Mini Guide

REO-USA Inc
8432 East 33rd Street,
Indianapolis, IN46226-6550, USA
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REO INDUCTIVE COMPONENTS AG

Brühler Strasse 100, D-42657 Solingen, Germany
Tel: 0049-(0) 2 12-88 04 -0
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REO (UK) LTD, Units 8-10 Long Lane Industrial Estate

Craven Arms, Shropshire, SY7 8DU
Tel: +44 (0)1 588-673411 Fax: +44 (0)1 588-672718 REO UK LTD
e-mail: sales@reo.co.uk website: www.reo.co.uk

This booklet simplifies the power
quality issues relating to the choice,
installation and running of variable
speed drives. It will help users,
installers, specifiers and sales personnel
to grasp important points and
overcome potential or existing
problems, without having to read
weighty technical publications,
understand formulae or, for that
matter, have a working knowledge of
CONTENTS electrical engineering.
INTRODUCTION 1 How does an AC variable
speed drive work?
EMC FILTERS 5 familiar with a motor that runs too hot,
To understand the application
HARMONIC FILTERS 10 considerations associated with AC
variable speed drives, it is useful to
briefly examine how the drive operates.
OUTPUT FILTERS 14
An AC Variable Speed Drive is more
BRAKING RESISTORS 18 properly called an inverter but for our
purposes we shall now refer to it as a
REOUNITY 20 VSD. The VSD comprises three main
components; a RECTIFIER, which
converts the mains supply into DC, the
DC LINK, which incorporates chokes
and capacitors for maintaining a steady
DC voltage, and an OUTPUT STAGE,
which uses Insulated Gate Bipolar
Transistors (IGBTs) for generating a
3-phase, variable frequency output to
control the motor.
The DC is switched on and off, typically
REO UK LTD at frequencies of 10 kHz. When a
oscilloscope trace of the load current is
INTRODUCTION
1
taken, this approximates a sine wave,
even though the voltage is a square
shape. This process is called pulse
width modulation (PWM).
Problems caused by VSDs
Unfortunately, using a VSD is not as
simple and trouble-free as it may
sound. In many cases, the "power
conversion", together with the
operation of the motor itself, can
present problems.
Some readers may already be too
is noisy, or in more extreme cases
vibrates excessively leading to bearing
failure or total burn out. Any of these
conditions could be attributed to
incorrect installation of a VSD. Others
may have encountered nuisance
tripping or VSD fault errors caused
by unforeseen, application problems.
Users may also be completely unaware
of some of the other problems that
a VSD may cause, as the effects may
not be seen in their own factory. These
problems include electromagnetic
interference (EMI), radio frequency
interference (RFI) or transients on
the line (spikes). We’ve all sat watching
our TV picture frizzle as the neighbour
uses an electric drill. Well, in some
cases your factory could be doing that
to an entire housing estate. Although
you may be unaware of any problems,
INTRODUCTION
2 3
Diagramatical representation of an
AC variable speed drive and the four
main devices that will improve
power quality. These four types of
device are all found in REOUNITY
details of which are on Page 20.
the neighbours are getting restless.
These phenomena are now governed
by stringent regulations, including
European Community directives, which
force users to remedy any problems.
Where are the problems?
The problems faced by users of VSDs
can be separated into three areas:
those found on the input or supply
side, those between the VSD and
the motor, and those caused by
the operation of the motor itself.
On the supply side there are two
potential problems to consider. The
first is everyday mains borne
interference and the other is harmonic
distortion. Between the VSD and
the motor, or on the output side of
the VSD, the relatively high switching
frequency of the VSD causes a steep
voltage rise time along the cable which
can stress the motor for example.
There are also a number of other
unseen (but in some cases can be
heard) effects, such as greater motor
losses, radiated noise, higher leakage
currents and undesirable current loops
through the motor shaft and bearings.
Finally, in some instances, the motor
itself may act as a generator and
send unwanted electrical power back
down the line.
