
O
PG. Assistant in rBotany
i . O . O grg
i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O
a i a i a i a i
d a
d saaslala a
Jai Sakthi
d d
lala
saasMatric Higher Secondary
d a
d
la
saaslaSchool d a
d saaslala d a
d saasla
a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww wwwPalacode.
w ww
wDt.,
w wwww wwww
ww ww Dharmapuri ww ww ww
i . O . rgrg
O Cell No-6369060979i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O
l
asal a a i l
asala a i l
asala a i l
asala a i asla
d a sa d a sa d a s a d a s a d a s a
a ad
.P.P a ad
.P.P .P.Pa ad a ad
.P.P a ad
.P.P
w w w w w w w w w w w w w ww
www www www www www
i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O
l a a i l a a i l a a i l a a i
d a
d saasa l
d a
d saasa l
d adsaasa l
d adsaasa l
d adsaasla
aa
.P.P aa
.P.P aa
.P.6P aa
.P.P .P.Paa
w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w www
w
ww ww ww ww ww
i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
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