All these problems are potentially
damaging but can be eradicated
INTRODUCTION
relatively simply using proprietary
equipment and a few words of advice
from our later chapters. These will
cover Electromagnetic Compliance
(EMC), Harmonic Filters, Output Filters
and Braking Resistors.
Why should I consider using
input/output filters, reactors
and resistors?
Cost
These days everything seems to come
down to cost, even to the point of
ignoring a short-term investment to
make a long term gain. Unfortunately,
no VSD salesperson is going to
jeopardise a sale by including extra
equipment that does not provide
an immediate and obvious benefit, and
no buyer is going to spend precious
budget allocations on equipment that
does not increase production.
However, what if it can be proved
that there are savings to be made
by installing a sinusoidal filter rather
than fitting metres of expensive,
screened, cable, or that motor life will
be extended and less production time
lost by fitting a simple line reactor?
Safety
When flying, you are asked not to use
a mobile phone because it may
interfere with the aeroplane’s electrical
and electronic systems. In much the
same way, you are legally enforced to
INTRODUCTION
4 5
ensure that your drive equipment will
operate without interfering with other
systems. You also have to ensure that
it has the ability to operate as intended
within a specified electromagnetic
environment, in other words that it
will not be affected by other
conforming equipment.
The latest wave of EC Directives ensure
that equipment is built in accordance
with standards, that will make
it completely safe. This includes the
Low Voltage, Machinery, EMC
(Electromagnetic Compatibility)
Directives, as well as, of course,
the Health and Safety at Work Act.
What’s more, in the next few years,
the directives are being tightened up
to spread the responsibility to the
installer and the user. Installers will
have to satisfy themselves that
all installed switches, cables and
devices are compliant, and they will
be instructed to do so by the end user.
Environmental regulations
There is a proliferation of electronic
equipment in the World today,
contributing to the ambient
electromagnetic noise in the
environment, or increasing the load
on the electrical supply network. The
high speed switching of semi-
conductors in switch mode power
supplies, which includes drives, as
well as devices such as televisions
and computers, causes different types
of electrical disturbances on the mains
supply. Apart from the continuous
"noise", harmonics are created by
the intermittent flow of current
through the electronic equipment
powering the load. Unfortunately, the
harmonics distort the mains sine
wave, creating problems for the
generating companies and the
high frequency noise reduces the
efficiency of the transmission cable in
the ground.
To solve the problem, electrical
companies could dig up every cable
in the world and replace them with
larger ones. Or, the onus could be
shifted to industry to ensure that
electrical goods are designed, or
installed, so that they do not produce
harmonics.
Consequently, the Electrical Association
(power generators and local boards)
has issued limits for acceptable levels
of harmonic distortion on the mains
supply. All consumers have to comply
and larger plants have to seek
approval before they can be
connected to the supply. The new
G5/4 recommendations specify the
maximum harmonic levels that can
be accepted in the UK. Similar
electricity suppliers throughout the EC
and the world also recognise the
problem and are introducing similar
measures.
One glance through the adverts in a
Sunday newspaper tells you that there’s
now an electrical or electronic solution
for almost all our needs. As well as
solving all our domestic problems, from
our need to access the internet to
wearing a belt that turns Jimmy five-
bellies into Jimmy six-pack, the
proliferation of electrical and electronic
devices over the last few decades has
also occurred in industry. Indeed, with
increasing automation in industry,
there are very few applications which
do not use electrical and electronic
devices!
These days, it is also an increasingly
common occurrence for energy
management equipment to operate
alongside control systems and
information technology. Thus, it is
inevitable that these items will
influence each other's correct
operation, as a result of the electro
magnetic interference (EMI) they
generate. This interference, together
with radio frequency interference (RFI),
can cause major problems from data
corruption and processor crashes to
isolation breakdown.
EMI, RFI and EMC explained
The frequency of a normal AC line is 50
Hz. EMI is caused when an external
force like an electrical motor or
transformer varies the magnetic field,
distorting the normal 50-cycle
waveform. RFI occurs when a high
EMC FILTERS
frequency signal is superimposed over
the 50 Hz frequency, distorting the
normal waveform. Both EMI and RFI
are commonly referred to as "noise".
This noise can be external (from a radio
station, for example) or internal, from
inside the equipment itself.
The problem is that electrical noise
can disturb the regular operation of
electrical and electronic equipment.
For instance, if you own a computer,
noise can scramble its output because
it interferes with the transfer of data
to modems, printers or hard disks.
Noise also shows up as snow on TV
screens, or as "static" in stereo
systems. In much the same way, this
noise will affect the correct operation
of a VSD.
This interference can emanate in many
different forms and its source is
frequency dependent. Low frequency
interference, under 10MHz, is usually
mains borne through isolated couplings.
Higher frequency interference, over
30MHz, is mainly radiated. The range in
between these figures is caused by the
accumulation of transmission values.
Most countries of the world have
regulations that cover the amount of
interference a product generates, and
the amount of interference a product
must accept while still performing
EMC FILTERS
6 7
properly. This situation of causing little
interference, and being immune to
interference from other sources is
considered "compatibility", hence the
term "Electro-Magnetic Compatibility",
or EMC.
The limits for various interference
voltages are specified in a number of
European Standards, referred to as EN
standards. In these EN standards, a
distinction is made between domestic
and light industrial (Class B) and
industrial (Class A) applications.
How do I prevent
electromagnetic interference?
The solution to preventing mains borne
EMI and RFI interference, or noise, is
to install an EMC filter on the supply
side of the VSD. These filters are used
to suppress, or attenuate, mains
transmitted interference. The filters
work by providing an impedance
mismatch between the power line
and the equipment, which reflects
the generated noise back to its source.
As the filters operate in both directions,
the interference from the supply to
the load and from the load to the
supply must both be attenuated.
Selecting a Filter
Ideally a filter should be built to
give optimum performance with the
smallest number of components, or
at least the most price effective
components, to give the required level
of attenuation and safety.
With differences between the various
types of interference, there is almost
always a combination of interference
currents which propagate with
differing levels of intensity. Because of
this, it may be necessary to specify a
filter to suit an individual need.
However, in many cases, the
proprietary filters on the market are
designed for universal application and
can be reliably applied.
As a rule of thumb guide to choosing a
filter, the most important point to
consider is the current rating. After this,
the following criteria should be
considered:
 supply line voltages are present.
Allowable noise limits for the
applications, e.g. EN55011 Class A
 Permissible maximum leakage
current values, as recognised by
international standards authorities
such as the VDE
 Mechanical protection against
contact and water spray
 Local climatic conditions,
including temperature and
humidity, and protection
requirements
 borne interference (150kHz - 30kHz).
Quick and easy installation
 The capacitors oppose the AC flow of
Reduced mounting space,
especially for footprint and
bookcase filters
 Choice of terminations
EMC FILTERS
Power Surges
It is not only electrical noise that can harm the correct operation of VSDs.
When a lightning storm passes, we are all concerned that our domestic
appliances won’t blow up as a result of a power surge. Although a lightning
strike is quite obvious, many transient surges, or spikes, are one-off
mysterious events that cause equipment to malfunction without any
apparent reason. The causes of these surges are varied and can include
heavy appliances like refrigerators, furnaces and air conditioners
automatically turning their motors on and off, or power stations switching
electrical loads. In the future, such surges originating with your service
company, many due to switching electrical loads and sources, will grow.
The cost implications for VSD applications can be profound. For example, if
a multi-axis CNC machine, producing a very expensive turbine blade, is
stopped, control is lost and the component may have to be scrapped or the
process materials will be wasted.
As a result, protection should always include a surge protection filter which
protects equipment by generating a path to earth, when higher than normal
electrons at higher frequencies.
What makes the filter work? Therefore, a combination of series
connected inductors and shunt
The main components inside the filter connected capacitors is chosen to
are chokes, also known as inductors, provide suppression over a wide
capacitors and resistors. All of these frequency spectrum. The resistors serve
must be matched to give their to discharge the capacitors when
optimum filtering performance within the supply is disconnected and for
the required frequency range of mains damping resonances. The enclosure
is normally produced from metal
to provide good earth bonding. The
electrons; more at lower frequencies filter circuit is designed to contend
and less at higher frequencies. On the
other hand, chokes react against the
rate of change of current and are more
effective at opposing the AC flow of
EMC FILTERS
8 9
with two types of noise: COMMON
MODE NOISE, which manifests itself as
a current in phase in the live and
neutral conductors and returns via the
safety earth, and DIFFERENTIAL MODE
NOISE produced by current flowing
along either the live or neutral
conductor and returning by the other.
To deal with both types of noise the
chokes and capacitors used fall into
two groups. Chokes consist of current
compensated, or common mode,
chokes and series, or differential mode,
chokes. The capacitors consist of X
Class and Y Class types, the former
being connected between live and
neutral, or between phases, to reduce
differential noise, and the latter
connected between live/neutral and
earth to reduce common mode noise.
As a result of the different types of
interference, a combination of X
capacitors, Y capacitors, current
compensated chokes and non-
compensated chokes are required.
For higher levels of attenuation, several
stages of chokes and capacitors can be
added and this is known as a multi-
stage filter.
Do I need combined or
individual attenuation?
Sometimes it is possible to economise
by having a common filter system for
several loads. In this way it is possible
to reduce the required number of filters
in a control panel. However, there are
problems in doing this:
 It is difficult to introduce additional
components at a later date
 The rated current of the filters
cannot be exceeded
 Longer connection cables must be
screened
 Loads are not filtered against each
other
 Mutual interferences are not
illuminated
For these reasons, individual filters are
usually the best solution.
Installation and Effectiveness
After the quality of the filter, the next
most important factor in ensuring that
the system works, is its installation. Short
cable runs and earth connect-ions to a
flat surface can improve attenuation. In
order to reduce radiated interference
(approx. 10MHz-100MHz) one should
also fit ferrite rings on the input and
output of the interference source.
Another term frequently used to mean
attenuation is 'insertion loss’, and in
order to test the effectiveness of an
installed filter, damping characteristic
diagrams can be produced. These assess
whether a particular filter provides
sufficient suppression for a known
interference pattern. Ultimately, precise
performance can only be established
by measurements, which should be
taken at the output in order to provide
an accurate reflection of the level
of suppression.
EMC FILTERS
Leakage current
Another important factor to consider is
the leakage current. This is the current
that flows through the protective
ground conductor to ground. In using
EMC filters, as a result of the AC
impedence caused by the capacitors,
an amount of AC leakage current
will be caused. The larger the Y
Class capacitor, the more 50 Hz
current will leak to earth
which raises the potential of
the filter enclosure.
Electrical equipment
commonly includes a
grounding system for
protection against a shock
hazard if there is an insulation
failure. If such a failure occurs , the
voltage is shunted to ground, with the Above: Typical EMC filter from REO,
resulting current flow causing a fuse to opened to show capacitors and
blow or a circuit breaker to open, chokes.
thereby preventing a shock hazard.
Obviously, a possible shock hazard
exists if the grounding connection is earth leakage for double insulated
interrupted, either intentionally or equipment, such as hedge trimmers
accidentally. In VSD applications, using and drills, is 0.25 mA. Equipment that
EMC filters, it is therefore very is permanently connected to the mains
important to take into account the supply may have a leakage current of
leakage currents as these up to 5mA. Drives used in domestic
may cause the shock hazard to be applications would normally require a
greater than supposed, thereby leakage current of 1 - 2 mA but for
necessitating greater protection. industrial applications 0.1% of the
rated current is permissible.
The maximum permissible leakage
current depends on the application but
to give an indication the maximum
HARMONIC FILTERS
10
In the UK, new recommendations
recently came into force relating to
harmonics. The G5/4 Recommendation
from the Electricity Council is much
more than a mere recommendation in
that it encourages the electricity
companies to get tough. As a result,
they are now much more likely to
refuse connection to new installations
that return unduly high harmonics on
the line. This may seriously affect
installations that include equipment
with current rectification (a prime cause
of harmonics), such as computers and
variable speed drives.
What are harmonics?
Understanding what is important to
know about harmonics can be
challenging for those without extensive
electrical engineering backgrounds.
The typical definition for a harmonic is
"a sinusoidal component of a periodic
wave or quantity having a frequency
that is an integral multiple of the
fundamental frequency”. Some
references refer to "clean" or "pure"
power as those without any harmonics,
but such clean waveforms typically only
exist in a laboratory.
Electrical generators try to produce
electric power where the voltage
waveform has only one frequency
associated with it. This is the
aforementioned fundamental
frequency. In the UK this frequency
is 50 Hz. This means that fifty times
a second, the voltage waveform
increases to a maximum positive value,
then decreases to zero, further
decreasing to a maximum negative
value, and then back to zero. The rate
at which these changes occur is the
trigometric function called a sine wave,
as shown in diagram 1, opposite.
The frequency of the harmonics are
different, but also dependent on the
fundamental frequency. For example,
the 2nd harmonic on 50 Hz is 2x50 or
100Hz, the third harmonic is 3x50 or
150Hz and so fourth. Diagrams 2 and
3 show, the third and fifth harmonics.
Diagram 4 shows the resulting
distortion to the 50Hz sine wave as it
would appear on an oscilloscope.
The harmonics themselves are caused
by:
 saturable devices such as
transformers and other
equipment using a magnetising
current.
 Arcing devices such as arc
welders and furnaces.
 Power electronics such as
variable speed drives, diodes,
SCRs and computers.
Harmonic disharmony
OK, so we know what harmonics are
and what can cause them but we now
need to examine the problems they
cause. Harmonics produced by one
HARMONIC FILTERS
11
device can cause a variety of problems
in all the other equipment in a system.
Such problems include excessive
heating in transformers and electric
motors, which can cause transformers
to be derated, and excessive noise
1 and damage from increased motor
vibration. Furthermore, capacitors can
Take a 50 Hz sine wave
cause a resonant circuit which
magnifies the harmonic current and
leads to high voltage distortion,
with the possibility of the capacitors
failing through overheating.
Other issues include: the impact on
communications circuits through
2 induction; meters having a tendency
Add some third harmonic to under-read; the failure of electronic
equipment that uses the supply voltage
wave form for switching; and the
malfunctioning of equipment with
sensitive loads that relies on a
sinusoidal wave form.
In some electricity supply areas,
3 harmonic pollution of the supply lines
has been a cause for concern for
Add in some fifth harmonic
several years. The situation has been
exacerbated by the huge growth in
the use of computers and televisions
in domestic, commercial and industrial
areas. This has driven the tougher
legislation and it is clearly the
commercial and industrial applications
that are most likely to be policed.
4
The result is a
distorted sine wave
(shown in green)
HARMONIC FILTERS
12
Rules & Regulations
The Engineering Recommendation
G5/3 has been in place for a decade
and a half and has provided certain
guidelines. These include limits of
harmonic current that can be fed into
the system by customers, limits for
harmonic distortion caused,
suggestions for whether a load can be
connected and procedures for
measurement and assessment of new
loads.
The new G5/4 is more stringent than
its predecessor, requiring more careful
assessment of new loads and
measurements to be taken at different
voltage levels. It also extends the range
of harmonics covered and includes
interharmonics and notching currents.
The issue extends into Europe too. The
BSEN 50160 covers voltage
characteristics of supply systems that
are now part of the Grid Code. This
standard also indicates that the
maximum total harmonic voltage
distortion must be no more than 8%.
The European standard is less stringent
than G5/4, but it must be remembered
that G5/4 still applies!
The harmonic solution
By now, you have probably got the
message that harmonics are a serious
problem and cannot be ignored for a
variety of practical and legislative
reasons.
In identifying the problem, probably
one of the toughest tasks is taking
measurements. However, analyser
instruments are available for purchase,
or hire, and quite a few specialists will
make assessments for you. Actually
remedying harmonics is in most cases
simply a matter of fitting the correct
filters.
One of the easiest, most practical and
common solutions is to install line
reactors. These devices introduce an
impedance that reduces the root mean
square (RMS) and peak voltages while
at the same time improving the power
factor. It is possible to combine such a
reactor with a conventional filter in a
single unit, thereby providing
attenuation for the mains borne
interference and compliance with the
EMC Directive (an earlier enacted
legislation covering electro magnetic
and radio frequency interference). By
incorporating both of these necessities
in a single housing, valuable panel
space is saved and wiring is minimised.
HARMONIC FILTERS
13
1 2
Figures 1 to 3: The oscilloscope traces
show the effects on the 50 Hz sine
wave of introducing a line reactor
and a combined filter and reactor.
Figure 1 shows the oscilloscope trace
of the original output with a 7.7A
RMS and 24.5A peak.
Figure 2 shows the effects of the
3 introduction of a 4% impedance line
reactor which reduces RMS to 4.8A
and gives a peak of 9.5A.
Figure 3 shows the effects of a
combined filter and reactor
which produces a clean
sine wave as well as
reducing the current
distortion.
Left: The CNW304, a
typical motor choke and
mains filter combination
unit from REO.
OUTPUT FILTERS
14
Those engineers that long associated
the application of AC inverters with
variable speed motor control are likely
to remember the early days when
inverters were frequently blamed for
burning out motors. In most cases, the
VSDs were rightly accused. Today,
most AC induction motors are better
insulated and built to withstand
the stresses placed on them through
the use of VSDs, but there are still
good reasons for fitting output filters
to the VSDs.
Essentially, what happens at the output
side of the VSD depends on a number
of factors. The capacitive coupled
conductors of the motor can be
induced with very high load currents by
the VSD. Cable run lengths affect this
induction, as does the power rating of
the system and the switching
frequency of the drive. In the last case,
the stresses are intensified, with most
modern inverters switching at ever
increasing speeds, using the latest
generation isolated gate bipolar
transistors (IGBTs).
The problem
It is the rate of rise time in the dV/dt
curve - or to put it a simpler way, the
combination of rapid voltage and
current increase - that stresses the
conductors and the motor, both
electrically and mechanically.
Consequently, the insulation of the
1 and CH2 the current spikes, as the
2 4
motor windings is in turn stressed
by the internal, energy-laden,
components, as well as external
vibration. The durability of components
is reduced and, if the motor is old, this
can cause faults in the motor assembly,
such as partial discharge occuring
in the insulation material. This leads to
premature failure of the motor.
Although modern motors may
withstand this effect, it does nothing to
prolong their lifetimes!
To understand what happens, one
must consider what is happening
within the drive. In the simplest terms,
most modern inverters use pulse width
modulation (PWM) technology that
3 shows the switched voltage pulses
uses pulses to digitally emulate the AC
sine wave. It is these pulses, generated
by the high frequency IGBT switches
that are the problem. Oscilloscope
traces show very clearly that, when
switched voltage pulses are output
from the drive's IGBTs, there is a
resultant current spike as the cables
become energised. It is, as we stated
before, the rapid voltage rise time, in
conjunction with the voltage peaks
that creates the stresses on the motor,
or a reflected current spike causing the
inverter to shut down.
The degree of the rapid rise time and
hence the amount of stress on the
motor is also directly affected by cable
OUTPUT FILTERS
15
Figures 1 to 4: The traces show a VSD
driving a motor, with no mechanical
load, a 50m cable run and 8kHz
switching frequency. Figure 1 is a
trace taken at the drive end with
CH1 (top trace) showing an output
voltage of 500V/div and CH2 (bottom
trace) an output current of 12.5A/div.
Looking closer, in figure 2, CH1
cable becomes energised. Figure 3
shows the rapid rise time and figure
4 shows a close up of this voltage
rise at the motor terminals where
dV/dt is equal to 1400V/m s.
length. The longer the cable length the
worse the condition.
The cable to the motor has to be very
quick in transferring potential but
this leads to an excessive, capacitive
load current. With lengthy cable runs
this can be very high and has
a negative influence on the dynamic
regulation system of the inverter until it
shuts down for protection reasons.
Transient, high voltages with a rise rate
of 3 to 6 kV/m s originate from longer
cable runs and consequently the motor
insulation can be
OUTPUT FILTERS
16
overloaded many times over.
Furthermore, these days, screened
cable is used to connect the motor in
order to comply with the EMC
Directive. However, this screening also
contributes to the voltage rise because
of the stray capacitance effect of the
screen.
The solution
The dV/dt can be reduced in several
ways, with varying degrees of
effectiveness that are cost related.
These choices include:
 Output chokes for dV/dt limiting
 Output chokes for dV/dt
attenuation
 Output chokes with conventional
construction
 Enclosed output chokes
 Sinus filters
dV/dt limiting chokes
As described previously, inverters, by
the nature of their operation, generate
a strong asymmetric component. The
dV/dt choke dampens these
asymmetric interference currents,
without weakening the useful
symmetrical current. Moreover, the
EMC interference of between 1 and
30MHz is significantly reduced. This is
an economical solution suitable for
installation in control panels using
electronic components, because the
choke produces a very small stray field.
dV/dt attenuating chokes
This type of output choke suppresses
rapid voltage rises, by virtue of its
construction, to acceptable levels that
are recommended for asynchronous
motors in VDE 0530. Consequently,
the output choke prevents high voltage
transients over longer cable runs. Its
compact construction simplifies
installation and improves the
appearance of a control panel. The
small volume and dimensions mean
that the output choke has less losses in
comparison with conventional output
chokes.
Output chokes -
conventional construction
The conventional output choke has a
good storage capacity. It works like a
typical line inductor and smooths the
symmetrical effective current as well as
the asymmetrical interference current.
The voltage increase is limited to less
than 500V/m s. The voltage spikes
between conductors at the motor
terminal rail are smaller than 1000V.
This solution provides good
suppression of mains conducted
OUTPUT FILTERS
17
interference in the lower frequency
range. Electomagnetic emissions from
the cable are very heavily damped. The
losses and typical noise from the motor
drive, caused by ripple are reduced.
Enclosed output chokes
Building a conventional filter
into an IP22 enclosure has the
advantage of providing safety
protection and also helps to
reduce the possibility of a fire
hazard from hot components.
The separate input and output
ports, together with precise
dimensions, improve the
aesthetics of the control panel
layout.
Above: The CNW933 ouput choke
Sinus filter
from REO which dampens the
asymmetric interference currents
The sinusoidal filter operates like a generated by VSDs, without
low pass filter. It changes the switching weakening the useful symmetrical
voltage pulses back to a sinusoidal form. current.
The running and loss balancing of the
asynchronous motor are the same as
for normal mains operation. The typical
motor whistling noise from an inverter
drive is no longer apparent because
the phase current is now also sinus.
There is a trade-off of comfortable
operation of the motor against the
losses of the filter. A screened cable to
the motor is no longer required,
depending on the application.
BRAKING RESISTORS
18
So, we’ve dealt with all the EMC
requirements, we’ve sorted the
harmonics and we’ve eliminated
current spikes. No more problems -
right? Wrong! At the end of this book,
and also at what could be called the
end of the line, is the motor itself which
can act as a generator and send
electrical energy back down the line to
the VSD.
When unavoidable rotational velocity
changes, or braking under load, causes
the frequency of the motor to exceed
that of the inverter, the motor operates
like a generator and develops energy.
Typically a major proportion of this
energy is converted by the motor into
electrical power and returned to the
variable speed drive. In some
applications, such as in lifts and hoists
where a high-inertia load is decelerated
in a short time, the power returned by
the motor may be too great for the DC
bus of the variable speed drive to
absorb. As a result, a DC bus over-
voltage trip may occur.
The simplest way to prevent the DC
voltage rising, and therefore causing
overcharging of the DC bus capacitor
bank, is to convert the motor
generated energy into heat by using
braking resistors.
In drive systems, the braking resistor is
connected into the DC link, between
the input rectifier and the switching-
stage which converts the DC into a
variable frequency output to drive the
motor. Therefore, to save energy, it is
desirable to use the resistor in such a
way that it only switches-in when it is
really needed, instead of being
permanently connected.
The braking resistor is normally
controlled through a chopper circuit,
which monitors the DC link voltage
through a sensor. When the DC voltage
exceeds a preset level, a power
semiconductor is used to switch the
braking resistor into circuit.
Opposite Page: REO’s range of
braking resistors for VSDs includes
footprint, panel mounting, high
power and compact versions. With
a compact construction, the entire
series offers easy installation.
BRAKING RESISTORS
19
This discharges the DC capacitors and
the DC voltage drops to a lower preset
level, causing the braking resistor to be
switched out of the DC link circuit.
Most modern drives up to 32A have
the chopper circuit built in as standard.
A separate chopper card is used for
higher current ratings.
The power rating of a braking resistor is
determined by the required braking
time and the period of rest in between
braking operations. Usually the
duration of braking is short and during
this time the energy is stored in the
form of heat, which is subsequently
transferred to the environment during
the rest time. The duty cycle (ED) is
determined by dividing the braking
or "on" time by the total cycle time
(on time plus rest time) and expressing
this as a percentage (%).
REOUNITY
20
The simple one box solution
for frequency drives
So, in operating our VSD, we’ve come
to the conclusion that we need to clean
up the sine wave, limit current spikes,
reduce rapid rise times eliminate
electromagnetic interference and
dissipate regenerated energy. That’s a
lot of work to be done, a lot of
accessories and a lot of extra wiring.
And we thought installing a VSD was
simple.
Fortunately, this simplicity can be
retained, as REO has developed a
revolutionary modular system for
frequency drives. Named REOUNITY,
not only does this new unit make life
easier for panel builders but it also
lowers costs.
REOUNITY is an all-in-one system which
incorporates all ancillary drive
equipment into a standardised unit, to
provide an entire power-conditioning
package. REOUNITY fulfils all the EMC,
power factor correction and energy
absorption needs encountered in
today's drive engineering applications.
For added convenience, REOUNITY
takes the bookcase format used by
most drive manufacturers. For any
individual application REOUNITY
includes all the necessary EMC filters,
21
braking resistors, motor chokes
sinusoidal filters, and dV/dt filters,
packaged to provide common
dimensions for a particular current or
power rating. The components fit
together, side by side, for optimum use
of panel space. The use of high quality
components, such as amorphous cores,
throughout the range, reduces losses
and weight.
Panel Builders benefit from simplified
panel layouts and position changing of
components, and the simple addition
of extra components in the control REO was founded in 1925 and manufactures a range of products used in
panel if needed. At present the range
medium-voltage power systems. We specialise in custom designs of
extends from 6A (2kW) to 34A (15kW) components and sub-assemblies, catering to both small and large orders.
although higher power ratings are
In other words we build what our customers want.
planned.
We have a wealth of experience in the manufacture of wound components onto
cylindrical and toroidal cores. We are also conversant with the latest electrical
standards and the use of modern production methods. Most importantly, as the
original manufacturer, we are able to offer our customers the very best prices
because they are buying from source.
By using the best quality materials and the optimum choice of components, we
ensure that the most compact and price effective solutions are provided. REO also
provides unified modules for a complete range of accessories, saving space, wiring
time, build time and providing a consolidated, finished product that has an
engineered appearance.
Most of our products are supplied off-the-shelf and we are happy to build samples
or to test our customers’ equipment for compliance.
For more information about the REO product range visit:
REOUNITY: One box fits all. www.reo.co.uk.